STRUCTURALIST CRITICISM

Structuralism in literary theory examines the structures within texts. This approach, derived from linguistics,
allows for the study of abstract patterns that govern how literature is constructed and interpreted. When did the
structuralist criticism as an intellectual movement became popular?

Historical Context
Structuralism emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, primarily in France. It was influenced by developments in
linguistics, particularly Ferdinand de Saussure’s work. During this period, intellectuals sought new ways to
understand social and cultural systems.

The movement gained traction in the Parisian academic scene and later spread to the Anglo-American world.
Key events include the publication of Claude Lévi-Strauss’s works on anthropology and Roland Barthes‘s
essays on semiotics and mythology.

Saussure’s theory of language as a system of signs laid the foundation for structuralist analysis, influencing later
thinkers like Barthes, who applied these principles to literature and culture. Barthes extended structuralism to
literary criticism, exploring how texts function as systems of signs.

DISCUSSION
The Concept of Structuralist Criticism

In literary theory, Structuralist criticism is primarily concerned with finding patterns, symbols, layers of
narrative, the framework of the plot, or similarities in content with previously published works.
Structural criticism deals with finding patterns and sequences that reoccur in previously published texts.

Structuralist criticism relates literary texts to a larger structure, which may be a particular genre, a
range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure, or a system of recurrent
patterns or motifs (Barry, 2002; Evgeny et. al, 2018).

In simple terms, when a literary text is studied using Structuralism, an individual text is connected to a
wider ‘structure’. This might include the kind of literature the text is part of (its genre), or the universal
ways stories are told around the world.

For example, the structuralist mines the text for certain common themes or patterns. The idea here is that
human consciousness has universal features, and it is the job of the literary critic to find them and
explain them. Any literary text can be reduced to its basic parts such as recurring themes, structures, or
narrative devices that are common across various texts. Once that is done, the text can be compared to
other stories with a similar narrative structure.

In this case, ‘Boy meets a girl. The girl finds herself in danger of some kind. Boy rescues girl’.

This is a common story in books and films. No matter what style of writing this narrative structure is
found in (an epic poem, a novel, a play), the basic parts of the story are the same. It’s a classic hero +
tension + resolution kind of story.
 In his book Literary Theory (1983), Terry Eagleton says that Structuralism represents a ‘remorseless
demystification of literature’.

This means that when Structuralism is applied to a literary text, it strips the text of its aesthetic form
and subjective meaning and reduces it to its bare essentials. All that is left is the underlying structure.

For instance, instead of viewing love of Romeo and Juliet as deep and passionate, Structuralism reduces
it to a repeated literary pattern:
 Opposing Forces: The Montagues and Capulets function as structural opposites (binary
opposition).
 Cardinal Function: Romeo and Juliet’s secret marriage moves the plot forward.
 Character as Function: Romeo and Juliet are not unique individuals but representations of the
“star-crossed lovers” archetype found in many stories.

This approach strips away emotional and aesthetic meaning, reducing the play to its basic structural
elements—its skeleton—without considering Shakespeare’s poetic language or the emotional impact of
the story.

As such, Structuralism is explicitly anti-individual and to a certain extent, anti-artist. It is not

interested in individuality or artistic creativity in and of itself, nor as a unique manifestation of an
author's personality.

Basically, structuralism is only interested in the underlying and shared structures of consciousness found
in the work of art or literature.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURALISM LITERARY THEORY

The main characteristics of Structuralism in literary theory are as follows:

1. A focus on the underlying structure of a literary text
2. The meaning of a text is in the inter-relationship of its parts.
3. Binary oppositions are key to understanding a text. A binary opposition is a pair of related terms or
concepts that are opposite in meaning.
4. The individuality and personality of the author are unimportant. What matters are the deep
structures.

WORKS OF A STRUCTURALIST CRITICS

1. To analyze prose narratives, relating the text to some larger containing structure such as:

 the conventions of a particular literary genre. Every genre has specific rules or patterns that
define it. When analyzing a story, you can look at how it follows or breaks these "rules" of its
genre.

A familiar short story that can be analyzed based on genre conventions is The Gift of the Magi
by O. Henry, which follows and plays with the conventions of romance and irony:
 Follows the Genre Rules:
• Centers on love and sacrifice between two characters.
• Has an emotional and heartfelt resolution.
• Features themes of selflessness and devotion.

