Explore the full ebook collection and download it now at ebookball.

com

The Changing World of Mobile Communications 1st

edition by Petri Ahokangas, Annabeth Aagaard ISBN
3031331930 9783031331930

https://ebookball.com/product/the-changing-world-of-mobile-
communications-1st-edition-by-petri-ahokangas-annabeth-
aagaard-isbn-3031331930-9783031331930-24228/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Browse and Get More Ebook Downloads Instantly at https://ebookball.com

Click here to visit ebookball.com and download ebookball now
 Your digital treasures (PDF, ePub, MOBI) await
Download instantly and pick your perfect format...

Read anywhere, anytime, on any device!

The Mobile Communications Handbook 1st ediiton by Jerry

Gibson ISBN 1439817235 978-1439817230

https://ebookball.com/product/the-mobile-communications-handbook-1st-
ediiton-by-jerry-gibson-isbn-1439817235-978-1439817230-17728/

ebookball.com

4G Wireless Video Communications Wireless Communications

and Mobile Computing 1st Edition by Haohong Wang,
Lisimachos Kondi, Ajay Luthra, Song Ci ISBN 9780470745175
0470745177
https://ebookball.com/product/4g-wireless-video-communications-
wireless-communications-and-mobile-computing-1st-edition-by-haohong-
wang-lisimachos-kondi-ajay-luthra-song-ci-
isbn-9780470745175-0470745177-9548/
ebookball.com

5G Mobile Communications 1st Edition by Wei Xiang, Kan

Zheng, Xuemin Sherman Shen ISBN 9783319342085 3319342088

https://ebookball.com/product/5g-mobile-communications-1st-edition-by-
wei-xiang-kan-zheng-xuemin-sherman-shen-
isbn-9783319342085-3319342088-14588/

ebookball.com

(Ebook PDF) 5G Mobile and Wireless Communications

Technology 1st edition by Afif Osseiran 131665561X
9781316655610 full chapters
https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-5g-mobile-and-wireless-
communications-technology-1st-edition-by-afif-
osseiran-131665561x-9781316655610-full-chapters-14590/

ebookball.com
THE CHANGING SHAPE OF NURSING PRACTICE The role of nurses
in the hospital division of labour 1st edition by Davina
Allen 9781134605958 1134605951
https://ebookball.com/product/the-changing-shape-of-nursing-practice-
the-role-of-nurses-in-the-hospital-division-of-labour-1st-edition-by-
davina-allen-9781134605958-1134605951-1266/

ebookball.com

GYNAECOLOGY changing services for changing needs 1st

Edition by Susan Jolley ISBN 9780470030950 047003095X

https://ebookball.com/product/gynaecology-changing-services-for-
changing-needs-1st-edition-by-susan-jolley-
isbn-9780470030950-047003095x-698/

ebookball.com

The Changing Face of Management in South East Asia 1st

Edition by Chris Rowley 0415405432 9780415405430

https://ebookball.com/product/the-changing-face-of-management-in-
south-east-asia-1st-edition-by-chris-
rowley-0415405432-9780415405430-11922/

ebookball.com

The Economics of Mobile Telecommunications 1st Edition by

Harald Gruber 0521054656 978-0521054652

https://ebookball.com/product/the-economics-of-mobile-
telecommunications-1st-edition-by-harald-
gruber-0521054656-978-0521054652-19356/

ebookball.com

(Ebook PDF) Communications of the ACM 1st edition by

Robert MetCalfe full chapters

https://ebookball.com/product/ebook-pdf-communications-of-the-acm-1st-
edition-by-robert-metcalfe-full-chapters-22734/

ebookball.com
The Changing World of
Mobile Communications
5G, 6G and the Future of
Digital Services
Edited by
Petri Ahokangas
Annabeth Aagaard
The Changing World of Mobile Communications
 Petri Ahokangas · Annabeth Aagaard
Editors

The Changing World

of Mobile
Communications
5G, 6G and the Future of Digital
Services
Editors
Petri Ahokangas Annabeth Aagaard
Martti Ahtisaari Institute Department of Management
University of Oulu Aarhus University
Oulu, Finland Aarhus, Denmark

ISBN 978-3-031-33190-9 ISBN 978-3-031-33191-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33191-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2024. This book is an open access publication.

Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adap-
tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate
if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons
license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the
book’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland
AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword by Dr. Peter Stuckmann

Recent years have shown us the potential that 5G networks have to

provide the connectivity basis for the digital and green recovery in the
short to mid-term, and the need to build technology capacities for the
following generation—6G—in the long term.
Success in 6G depends on the ability to build a resilient, secure, and
high-speed 5G infrastructure, which is trusted and will support advanced
5G capabilities, on which 6G technology experiments and, later, 6G
deployments can build.
The growth potential in economic activity enabled by 5G and later
6G networks and services has been estimated in the order of e3 trillion
by 2030, according to McKinsey Global Institute, 2/2020.
5G networks evolution, notably 5G stand-alone, is expected to
enable many industrial applications such as Connected and Automated
Mobility (CAM), Industry 4.0, and advanced health care. But 6G
systems will likely offer a new step change in performance, moving
us from Gigabit toward Terabit capacities and sub-millisecond response
times, and enabling new critical applications and an “Internet of Senses”,

v
vi Foreword by Dr. Peter Stuckmann

collecting and providing the sensors data for nothing less than a digital
twin of the physical world.
To explore these opportunities, the Commission launched a major
initiative to promote a European vision for 6G and to develop 6G
concepts, technologies and systems, the Smart Networks and Services
Joint Undertaking (SNS JU). Co-led with the industry and driven by
making a positive impact for our economy and society, the SNS JU
addresses research, innovation, and deployment, through its two-pillar
approach: it coordinates the European 5G Strategic Deployment Agenda
and 5G corridors deployment projects, while fostering Europe’s tech-
nology and industrial capacities in 6G, through a solid research and
innovation roadmap and dedicated funding.
With its 35 newly launched 6G R&I projects worth e250 million
of EU funding, and a planned investment of around the same amount
in 2023 and 2024, the SNS JU is pushing for research and inno-
vation on key technology building blocks of 6G networks. The core
research is on future system architecture and control, radio and signal
processing, network and service security, optical networks for converged
network infrastructure, devices and components, and edge and ubiqui-
tous computing. Smart Networks and Services projects explore how to
integrate terrestrial and non-terrestrial networks, while looking at special-
purpose sub-networks in very short-range communication environments.
These technology capacities are expected to become the basis for future
digital services toward 2030. Research is being complemented by exper-
imental infrastructures and large-scale trials and pilots to explore and
demonstrate technologies and advanced applications and services for the
verticals.
Sustainability and security-by-design get special attention in 6G
systems and architectures design and development, as Europe wants
to lead by example the twin digital and green transition worldwide.
Smart network technologies and architectures will need to drastically
enhance their energy efficiency despite major traffic growth and keep
electromagnetic fields (EMF) under safe limits. These design principles
should form the technology base for a human-centric Next-Generation
Internet (NGI) that addresses Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
 Foreword by Dr. Peter Stuckmann vii

and cares about sustainability, trustworthiness, accessibility, and tech-

nology affordability, while connecting the human and digital worlds for
extreme experiences.
Global standardization and spectrum harmonization need to be
prepared by proactive and effective international cooperation at govern-
ment and industry level. If the motto is one 6G global standard, the
SNS JU needs to foster EU players’ industry positions in future 6G
standards and markets, building on dialogues with leading regions and
possible focused joint initiatives in R&I. Also, the outcomes of EU and
national 6G research projects should advise the EU-level 6G spectrum
roadmap. The long-term EU spectrum strategy beyond 5G depends
on a united and influential EU role in the international spectrum
negotiations—notably toward the upcoming World Radio Conferences.
Moving into 6G surely presents a challenge for Europe: to maintain its
technological leadership in the connectivity field, while building capac-
ities on other fronts, such as in the edge cloud continuum, or in the
chipset and components domains.
There is also a key opportunity to consolidate European technolog-
ical sovereignty, in line with the conclusions of the 5G Cybersecurity
toolbox. The vision is that investing and mastering 6G technologies will
foster our connectivity industry, and ultimately our economy and society.
The Changing World of Mobile Communications—5G , 6G and the
Future of Digital Services is timely to explore how 6G is expected to play
a key role in the evolution of our economy and society toward 2030 and
to contribute to a more secure and sustainable world.

Dr. Peter Stuckmann

Head of Unit—Future
Connectivity Systems
Deputy Director—
Future Networks
Interim Executive
Director—Smart Networks
and Services Joint Undertaking
European Commission
 Foreword by Dr. Volker Ziegler

The commercial roll-out and evolution of 5G networks is in full swing—

in the meantime, more than 240 communication service providers and
thousands of enterprises have launched 5G networks. The full promise of
5G services will become reality in the next years all over the world as 5G
stand-alone architecture will enable innovative offerings such as network
slicing. But it does not stop there. 5G Advanced will include readi-
ness for use cases of extended reality as well as, for instance, enhanced
commercial viability and performance of IoT offerings. And 6G is
already on the horizon, commercial product availability is expected in
2029/30 time frame. It will be the essential infrastructure and plat-
form for communications in the 2030s. 6G research has successfully
started with strong momentum of collaboration as illustrated by the
results of worldwide relevance of the EC H2020 6G flagship project
Hexa-X. Use cases of the 6G era will include immersive telepresence,
twinning, collaborating robots and mixed reality co-design, creating a
6th sense and specialized trusted sub-networks. These use case families
will liberate human potential and drive economic, societal, and environ-
mental sustainability. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence will
be pervasive enablers across the technology stack. In the 2030s, metaverse

ix
x Foreword by Dr. Volker Ziegler

ready networks and associated new capabilities will be key. Collabora-

tive advantage beyond research will go together with business model
transformation of Network-as-a-Service and the enabling of new services
by Network-as-Code. Telecom networks will become key to everything
digital. Companies and organizations across every industry around the
world will leverage digitalization to improve efficiency, flexibility, and
productivity in a sustainable way. To meet these requirements, communi-
cation networks will be enhanced with the open flexibility and scalability
of the distributed cloud. The networks of the future will sense, think,
and act and thereby transform business, industry, and society. Devel-
oping Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) into a competitive
advantage and building trustworthy platforms are strategic imperatives.
Private-public partnership and regulation have been instrumental in
preparing the ground for successful take-off of 5G networks. As we are
now getting ready for the 6G era, the time has come to explore new
paradigms from the interlinking of industrial policy, innovation, and
regulation while avoiding government mandates. Availability of radio
spectrum will continue to be a key prerequisite and new bands dedi-
cated to cellular communications will help foster sustainable economic
impact for the long term. Economy of scale from global standards and
the avoidance of duplication of effort seem essential. Standards should
be industry-lead and a fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory patent
regime will be key for value capture of practicing entities. Our purpose
is to create technology that helps the world act together and connec-
tivity continues to be the key enabler. The book The Changing World
of Mobile Communications - 5G , 6G and the Future of Digital Services
provides a comprehensive and fresh perspective on the evolution of
mobile networks in the broad context of future enabling technologies
 Foreword by Dr. Volker Ziegler xi

and innovation, scenarios of sustainable business transformation as well

as aspects of regulatory change.

Dr. Volker Ziegler

Senior Technology Advisor
Chief Architect
Nokia Strategy and Technology
Nokia
 Foreword by Prof. Christopher L. Tucci

You are reading a book that is going to change the way you think about
telecommunications. Telecoms has been fighting a long, slow slide from
the days in which national telecoms monopolies made massive infras-
tructure investments and recouped them by charging high prices to
businesses and consumers who had few alternatives. As these fixed-cost
recovery issues have become more and more salient in recent decades
with increasing deregulation and competition, there has been a shift
toward mobile services as a way of adding additional revenue streams,
which has helped, but recent trends indicate that telecoms compa-
nies will probably need to embrace completely new and unfamiliar
business models within the next ten years as 5G continues its diffu-
sion and 6G comes online. Both competition in telecoms services and
complementor business models (such as over-the-top services) will put
increasing pressure on telecoms operators.
Indeed, the rapid increase in digitalization has had an outsize impact
on the way we work and live, as well as the way we communicate as

xiii
xiv Foreword by Prof. Christopher L. Tucci

individuals and as organizations. With the global pandemic, new work

practices have emerged that require the ability of large numbers of people
to work remotely and effectively—individually and in groups—while
communicating using high-bandwidth video and other Internet appli-
cations. All of this has put increasing demands on how technologies,
businesses, and services are developed in the information and commu-
nications technology (ICT) space, while at the same time pressuring
ICT business models and business ecosystems. Many of the services that
were previously provided by mobile network operators (MNOs) now face
competition from the public Internet, challenging the business models of
domestic connectivity providers. This evolution, intertwined with tech-
nology advances and regulatory bodies, builds pressure on regulators and
policymakers, who must consider their responsibilities in navigating new
market dynamics for the greater good of society, and who need to balance
innovation promotion with protecting the public in the shorter term.
Amidst all of this complexity and co-evolution of markets, tech-
nologies, and regulations, one might sensibly ask what future world of
ICT technologies, policies, businesses, and business ecosystems are on
the horizon? With this edited volume, The Changing World of Mobile
Communications - 5G , 6G and the Future of Digital Services, the editors
and authors, who are among the world’s leading ICT, mobile communi-
cations, and business model specialists, make a bold and critical attempt
to answer this question by combining the three perspectives of business
models, ICT technologies, and technology policy in an engaging and
logical fashion.
In developing this narrative, the book provides cutting-edge knowl-
edge, overviews, and unique insights into the central ICT developments
that have and will have immense impact on the business, technolog-
ical, and regulatory perspectives of mobile communications. In addition,
the book brings forth future avenues for ICT research and mobile
communications developments to guide both industry leaders, managers,
researchers, and policymakers. It is difficult to predict exactly when the
traditional telecoms business model will reach a breaking point, but
this book will help you make an informed judgment about how soon
 Foreword by Prof. Christopher L. Tucci xv

that day will come, and what some of the options are in the new
telecommunications ecosystem space.

Prof. Christopher L. Tucci

Professor of Digital Strategy
and Innovation
Imperial College
London, UK
 Contents

Part I Mapping the Mobile Communications Context

1 Introduction to the Book 3
Petri Ahokangas and Annabeth Aagaard
2 The Evolution of Mobile Communications 13
Seppo Yrjölä, Marja Matinmikko-Blue, and Petri Ahokangas
3 Future Scenarios and Anticipated Impacts of 6G 45
Seppo Yrjölä, Petri Ahokangas, and Marja Matinmikko-Blue
4 Sustainability Transition and 6G Mobile
Communications 93
Marja Matinmikko-Blue and Ahmad Arslan

Part II Value Creation and Capture in Future Mobile

Communications
5 Value Creation and Services in Mobile Communications 113
Annabeth Aagaard, Petri Ahokangas, Marika Iivari,
Irina Atkova, Seppo Yrjölä, and Marja Matinmikko-Blue

xvii
xviii Contents

6 Business Models in 5G/6G Mobile Communications 137

Petri Ahokangas, Annabeth Aagaard, Irina Atkova,
Seppo Yrjölä, and Marja Matinmikko-Blue
7 Benefiting from Innovation in Future 6G 167
Pia Hurmelinna-Laukkanen and Seppo Yrjölä