Breaks the Genre Rules:

• Instead of a happy ending, the story delivers situational irony.
• The conflict is not external (no villain or major obstacle) but based on personal
choices.

 A network of intertextual connections;

Stories often reference or are influenced by other texts. Analyzing intertextual connections
means looking at how a story relates or contrasts with other works.

EXAMPLE:
Analysis of the intertextual connections between the myths of Phaethon and Icarus and
Daedalus:

Phaethon’s Fall (Greek Mythology):

• Phaethon, the son of Helios, attempts to drive the chariot of the sun across the sky but
loses control, leading to his death when Zeus strikes him down with a thunderbolt to
prevent further destruction.
Icarus and Daedalus (Greek Mythology):
• Icarus, the son of Daedalus, flies too close to the sun with wings made of wax and
feathers, causing the wax to melt. He falls to his death as a result of his over-ambition and
disobedience.
Intertextual Connection:
• Both myths revolve around hubris (excessive pride or ambition) and the consequences of
attempting to surpass limits.
• Both stories contrast excessive ambition showing the tragic results of defying boundaries.

o projected model of an underlying universal narrative structure;

Many stories share common structures, This idea suggests that beneath individual stories, there
are universal patterns that humans naturally recognize. You can analyze how a story fits into or
deviates from these patterns.

Example of universal narrative structures:

Cinderella (Fairy Tale)
 Cinderella is mistreated by her stepmother and stepsisters but receives an invitation to the
royal ball and she initially cannot attend due to her circumstances.
 Her fairy godmother helps her prepare for the ball. She transforms from a servant to a
princess. The prince finds her, and they live happily ever after.
 This story follows the “rags to riches” pattern, with Cinderella’s transformation and eventual
reward, common in many fairy tales and folk stories.

 system of recurrent patterns or motifs.

Narratives often repeat certain themes, or ideas (called motifs). Analyzing these patterns helps uncover
deeper meanings or messages within the story.

2. A structuralist analyzes a literary texts by ignoring the authors, their history, individuality of the text
itself, and anything personal.
3. A structuralist uses Saussure’s linguistics theory and semiotic theory to analyze a work of literature.
4. A structuralist identifies, categories, correlated motifs in a work of literature.

STRUCTURALISM PROPONENTS

1. Ferdinand de Saussure – Often considered the “father” of structuralism. Central notion of his
teachings is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from
the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include
the notion of the linguistic sign, the signifier, the signified, and the referent.

 Langue and Parole: Langue refers to the underlying system of language (an individual
language idealized), while parole is the actual use of language in speech or writing (speech
used in community).

Example Breakdown:
 Langue
The structure of a sonnet, with its specific rhyme scheme and number of lines, is considered
"langue" because it represents the established rules of the form.
 Parole
A specific Shakespearean sonnet, like "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day," is an example of
"parole" as it is a concrete manifestation of the sonnet form.

 Signifier and Signified: Saussure defined the physical form of the sign, whether it was
written or spoken language, as the signifier. These shapes and sounds then signified certain
mental concepts to the audience.
For instance, when we write or say the word “tree”, we immediately visualise a tree with
its long roots, branches and leaves.
Literary Example: “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

 Signifier: The color “green”

 Signified: Wealth, the American Dream, unattainable desire
 Explanation: Throughout the novel, the color green is repeatedly associated with Gatsby’s
opulent lifestyle and his pursuit of Daisy Buchanan. The green light at the end of Daisy’s dock
symbolizes his hope for a future with her, but ultimately represents the illusion of achieving the
American Dream, which is ultimately out of reach.
Other Literary Examples: “Hamlet”:
 The “to be or not to be” soliloquy – The signifier is the speech itself, while the signified could be
interpreted as the existential struggle of the human condition, the contemplation of death, or the
weight of decision-making.

2. Claude Levi-Strauss – derived structuralism from a school of linguistics whose focus was not on
the meaning of the word, but the patterns that the words form. One of his major achievement is the
application of structuralist interpretation to the Greek myths, especially Oedipus. He examined
kinship systems in his 1949 volume “The Elementary Structures of Kinship” from the structuralist
point of view and demonstrated how different social structures were different arrangement of a few
basic kinship structures.

3. Roland Barthes – influenced the schools of critical theories such as structuralism, semiotics,
Marxism, existentialism, and post-structuralism.
Barthes’ key contributions to structuralism:
• Expanded structuralism beyond literature: Applied it to fashion, popular culture, and
mythology, viewing them as sign systems.
• “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative”: Explored narrative structure,
drawing parallels between sentence and narrative structure.
• “Functions as Narrative Units: Basic Building Blocks of Narratives
i. Cardinal Functions (Nuclei): Essential plot events that drive the narrative forward.
“HOW MY BROTHER LEON BROUGHT HOME A WIFE”
Example: The moment when Baldo takes a different route home with Leon and
Maria is a cardinal function because it sets up the test of Maria’s adaptability to
provincial life.
ii. Catalyzers (Indices): Non-essential details that add realism, atmosphere, or
emotional depth.
Example: The detailed descriptions of the countryside—the scent of the fields, the
sight of the stars—do not alter the plot but enhance the rural setting and mood.
iii. Characters as Functions: Characters are defined by their role in the narrative
structure rather than individual psychology.
Example: Baldo functions as an observer and mediator rather than an active
participant, narrating the story in a way that highlights Maria’s character and her
acceptance into the family.

6 KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURALIST LITERARY CRITICISM

Let’s use ROMEO AND JULIET as an example

1. Binary Oppositions: A system that defines and contrasts two opposing ideas or concepts. Structuralists
analyze the presence of binary oppositions, to understand how these opposing forces shape the narrative,
themes, and characters in a work. Ex. Such as good/evil, male/female, nature/culture, etc.

• Love/hate (the passionate love between Romeo and Juliet and the ongoing feud between their
families),
 • Fate/free will (the predetermined tragic outcome vs. the characters’ choices).

2. Narrative Structure: the way a story is organized and presented, including the order of events, the
development of plot points, and the arrangement of characters and settings. Structuralists examine the
organization and progression of a narrative. They analyze how these structural elements contribute to the
overall meaning and impact of the work. Ex. Focusing on elements such as exposition, rising action,
climax, falling action, and resolution.

The play follows a five-act structure

• Exposition- introduces the feud between the Montagues and Capulets and the initial encounter
between Romeo and Juliet.
• The rising action- develops as their love blossoms and faces challenges.
• The climax- occurs with the deaths of Mercutio and Tybalt,
• The Falling action- Juliet fake her death and Romeo found her.
• The resolution- Romeo and Juliet tragically take their own lives.

3. Symbolism: a figure of speech in which a person, situation, word, or object is used to represent another
thing. Structuralists explore the use of symbols and metaphorical representations within a text. They
interpret symbols as elements that convey deeper meaning and can be interconnected to create a network
of signification.
• The balcony scene symbolizes the forbidden and clandestine nature of Romeo and Juliet’s love.

4. Character Archetypes: is a character type that represents a universal pattern or model. Structuralists
identify recurring character types or archetypes that represent universal patterns or roles. The analysis of
character archetypes helps to reveal broader cultural and symbolic significance. Ex. The hero, the
villain, the trickster, the mentor, etc.
• Romeo embodies the passionate and impulsive young lover.
• Juliet represents the innocent and determined heroine.
• Friar Lawrence portrays the wise mentor who offers guidance.

5. Language and Textual Analysis: it's the process of dissecting how language is used within a text to
convey meaning and impact the reader. Structuralists closely examine the language used in a text,
analyzing its structure, grammar, and vocabulary. They explore linguistic devices to uncover hidden
meanings and interpret the text within a broader cultural context. Ex. Metaphors, repetitions, and
allusions.

• Shakespeare’s use of poetic language, metaphors, and sonnets enhances the emotional intensity
and lyrical beauty of the play. The dialogue between characters, such as Romeo and Juliet’s
famous declarations of love, contribute to the play’s enduring popularity.

“Love is a smoke made with the fume of sighs. Being purged, a fire sparkling in lovers’ eyes;
Being vex’d a sea nourish’d with lovers’ tears.”

6. Structural Elements: it's how the different parts of a story are arranged and interconnected to form a
cohesive whole. Structuralist criticism pays attention to various structural elements, the analysis of
 these elements helps to understand how the text is organized and how meaning is conveyed. Ex.
Narrative frameworks, plot devices, settings, motifs, themes, cultural implications and patterns.

• Explores themes of love, fate, feuds, and the consequences of impulsive actions.
• It examines the societal pressures that restrict personal choices and highlights the tragic
consequences of unchecked hatred and division.