Part III Regulatory and National Considerations

8 Local 5G/6G Network Business in Europe:
Regulatory Analysis and Legitimacy Considerations 185
Oxana Gisca, Marja Matinmikko-Blue, Petri Ahokangas,
Seppo Yrjölä, and Jillian Gordon
9 Toward Anticipatory Regulation and Beyond 221
Georg Serentschy, Paul Timmers,
and Marja Matinmikko-Blue
10 Sovereignty and 6G 253
Paul Timmers and Georg Serentschy

Part IV Implications for the Future

11 A View to Beyond 6G 285
Seppo Yrjölä, Marja Matinmikko-Blue, and Petri Ahokangas
12 Opportunities and Implications Related to Future
Mobile Communications 307
Petri Ahokangas, Annabeth Aagaard, Seppo Yrjölä,
Marja Matinmikko-Blue, Paul Timmers,
Georg Serentschy, Jillian Gordon, Irina Atkova,
Pia Hurmelinna-Laukkanen, Ahmad Arslan,
Marika Iivari, and Oxana Gisca

Index 323
 Notes on Contributors

Prof. Annabeth Aagaard earned her Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Front-end

Innovation (2009) and thereafter continued her interest and research in
the innovation and business development area. She is Professor of Digi-
talization at the Department of Management, Aarhus University, and the
Founding Director of the Interdisciplinary Centre for Digital Business
Development. Her research focuses on digital and sustainable business
development, open innovation & innovation management, ecosystems,
and governance. She has authored and co-authored fifteen textbooks
and more than 200 public and scientific papers in journals such as the
Journal of Product Innovation Management, Industrial Marketing Manage-
ment, the International Journal of Innovation Management, etc. She is also
heavily involved in research projects in the areas of digital transforma-
tion and Next Generation Internet sponsored by EU Horizon 2020 and
industrial foundations, and in addition acts as a speaker and strategic
advisor to industry and Scandinavian top100 companies on digital and
sustainable topics.
Prof. Petri Ahokangas received his D.Sc. degree (1998) from the
University of Vaasa, Finland. Currently, he is the professor of future

xix
xx Notes on Contributors

digital business and director of the Martti Ahtisaari Institute, Oulu Busi-
ness School, University of Oulu. Prior to his academic career, he worked
in the telecoms/software industry. His research is in the intersection of
entrepreneurship, strategic management, international business, futures
research, and action research in various fields of high technology. Specif-
ically, he is interested in business models, strategies, ecosystems, and
internationalization within digital, mobile (5G/6G), smart energy, and
smart city domains. He has close to 300 scientific publications and has
published in high-ranking journals such as the IEEE Communications
Magazine, IEEE Wireless communications magazine, Technological Fore-
casting and Social Change, and the Journal of Business Studies. He actively
participates in and leads international and national projects funded by
EU Horizon H2020 program or national projects funded by Business
Finland as primary investigator and work package leader.
Prof. Ahmad Arslan currently works as a professor at the Depart-
ment of Marketing, Management and International Business, Oulu
Business School, University of Oulu, Finland. He also holds the posi-
tion of Honorary Chair in Business Management at the University
of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK. His earlier research has been published
in prestigious academic journals like the British Journal of Manage-
ment, Human Resource Management (US), IEEE Transactions on Engi-
neering Management, the International Business Review, the International
Marketing Review, the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Inter-
national Management, the Journal of Knowledge Management, Produc-
tion Planning & Control , Technological Forecasting and Social Change,
and the Scandinavian Journal of Management, among others. He has
also contributed book chapters to several edited handbooks addressing
various management topics. Finally, he holds several editorial board
memberships. Lastly, he is currently an Associate Editor of International
Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business (Inderscience).
Assist prof. Irina Atkova received her D.Sc. degree (2018) from
Oulu Business School, University of Oulu. Her dissertation explores
how entrepreneurs create business models to capture opportuni-
ties. The dissertation won the 2018 Emerald/EFMD Outstanding
 Notes on Contributors xxi

Doctoral Research Award in the Management and Governance cate-

gory. Currently, she is a postdoctoral researcher at the Martti Ahtisaari
Institute, Oulu Business School, University of Oulu, in the 6G Flag-
ship funded by the Academy of Finland. She has published in journals
such as Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Strategic Entrepreneurship
Journal, Global Strategy Journal, and the Journal of Business Models.
Her research interests revolve around the business model phenomenon
in various applications and contexts, including telecommunications and
the startup context.
M.Sc. Oxana Gisca is a Marie Skłodowska-Curie early-stage researcher
within the “Legitimation of Newness and Theory Building” EU project
at the Martti Ahtisaari Institute, Oulu Business School, University of
Oulu. Oxana received her M.Sc. in Law at the University of the Euro-
pean Studies of Moldova. Prior to her academic career; she worked in a
specialized agency under the Government of the Republic of Moldova
and has had leading roles in international committees under the Council
of Europe and the Egmont Group. Currently, she is exploring the emer-
gence of the legitimacy of new business models and ecosystems within
the 6G technology context.
Prof. Jillian Gordon is professor of Entrepreneurship at the Adam Smith
Business School, University of Glasgow. Her current research exam-
ines emerging entrepreneurial ventures, the Internet of Things, digital
entrepreneurship trends, and wealth recycling. She is particularly inter-
ested in how the practice and logics of entrepreneurship translate across
social contexts. Her research has been published in leading international
journals, including the Harvard Business History Review, Business History,
and FT 50 ranked journals, including the Journal of Business Ethics and
Human Relations. During her career, she has also secured several compet-
itive research funding awards from major funders, including the ESRC,
EPSRC, Horizon 2020, and the EU EIT Scheme.
Prof. Pia Hurmelinna-Laukkanen is a professor and director of the
Department of Marketing, Management and International Business at
the Oulu Business School, University of Oulu, and an Adjunct Professor
at LUT University. She has published about 90 refereed articles in
xxii Notes on Contributors

journals such as the Journal of Management Studies, Research Policy,

the Journal of Product Innovation Management, the California Manage-
ment Review, Industrial and Corporate Change, Industrial Marketing
Management, the International Business Review, R&D Management, and
Technovation. Most of her research has involved innovation management
and appropriability issues, including an examination of different knowl-
edge protection and value capturing mechanisms and their strategic
uses. Her research covers varying contexts like internationalization and
interorganizational collaboration in ICT and the healthcare sectors.
Dr. Marika Iivari is an Adjunct Professor in the field of Digitalization
and Business Analytics at the Martti Ahtisaari Institute, Oulu Business
School, University of Oulu. She gained her D.Sc. (Econ. & Bus. Admin.)
in the field of business models, open innovation and ecosystems in 2016,
and has worked in several national and international R&D&I projects
in various technological contexts. She has been an advisor in the Urban
Agenda for EU’s Digital Transition Partnership. In addition, she has
industry experience, having worked in management roles in the software
business. She is also associated with Imperial College London’s Centre
for Digital Transformation. Currently, her research interests, in addition
to innovation, business modeling and design, expand to data-driven 106
decision making and the data economy.
Dr. Marja Matinmikko-Blue received her D.Sc. degree (2012) in
telecommunications engineering and Ph.D. degree (2018) in industrial
engineering and management from the University of Oulu, Finland.
Currently, she is Research Director of the Infotech Oulu Focus Insti-
tute and Director of Sustainability and Regulation at the 6G Flagship
program at the University of Oulu, where she also holds an adjunct
professor position on spectrum management. She conducts multidis-
ciplinary research on technical, business, and regulatory aspects of
mobile communications systems in close collaboration between industry,
academia, and regulators. She has coordinated four national project
consortia that have successfully demonstrated the world’s first licensed
shared access spectrum sharing trials and introduced a new local 5G
operator concept that has become a reality. She has published 190+ scien-
tific publications and prepared 150+ contributions to regulatory bodies
 Notes on Contributors xxiii

on spectrum management at national, European, and international

levels.
Dr. Georg Serentschy with a professional span of more than 40 years,
began his career in the field of nucle physics, after which he devoted
himself to industrial research and development in various industrial
high-tech areas such as software development, solar energy, aerospace,
and telecommunications. After his industrial career, he joined Arthur
D. Little, a strategy consulting firm. His next step was to head the
Regulatory Authority for Telecommunications in Austria (RTR-GmbH)
for more than a decade. The highlight of his regulatory career was
the chairmanship and vice-chairmanship of BEREC (Body of European
Regulators for Electronic Communications). In 2014, he founded his
own consulting boutique, which focuses on advising the C-suite and top
experts in the digital sector (platforms, telecom, media, and technology)
on strategy, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, regulation &
competition, spectrum policy, cybersecurity policy, and innovation. One
of the focus areas of his consulting work is the strategic positioning of
companies in a specific regulatory environment. In parallel, Georg serves
as Senior Advisor for the Communication Practice and the Public Policy
Practice of the global law firm Squire Patton Boggs.
Prof. Dr. Paul Timmers is research associate at the University of
Oxford, Oxford Internet Institute, professor at KU Leuven and Euro-
pean University Cyprus and the University of Rijeka (visiting), senior
advisor EPC Brussels, President of the Supervisory Board Estonian eGov-
ernance Academy, member of the EU Cyber Direct Advisory Board,
research fellow of CERRE, and CEO of iivii. Previously, he was Director
at the European Commission/DG CONNECT where has held respon-
sibility for legislation and funding programmes for cybersecurity, e-ID,
digital privacy, digital health, smart cities, and e-government. He was
also a cabinet member of European Commissioner Liikanen. He worked
as manager of a software department in a large ICT company and
co-founded an ICT start-up. He holds a physics PhD from Radboud
University (Nijmegen, NL), MBA from Warwick University (UK), EU
fellowship at UNC Chapel Hill (US), and a cybersecurity qualification
from Harvard. His main interests are digital policy, geopolitics, and
xxiv Notes on Contributors

Europe. He frequently publishes and speaks on digital developments,

technology and sovereignty, cybersecurity, industrial policy, and sectoral
policies such as digital health, and is regularly advising governments and
thinktanks.
Prof. Seppo Yrjölä holds a D.Sc. degree in Telecommunications Engi-
neering from the University of Oulu and is Professor at the faculty of
Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu
in the field of techno-economics. He is Principal Engineer at Nokia
Enterprise and has been building radios for 34 years in research, devel-
opment, innovation, and business development. Previously, he was head
of wireless technology for the Networks division at Nokia. He has been
awarded over e10 million in competitive research funding as the lead
investigator, authored more than 140+ scientific publications, and holds
several patents in the radio domain. Prof. Yrjölä conducts multidisci-
plinary research, combining technology, business, and regulatory aspects.
His current mission is digitalizing the 70% of GDP that has yet to be
digitalized in order to drive massive productivity growth and new busi-
ness. With roots in engineering and economics, he explores how and why
platform-based ecosystemic business models can emerge in the future
wireless system context in a sustainable and human-centric way.
 Abbreviations

3 Cs Capacities, Capabilities, Control

3D Three Dimensional
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
3GPP2 3rd Generation Partnership Project Two
4C Connectivity, Content, Context, Commerce
5GA The Fifth Generation-Advanced Mobile Communication
5GC The Fifth Generation Core Network
5C Connectivity, Cloud, Content, Context, Commerce
AaaS Application-as-a-Service
aaS as a Service
AI Artificial Intelligence
AIA Artificial Intelligence Act
API Application Programming Interface
AR Augmented Reality
ATIS US Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions
B2B Business to Business
B2C Business to Consumer
B5GPC Japan’s Beyond 5G Promotion Consortium
BATX Baidu, Alibaba, Tencent, Xiaomi
BEREC Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications

xxv
xxvi Abbreviations

BM Business Model
BMI Business Model Innovation
BRI Chinese Belt and Road Initiative
BTS Basic Telecommunications Services
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CDMA2000 Code Division Multiple Access 2000
CECC European Electronic Communications Code
CEPT European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations
CLA Causal Layered Analysis
CMA UK’s Competition and Markets Authority
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease
CS Cybersecurity
CSA Cybersecurity Act
CSL China’s Cybersecurity Law
CT Core Network & Terminals
CV Curriculum Vitae
DA Data Act
DaaS Data as a Service
DAO Decentralized Autonomous Organization
DC EU’s Digital Compass
DDI Digital Dependency Index
DevOps Development and Operations
DG Directorate General
DGA Data Governance Act
DMA Digital Market Act
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DRCF UK’s Digital Regulation Cooperation Forum
DS Digital Strategy
DSA Digital Service Act
DSM Digital Single Market
e2e end to end
EC European Commission
EC DSM EU’s Digital Single Market Strategy
EC ePR e-Privacy Regulation
EC ODD EU’s Open Data Directive
EC RPE EU’s recovery Plan for Europe
EC SEDF EU’s shaping Europe’s Digital Future
 Abbreviations xxvii

ECJ European Court of Justice, Luxembourg

EDE European Digital Economy
EECC European Electronic Communications Code
eID electronic Identification
EMA Singapore’s Energy Market Authority
eMBB enhanced Mobile Broadband
EMF Electromagnetic Field
ENISA European Cybersecurity Agency
ESG-D Environmental, Social, Governance, Democracy
ETNO European Telecommunications Network Operators’ Associa-
tion
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
EU European Union
FAANG Facebook, Amazon, Apple, Netflix, Alphabet
FP Framework Program
FRAND Fair, Reasonable, and Non-Discriminatory
GAFA Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDPR EU’s General Data Protection Regulation
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GPT General-Purpose Technology
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GSMA Global System for Mobile Communications Association
HMI Human-Machine Interface
HW Hardware
I5.0 Industry 5.0
IaaS Infrastructure as a Service
IAB Internet Architecture Board
IaC Infrastructure as Code
IASB International Accounting Standards Board
ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICDT Information, Communication, and Data Technology
ICO UK’s Information Commissioner’s Office
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IIoT Industrial Internet of Things
IMDA Singapore’s Infocomm Media Development Authority
IMT International Mobile Telecommunications
xxviii Abbreviations

IoT Internet of Things

IIoT Industrial Internet of Things
IP Intellectual Property
IPR Intellectual Property Right
ISP Internet Service Provider
IT Information Technology
ITU UN’s International Telecommunication Union
ITU-R UN’s International Telecommunication Union Radiocommu-
nication Sector
ITU-T UN’s International Telecommunication Union Telecommuni-
cation Standardization Sector
KFTC Korea Fair Trade Commission
KPI Key Performance Indicator
KVI Key Value Indicator
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LoRaWan Long Range Wide Area Network
LTE Long-Term Evolution, the Fourth Generation of Mobile
Communications
MAS Money Authority of Singapore
MIIT China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
ML Machine Learning
MLP Multi-Level Perspective
mMTC Massive Machine Type Communication
MNO Mobile Network Operator
MOST China’s Ministry of Science and Technology
MRFTA Korea’s Monopoly, Regulation and Fair-Trade Act
MSIT South Korea’s Ministry of Science and ICT
MVNO Mobile Virtual Network Operator
NaaC Network as a Code
NaaS Network as a Service
NBIC Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology, and
Cognitive Science
NCC Taiwan’s National Communications Commission
nG nth Generation Of Mobile Communications (1G-6G)
NGA NextG Alliance
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NICT Japan’s National Institute of Information and Communications
Technology
NPN Nonpublic Network
 Abbreviations xxix