REFERENCES

Barry, P. 2002. "Structuralism." Pp. 39–60 in Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural
Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Nöth, Winfried. 1995. Handbook of Semiotics. Indiana University Press. p. 312

Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory, 1983, 106

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ramos, M. (2023, July 6). Literary Criticism: Structuralist Approach.

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v3Xmyj2Su6yJ8x9F1g6lisu6GiHPSQMRlFQ_aem_m1Y4Bt_xY51yq6Si7NXKrA

Chibueze, O. F. (2022, November 9). The Theory of Structuralism and A Structural Analysis of the Novel Elelịa
Na Ihe O Mere by D.N Achara. Retrieved from [Link]
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 She Walks in Beauty Signifier: The "night" imagery:
By Lord Byron (George Gordon)
 Descriptions of her dark hair ("raven tress")
She walks in beauty, like the night  The contrast between "dark and bright"
Of cloudless climes and starry skies;  Phrases like "softly lightens o'er her face"
And all that’s best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Trochee Signified:
Thus mellowed to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies.  Inner beauty and virtue
 A harmonious balance between physical
One shade the more, one ray the less, appearance and character
Had half impaired the nameless grace  Innocence and purity
Which waves in every raven tress,  A woman who is admired not just for her
Or softly lightens o’er her face; looks, but for her inner qualities
Where thoughts serenely sweet express,
How pure, how dear their dwelling-place. 6. Langue and Parole- the "langue" refers to the
established poetic conventions and language
And on that cheek, and o’er that brow, structures used to describe the woman's beauty,
So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, including the use of similes, metaphors, and
The smiles that win, the tints that glow, contrasting imagery of "dark and bright," while the
But tell of days in goodness spent, "parole" is the specific way these linguistic tools
A mind at peace with all below, are employed within the poem to create a unique
A heart whose love is innocent! and individual portrayal of the woman,
highlighting her inner and outer beauty as
harmonious and perfect.
1. Meter- Iambic Tetrameter a sestet
2. Rhyme Scheme- ABABAB Langue:
3. Symbolism
 primary symbol is the woman herself,  Literary Devices: The poem heavily utilizes
representing a harmonious balance between similes ("like the night"), alliteration
"dark and bright," signifying the perfect ("cloudless climes and starry skies"), and
blend of inner and outer beauty, where her antithesis ("dark and bright") which are all
physical appearance reflects a pure and considered part of the "langue" as they are
innocent character, often depicted through established literary tools that can be used by
imagery of a "cloudless night" and "starry any poet to describe beauty.
skies."  Imagery: The comparison of the woman to the
4. Theme night sky with its stars is a recurring theme in
 Beauty and Harmony the "langue" as it signifies a sense of mystery,
 Inner Beauty vs. Outer Beauty elegance, and serenity.
5. Signifier and Signified- The "signifier" is the  Structure: The poem's consistent meter
imagery and language used to describe the woman, (iambic tetrameter) and rhyme scheme
like "like the night of cloudless climes and starry (ABAB) are also part of the "langue" as they
skies," while the "signified" is the deeper meaning contribute to the overall rhythm and flow of
of inner and outer beauty, suggesting a woman the poem.
with a harmonious balance of grace, purity, and
serenity, where her physical appearance reflects Parole:
her beautiful character  Specific Language Choices: The way Byron
uses the "dark and bright" imagery to describe
Key points about the signifier and signified in "She the woman's eyes and hair, creating a sense of
Walks in Beauty": balance and perfect harmony, is a specific
"parole" choice.
  Emphasis on Inner Beauty: The poem's focus
on how the woman's "thoughts serenely sweet
express" on her face, indicating that her inner
beauty is reflected in her outward appearance,
is a unique "parole" element.
 Overall Tone: The speaker's admiration and
reverence for the woman, conveyed through
the language, constitutes the "parole" as it is
the specific way Byron chooses to present his
perspective.

7. Binary Opposition
 The poem revolves around the contrast
between "night" and "light," with the
woman's appearance likened to a cloudless
night sky dotted with stars, signifying a
delicate balance between darkness (her
dark hair) and brightness (her fair skin and
eyes).
8. Genre- Romantic Poetry
9. Intertextual Connection
In his poem “She Walks in Beauty,” Lord Byron
alludes to the opening line of Shakespeare's sonnet
18, “Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?”.

Explanation: In the opening line of “She Walks in

Beauty,” Byron compares the subject to the night,
saying, “She walks in beauty, like the night / Of
cloudless climes and starry skies”. This line alludes
to the opening line of Shakespeare's sonnet 18.