NRA National Regulatory Agency

NRAs National Regulatory Authorities
NSA Non Stand Alone
NTN Non Terrestrial Network
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OFCOM UK’s Office of Communications
OPEX Operational Expenditure
OTT Over the Top
P2P Peer to Peer
PaaS Platform as a Service
PESTLE Political, Environmental, Social, Technological, Legal, and
Economic
PFI Profiting From Innovation
PNI Public Network Integrated
PPP Public-Private-People
PRC People’s Republic of China
R&D Research and Development
RAN Radio Access Network
RPE EU’s Recovery Plan for Europe
SA Stand Alone or System Architecture
SaaS Software as a Service
SBA Service-Based Architecture
SDGs UN’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals
SDN Software Defined Radio
SEDF Shaping Europe’s Digital Future
SEP Standard Essential Patent
SLA Service Level Agreement
SNSJU European Smart Networks and Services Joint Undertaking
SU Security Union
SW Software
SWIFT Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
TBL Triple Bottom Line
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
THz Terahertz
TIP Transformative Innovation Policy
TTC Trans-Atlantic Trade and Technology Council
UE User Equipment
UI User Interface
xxx Abbreviations

UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

UN United Nations
URLLC Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications
US United States of America
VATS Value-Added Telecommunications Services
VR Virtual Reality
VUCA Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
Web3 World Wide Web Three
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WIMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WP5D ITU-R’s Working Party 5D
WRC ITU-R’s World Radio Conference
XaaS Everything as a Service
XR Extended Reality
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Expected 3GPP standardization timeline and ITU-R

process for IMT systems 17
Fig. 2.2 The transformation of technology innovation across 6G
system architecture layers stems from the 3rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) system
architecture (Adapted from Yrjölä et al., 2022) 23
Fig. 2.3 The value chain in 2G, 3G, 4G (upper part
of the figure), and 5G (lower part of the figure) 28
Fig. 2.4 From engineering platforms toward service modularity
and ecosystem platforms 29
Fig. 2.5 Evolution from vertical and horizontal business logics
toward oblique value creation and value capture in 6G
(Adapted form Yrjölä et al., 2022) 34
Fig. 3.1 Identified key trends 48
Fig. 3.2 Identified key uncertainties 55
Fig. 3.3 Summary of selected scenario themes 61
Fig. 3.4 Summary of four scenarios 62
Fig. 6.1 A strategy-technology view on mobile communications
business models 151

xxxi
xxxii List of Figures

Fig. 6.2 Three types of business model and ecosystem

configurations in 6G 159
Fig. 7.1 Benefiting from innovation in a 6G context
framework with a comparison to 4G and 5G (Source
Hurmelinna-Laukkanen and Yang, [2022]) 171
Fig. 8.1 The EU’s priorities for the digital single market 195
Fig. 8.2 Regulatory legitimacy challenges and perspectives 208
Fig. 9.1 Regulatory trajectories from traditional to anticipatory
regulation 240
Fig. 10.1 Geopolitics versus technology 263
Fig. 11.1 A legitimation view of the worldviews, myths,
and metaphors in 6G visions 300
 List of Tables

Table 5.1 Identified mobile communications services in 5G 121

Table 8.1 Managerial choices and consequences derived
from the identified legal framework for emerging
local 5G/6G private networks 213
Table 9.1 5th Generation Regulation (G5) countries by score,
rank, and the ICT regulatory tracker 238
Table 10.1 Recommendation toward open, global, and full 6G 273
Table 10.2 Participation of Chinese companies in EU-funded
projects 279
Table 11.1 The causal layered analysis of national and regional
6G visions transformed into 6G futures toward
beyond 6G 297

xxxiii
 Part I
Mapping the Mobile Communications
Context
 1
Introduction to the Book
Petri Ahokangas and Annabeth Aagaard

I have a story to tell you. It has many beginnings, and perhaps one
ending. Perhaps not. Beginnings and endings are contingent things
anyway; inventions, devices. Where does any story really begin? There is
always context, always an encompassingly greater epic, always something
before the described events, unless…
(Iain M. Banks, The Algebraist)

P. Ahokangas (B)
Martti Ahtisaari Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Aagaard
Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2024 3

P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard (eds.), The Changing World of Mobile Communications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33191-6_1
4 P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard

The Aim and Purpose of the Book

Mobile communications as the backbone for digitalization in modern
society in many ways define how digital services are being designed,
delivered, and consumed. Despite its central role for individuals, orga-
nizations, and societies in digitalization, the mobile communications
context is only scantily researched outside the engineering domain.
However, the idea for the book was initiated within the world’s first 6G
research program, the 6G Flagship at the University of Oulu, Finland,
funded by the Academy of Finland as an eight-year research endeavor
from 2018 to 2026. The book aims to provide a comprehensive and
multidisciplinary outlook on the present and future, focusing on the
changing world of mobile communications, written by a team of authors
representing relevant experience and expertise in the business, regulation,
and technology management domains. Contrary to many conventionally
edited and peer-reviewed scientific books, the content of the chapters
have been peer-reviewed and coordinated to provide a coherent, holistic,
and multidisciplinary forward-looking view to understand and make
sense of what we call the world of mobile communications.
Mobile communications technologies are often referred to by exam-
ining what generation of technology they represent in the continuum
from the first generation (1G) to the latest fifth generation (5G) tech-
nology. These generations are backward compatible, meaning that the
currently used communications technologies may be based on any of the
generations from 2G to 5G. These technologies should also be forward
compatible with the next generation mobile communications technolo-
gies. The research on future 6G already started a few years ago, and we
are expecting that it will be commercially available by 2030. However,
what 6G will be, and how it will be used, remains unknown.
Today’s 4G services are available practically everywhere, and the adop-
tion of 5G networks is well underway. Compared to 4G, 5G has
already brought about new business opportunities, especially in indus-
trial domains and by enabling seamless virtual and augmented reality
services. However, it (5G) also raised serious concerns about data privacy
and security and the use of artificial intelligence. As the global vision
for 6G will be released in 2023, we need to understand already today
 1 Introduction to the Book 5

what 5G evolution and 6G may bring for the future service delivery,
and how they will influence us at user, business, business ecosystem,
and geopolitical levels. Future 5G evolution and 6G are not only about
moving toward faster, better, and more secure networks providing the
backbone for innovative digital services. 5G and 6G will bring about a
profound digital disruption that concerns everybody: individuals as the
users and the developers of the service; companies that are developing
and providing these technologies; companies that are providing mobile
communications services, i.e., the operators; companies that are offering
their services on public or private 5G and 6G services or needing these
services; the authorities and public organizations; and policymakers and
regulators.
Currently, no books are available that bring together business and
regulation perspectives of mobile communications with strong engi-
neering expertise. A more holistic picture of 5G and 6G is therefore
lacking in existing publications and in the present discussions of ICT.
Consequently, the aim and purpose of the book it to provide the reader
with a state-of-the-art, multidisciplinary, and insightful overview and
vision presented by experts in the field.
With this book, we, therefore, aim to explore and provide answers to
the following questions:

• What will 5G, its evolution, and 6G be about?

• How will 5G and 6G influence future digital services, businesses, and
society, and what kind of impacts will they have on them?
• How should 5G and 6G be regulated in the future?
• How could we benefit from 5G and 6G innovations in the future?

Who Should Read the Book, and Why?

This book is targeted at and written for managers, practitioners, poli-

cymakers, and students who want to understand what 5G and 6G will
be about, the kind of impacts they might have, and how we can benefit
from them in the future. It also provides a holistic view of future mobile
communications business and regulative aspects to engineers working in
6 P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard

the mobile communications sector. The key subject areas concerned are
engineering, policy, management, and business. The book can be used
in higher education in engineering and management, as well as digital
business. Furthermore, the book is applicable by (1) managers, who are
active in mobile communications and/or apply mobile connectivity as
the backbone of their digitalization and digital services, (2) regulatory
bodies and policymakers, who operate in the field of mobile connectivity,
or whose work has implications for related businesses and services, and
(3) researchers and universities and other higher education institutions,
and their students. Accordingly, the book:

• Provides a holistic and insightful view of the future of mobile connec-

tivity as the backbone for all digitalization, given by experts in the
field.
• Combines the technical and business-related perspectives of the field
in exploring the unique and vast business potential, while addressing
the impact on policymaking.
• Contributes valuable insights and new knowledge to all who study,
develop, manage, provide, use, and regulate mobile connectivity and
related businesses.
• Inspires the reader through practical and reality-based examples and
industry views on future 5G/6G.

How Was the Book Developed?

With the aim to provide a more holistic view of 5G, 6G, and beyond, in
leveraging more human-centric information and communications tech-
nologies (ICT), we have initiated, developed, and edited this book on
The Changing World of Mobile Communications: 5G , 6G , and the Future
of Digital Services with chapters co-authored by researchers and prac-
titioners working at the interface between business, engineering, and
policymaking. Through close dialogues and collaborations between the
co-authors, we have aimed to facilitate a more holistic discussion and
presentation of the content, impact, and future scenarios of telecom-
munications. In doing so, the book seeks to bridge these three large
 1 Introduction to the Book 7

and vibrant research communities with a view to informing future

research, as well as practitioners and policymakers, on the neglected
but vital contributions that ICT ecosystems and businesses can make
to sustainably creating and capturing value for society. Underpinning
the book is the core question of how 5G/6G can contribute to sustain-
able value creation and value capture from a business, engineering, and
policymaking perspective.

Structure of the Book

The structure of the book is created to answer these questions and build
a stepwise learning experience for the reader in four parts. Part I maps
the mobile communications context, Part II examines value creation and
capture in the context, Part III focuses regulatory and national consid-
erations, and Part IV, building collectively on the preceding chapters,
discusses implications for future consideration for research, management,
and policymaking.

Part I Mapping the Mobile Communications Context

Part I of the book starts with an introduction (Chapter 1). The Introduc-
tion to the book chapter provides an overview of the book’s purpose, aim,
content, and targeted contribution and target audiences and provides a
short presentation to each chapter and biographies of all the authors.
Chapter 2 Evolution of mobile communications introduces the evolu-
tion of mobile communications. As this context is expected to become
increasingly platform-based and ecosystemic, it is important to distin-
guish relevant perspectives to map the developments in the field. The
chapter provides an outlook from the first (1G) to fifth (5G) generation
of mobile communications by examining technology and standardiza-
tion, relevant regulatory developments, and content, and specifically
characterizes the business ecosystems toward the sixth generation of
mobile communications (6G). The purpose of the chapter is to provide a
8 P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard

contextual setting for the discussions presented in the subsequent chap-

ters by showing the emergence and evolutionary continuum of mobile
communications from 1G toward 6G.
Chapter 3 Future scenarios and anticipated impacts of 6G examines
future scenarios of 6G at different levels of analysis, aiming to identify
and assess the key change political, environmental, social, technolog-
ical, and legal forces—trends and uncertainties—related to future mobile
communications and proposes a set of dimensions according to which we
can expect 6G to change the world. Based on the proposed dimension,
the chapter presents a set of future scenarios related to mobile connec-
tivity integrated with various services at the user (humans and machines),
business (service provisioning and utilization), business ecosystem value
chain (upstream and downstream), and geopolitical levels of analysis.
Chapter 4 Sustainability transition and 6G mobile communications
highlights 6G mobile communications’ link with the sustainability tran-
sition. Using both theoretical arguments and practical examples, the
chapter applies the multilevel perspective of the sustainability transi-
tion to highlight specificities of the niches, sociotechnical regimes, and
exogenous sociotechnical landscapes of 6G technology in relation to the
sustainability transition.

Part II Value Creation and Capture in Future Mobile

Communications

Chapter 5 Value creation and services in mobile communications explores

the opportunities for value creation via the services enabled by the
fifth (5G) and sixth (6G) generation of mobile communications, with
a specific focus on value creation at the service, platform, and ecosystem
levels of analysis. The chapter presents the 5G and 6G usage cases as
starting points, highlighting the drivers of value creation and the key
services enabled by the mobile communications technology generations.
Chapter 6 Business models in 5G/6G mobile communications exam-
ines business models in mobile communications that have remained
surprisingly stable up to 4G. 5G and beyond generations will bring
a fundamental change to how mobile connectivity is deployed and
 1 Introduction to the Book 9

commercialized. This chapter explores the business opportunities, busi-

ness models, and changing platformic business ecosystems of the future
that extend beyond traditional company boundaries.
Chapter 7 Benefiting from innovation in future 6G takes a wider
perspective on profiting from innovation and discusses firm, ecosystem,
industry, and policy-level aspects relevant for developing 5G/6G. To
date, mobile communications networks have been seen as enabling tech-
nologies whose innovations potential can be characterized by examining
technology complementarity, standardization, and intellectual property
issues. With 6G, especially in combining artificial intelligence, the
mobile network gains features of a general-purpose technology platform
with specificities regarding the appropriability of value.

Part III Regulatory and National Considerations

Chapter 8 Local 5G/6G network business in Europe: regulatory analysis and

legitimacy considerations focuses on the EU Digital Legal Framework;
it identifies and discusses relevant EU legal acts and presents the EU
legal initiatives in the context of local mobile communications networks.
It reviews previous research from the legitimacy challenge perspective
and improves understanding of how regulation currently delimits the
emerging business models of the local 5G/6G networks.
Chapter 9 Toward anticipatory regulation and beyond discusses the
need of telecom regulators to break out of their sectoral silos and analyzes
the regulatory situation in Europe, North America, and Asia. The chap-
ters derive conclusions on how Europe’s competitiveness and innovative
strength can be improved with better interlinking of industrial policy,
innovation, and regulation by introducing the anticipatory regulation
approach.
Chapter 10 Sovereignty and 6G discusses how sovereignty has become
a top priority for government leaders and asks what sovereignty is in
the world of 6G. Or is the question rather what 6G is in a world where
safeguarding sovereignty is the major theme of geopolitical collaboration,
10 P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard

competition, and conflict? The chapter outlines the interplay of 6G tech-

nology and political-industrial governance in different scenarios for the
future of sovereignty.

Part IV Implications for the Future

Chapter 11 A view to beyond 6G adopts a futures research approach

and applies causal layered analysis to presented 6G visions, focusing
on different national perspectives between China, Europe, Japan, South
Korea, and the USA. The chapter identifies the assumptions behind
mobile communications, analyzes the different national visions and
presents, based on the multiple ideologies and epistemes of the stake-
holders, transformed futures beyond 6G mobile communications. The
chapter concludes with policy implications for developing global mobile
communications.
Finally, summarizing the discussions in the preceding 11 chapters,
Chapter 12 Opportunities and implications related to future mobile
communications focuses on the research, managerial, and policymaking
opportunities and implications related to future mobile communica-
tions.

Acknowledgements Writing and editing “The Changing World of Mobile

Communications: 5G, 6G and the Future of Digital Services” has been one
big team project of editors and co-authors working diligently together on
developing the chapters, while coordinating and sharing knowledge in making
state-of-the-art contributions for a holistic publication on the emergence,
impact, and scenarios of 5G and 6G. Accordingly, huge thanks are due to
all the book’s co-authors!
This research has been supported by the Academy of Finland, 6G Flag-
ship program under Grant 346208. This book would not have been possible
without the funding, support, and the network and especially the commu-
nity of the 6G Flagship program at the University of Oulu, Finland. The 6G
Flagships builds on the “6G vision for 2030: Our future society is data-driven,
enabled by near-instant and unlimited wireless connectivity. Developing products,
services and vertical applications for the future digitized society requires a multi-
disciplinary approach and a re-imagining of how we create, deliver and consume
 1 Introduction to the Book 11

data and services.” A special thank you Matti Latva-aho and Ari Pouttu for the
support and funding provided!
In addition, this book has been partially supported by the LNETN project
(Legitimation of newness and its impact on EU agenda for change) from the
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the
Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 860364.
However, “behind the scenes” of the book are several key people who have
played vital roles in its making. We would like to thank Alec Selwyn and
Arunaa Devi from Palgrave MacMillan for a very fruitful and effective collab-
oration on developing, editing, printing, and launching the book. Second, we
want to thank Bea Longhurst for all her hard work in remaking and redesigning
all the figures of the book and for achieving a professional and unified info-
graphic look. Finally, we thank Gareth Attwood and Rupert Moreton from
Acolad for their professional and effective high-quality proofreading of the
chapters.

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and
reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the
chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons
license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder.
 2
The Evolution of Mobile Communications
Seppo Yrjölä, Marja Matinmikko-Blue,
and Petri Ahokangas

Natural selection will not remove ignorance from future generations.

(Richard Dawkins)

S. Yrjölä (B)
Centre for Wireless Communications, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Nokia, Oulu, Finland
M. Matinmikko-Blue
Infotech Oulu Focus Institute and Centre for Wireless Communications,
University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s) 2024 13
P. Ahokangas and A. Aagaard (eds.), The Changing World of Mobile Communications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33191-6_2
14 S. Yrjölä et al.

The Historical Development of Mobile

Communications
Worldwide digitalization has been enabled by the successive mobile
communications generations over the past three decades. Each gener-
ation has introduced new use cases and technical capabilities, while
optimizing the use cases of the previous generation. Overall, technology
can be seen to serve an enabling role in mobile communications. In this
historical development, the commercialization cycle of mobile commu-
nications has followed three steps: (1) definition, (2) standardization
and implementation, and (3) deployment and use. At the definition
stage, the innovation from companies and research organizations is medi-
ated together with national authorities in the global ITU-R (Interna-
tional Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication sector) to form
a framework and develop usage scenarios for the radio aspects of mobile
communications technology. After the definition of the requirements for
the radio interface at the ITU-R, standardization bodies and firms nego-
tiate standardization and implementation via standard releases that are
the basis for the implementations by different technology vendors. As
the technical systems and solutions needed in a technology generation
have been developed, they are deployed and utilized by the mobile oper-
ators in different business implementations (Ahokangas et al., 2023).
This deployment and use are, however, delimited by regulation as the
telecommunications is a highly regulated field.
This chapter provides an overview and brief introduction to the
mobile communications industry. The chapter will start with a brief
description of technological development in the field in different tech-
nology generations from the first to sixth generation and discuss the role
of standardization in this development. Next, the chapter will provide

P. Ahokangas
Martti Ahtisaari Institute, Oulu Business School, University of Oulu, Oulu,
Finland
e-mail: [email protected]
 2 The Evolution of Mobile Communications 15

a short introduction to the role of regulation in mobile communica-

tions. The chapter will conclude with a characterization of the mobile
communications business. This chapter serves as a starting point for the
discussions presented in the subsequent chapters.

Technological Developments from 1G to 5G

From the first generation, the mobile network system architecture has
been defined by the radio access technology, access and core network
routing, and the associated services related to voice, messaging, data
transfer, mobility, authentication, and access control. After the first
generation (1G) analog voice only service, the second generation (2G)
introduced a digital mobile system with text messaging and mobile
phones as a personal portable device in addition to a voice service.
The third generation (3G) with mobile broadband data brought access
to mobile multimedia and significantly lowered the cost of the voice
service. The fourth generation (4G) expanded the multimedia service
offering across digital industries built around smart phones. 4G lowered
the cost of data while introducing video to consumers and machine-type
communications to serve vertical industries. The ongoing deployment
of the fifth generation (5G) has drastically increased the number of
communicating objects (David & Berndt, 2018). For consumers inter-
active low-cost video and for enterprises the industrial IoT (Internet of
Things) are paving the way toward human augmentation and digital-
physical fusion. Up to 4G mobile communications, the connectivity
business has remained surprisingly unchanged allowing the incumbent
mobile network operators (MNOs) to dominate the market, although
they have been seriously challenged by the content-owning, cloud-based
over-the-top (OTT) Internet giants (Ahokangas et al., 2013).
For 5G, the ITU-R vision framework for international mobile
telecommunications IMT-2020 and beyond presented in (ITU-R, 2020)
adopted a service-centric approach to the 5G use case definition. The
IMT-2020 vision identified three services classes, enhanced mobile
broadband (eMBB) targeted at consumers, ultra-reliable low-latency
communications (URLLC) for mission-critical services for organizations
16 S. Yrjölä et al.

such as factories, and massive machine-type communications (mMTC)

to connect IoT. The fifth generation mobile network 5G new radio
(NR) solution was standardized by 3GPP in release 15 and commer-
cially deployed in 2019 based on the non-standalone (NSA) architecture
where a 5G radio access network (RAN) operates on a legacy 4G LTE
core network. Innovations in a new user equipment (UE), radio access
network (RAN), and 5G core (5GC) designs enable substantial improve-
ments across the main service domains eMBB, URLLC, and mMTC.
In particular, the new active antenna beam-based physical layer RAN
design allows operation in higher frequencies up to mmWaves with wider
bandwidths. The 5G system architecture including the 5GC became
available from 2020 as standalone (SA) enabling the deployment of
private enterprise and industrial 5G networks (Parkvall et al., 2017).
The 5G standard evolution in releases 16 and 17, as depicted in
Fig. 2.1, expands the 5G ecosystem particularly for industrial domain
via innovations such as time sensitive communication, small data trans-
mission, and UE energy saving. 3GPP work on release 18 5G-Advanced
(5GA) is due in 2024 and the first deployments are expected around
2025 (Chen et al., 2022). 5GA will provide an intelligent network plat-
form utilizing machine learning (ML) to adapt to its environment, new
classes of devices and enhance support for novel applications such as truly
mobile extended reality (XR) services. Furthermore, 5GA will embed
high-precision location, presence and timing technologies, and device
innovations will make drone optimized and non-terrestrial networks
(NTN) such as satellite connectivity a commonplace feature. For the
Industrial Internet of things (IIoT) ecosystem, the release will offer
connections from low-cost and low-data rate to extremely low latency
with pinpoint accuracy (Lin, 2022).
In previous generations, the end-to-end network provided the same
service to all users and the only option to offer guaranteed provision
for a critical application, e.g., for public safety or critical infrastruc-
ture services was to deploy a dedicated physical network. In the 5GC
network, network slicing allows operators to create thousands of virtual,
independent networks within the same physical network infrastructure
that connect from the device through to the application. Network slicing
Fig. 2.1 Expected 3GPP standardization timeline and ITU-R process for IMT systems
2 The Evolution of Mobile Communications
17
18 S. Yrjölä et al.

enables operators to efficiently package novel 5G network capabili-

ties into differentiated, guaranteed service level agreement-based (SLA)
services in a cost-effective way.
The 5GA platform is visioned to introduce and extend a variety of
novel applications and use cases across industries in 2025, and beyond
(see, e.g., Ghosh et al., 2019; Nakamura, 2020).

• Extended mobile reality and ubiquitously available cloud gaming

requires compact power-efficient devices supported by time critical
communication capabilities.
• Wearable technology and devices demand a small form factor, effi-
ciency, and high battery life.
• Industrial process monitoring and quality control are based on a
massive volume of small data that should be transmitted frequently
and efficiently to support network performance.
• Critical infrastructures such as public safety, railways and utilities with
ultra-reliable low-latency communication combined with security and
privacy requirements.
• Asset tracing and tracking in logistics demands extremely low energy
consumption.
• Tele-operation of autonomous vehicles, robots, and drones demands
reliable and secure communications both for the control and payload
data.
• Location applications of connected devices with centimeter-level accu-
racy is enabled by advanced indoor and outdoor positioning technolo-
gies.
• Resilient, deterministic, and more stringent timing of 5G networks
will be made affordably available and leveraged, e.g., in industrial
automation to real-time financial transactions.

For 6G, ITU-R is working to publish the global framework for IMT
toward 2030 and beyond in 2023 that will provide the basis for defining
the future 6G.
 2 The Evolution of Mobile Communications 19

Standardization

The worldwide success of mobile communications from the first genera-

tion onward can be seen to be largely founded on the initially proprietary
technologies that have subsequently been transferred into a series of
standards. Each new technology generation has required a decade of
billions of euros investment in research and development to formalize
technological innovations into standards and further into hardware and
software products and services. Technology standardization has helped to
generate foundational innovation platforms upon which emerging tech-
nology vendors have developed their products and services. From 1G
onward, a similar standard release process has been followed providing
standard blueprints for stakeholders to contribute and develop products
and network solutions. The stakeholder community for the development
has been well defined and stable consisting of a limited number of tech-
nology vendors, mobile network operators, system integrators, as well as
academia and regulators.
With 5G, the technology ecosystem has been expanded particularly
toward enterprises and industries introducing an unprecedented number
of use cases and related novel stakeholder groups. Moreover, it should
be acknowledged that 5G standardization deviates from previous gener-
ations having a coordinated single worldwide major approach to the
IMT-2020 requirements. 3G (IMT-2000) was defined by three alter-
native paths (3GPP UMTS, 3GPP2 CDMA2000 and IEEE mobile
WIMAX) and 4G (IMT-Advanced) with 3GPP LTE and IEEE mobile
WIMAX alternatives that initially did not have an obvious single
winner. Furthermore, 5G service-based architecture with open interfaces,
the convergence of communication, information technology and data
(ICDT), and user developer centricity will challenge the establish 3GPP
grounded IMT process. Recent geopolitical and societal changes—espe-
cially related to discussions on data colonialization, user rights, and
the use of artificial intelligence, and the digitalization of society and
critical infrastructures—have given rise to discussions on the role of
nations in standardization. The ongoing technology battle has specif-
ically concerned the leadership in 5G regarding semiconductors, and
concerns over sovereignty regarding AI and digital technologies have
20 S. Yrjölä et al.

become an issue (Moerel & Timmers, 2021). As a recent example, the

US “Clean network initiative” in 2020 addressed the long-term threat
to data privacy, security, human rights, and principled collaboration to
free the world from authoritarian malign actors (US Government, 2020).
These developments raise the question of the possible fragmentation of
the 6G standardization.

Role of Patents and Licensing

For a half-century, all major mobile communications technology

providers have relied on patent licensing as their main value capture
mechanism. The European telecommunications standards institute
(ETSI) has orchestrated the development and governance of standards,
controlling the technology contributors to make licenses available on
a fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory (FRAND) basis for a wide
variety of implementers globally. The unique combination of technology
co-development and widespread global adoption have been enabled by
a nonexclusive licensing model. In addition to standard essential patent
(SEP) royalties which have created a continuous incentive for standard
contributions, technology vendors have leveraged complementarities via
adjacent intellectual property (Teece, 2019).
The collaborative approach has empowered a downstream innovation
and a mobile technology and application ecosystem. The standards-
compliant ecosystem comprises dedicated technology/chipset firms,
infrastructure equipment providers, mobile network operators, device
manufacturers, operating system software providers, application devel-
opers, and content providers. Many specialized technology firms and
vertically integrated companies in the mobile communications industry
increasingly engage with two or more roles. Contrary to the single
company-owned web-scale “winner-takes-all” digital platforms, harmo-
nized common standards in mobile communications have helped define
platforms with many stacked software layers.
A detailed look at the ETSI IPR online database (ETSI IPR) reveals
that most 5G patents were declared between 2017 and 2019, and 25% of
them were evolutionarily declared already for 4G. The database indicates
 2 The Evolution of Mobile Communications 21

that radio access networks (RAN), comprising the radio performance,

physical layer, radio resource management specification, specification
of the access network interfaces, the definition of the operations, and
management requirements and conformance testing for user equipment
and base stations encompasses about 84% of the SEPs. Physical layers 1
and layer 2 alone add up to 70% of SEPs. Services and systems aspects
(SA) covering the overall architecture encompasses approximately only
11% of SEPs despite their leading role in security, management, orches-
tration, charging, and mission-critical applications areas. The remaining
approximately 5% of SEPs are encompassed in the core network and
terminals (CT) domain where differentiation and user experience have
traditionally been implemented via technology system integration and
overall network design, management, and orchestration. All in all, what
matters is the device relevance found to be 80–90% of all the SEPs,
which is in line with the distribution of licensing royalties (Yrjölä et al.,
2022).
With a massive diffusion into new application areas and expanding
the circle of stakeholders and licensees in the 6G era, firms may
increasingly cooperate vertically in open dynamic multi-layered archi-
tectures while competing horizontally to capture value across services.
The resulting complex licensing landscape will necessitate more precise
rules for FRAND licensing as the exact interpretation and the associated
reasonable licensing fees are not precisely defined in the current model
(Teece, 2019). The extension toward cross-layered architecture function-
alities and including data and algorithms will lead to the convergence
of multiple connected ecosystems, introducing new roles and actors,
especially related to system integration, management, and orchestration
(Yrjölä et al., 2021).
Flexibility, scalability, and efficiency requirements combined with the
long-tailed distribution needs of applications, may lead the 6G system
to only specify a few core capabilities for the lower system layers with
related open interfaces. Thus, higher layer distinct use case specifica-
tions for a complete connectivity platform will be done by different
actors. For scalability and replicability among connectivity services, the
lower-layer processing-intensive radio functions may continue to be spec-
ified by global standardization and continued to be implemented in
22 S. Yrjölä et al.

custom silicon chipsets. On the other hand, the modular architecture

with open interface specifications will enable the rest of the softwarized,
programmable, and virtualized functions to be deployed on any commer-
cial computing hardware. This will facilitate competition and entry,
enabling stakeholders to access complementary assets through various
forms of alliance with larger firms as well as to specialize within the
ecosystem and develop complements to the platform. This suggests that
value should be captured increasingly across multiple protocol layers
and levels of the industry, and that the role of the de facto standard
will need to be revised. Standards for systemic and complex general-
purpose technologies, as Fig. 2.2 summarizes, will require coopetitive
(i.e., simultaneous collaboration and competition) development to gain
interoperability across ecosystems and industries.
One of the key challenges related to profiting from technological inno-
vations in the 6G era is the protection and enforcement of intellectual
property while fostering wide diffusion in the ecosystem. For example,
starting from the discussion about who should acquire and pay for an
SEP license: the OEMs, end-product manufacturers, or connectivity and
application module suppliers. It will be essential to find a ruling that
avoids the courts’ protracted resolution of licensing disputes, ensures
adequate compensation for developers, and promotes widespread use of
innovations through appropriate fees. A compromised ETSI FRAND
model and a more proprietary vertically integrated model with the
reduced IP protection may be priced into products and services (Teece,
2019) and severely reduce the existing significant positive externalities
that mobile communications technologies offer and place the envisioned
6G role as a general-purpose technology at risk.

Regulatory Developments
The mobile communications sector is tightly regulated. Regulation
takes place at national, regional, and international levels via different
methods and focus areas. One fundamental area is spectrum regulation,
because the radio spectrum is the most critical natural resource needed
for all wireless communications (Anker, 2017). Mobile communication
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 "She is an odd girl," thought he, "I wonder in what light she looks
upon me!"
"After all, for a surgeon, he really is pleasant," thought she, "it is a
pity he has such a bad profession, I am quite sorry for him."
It was with these feelings that they sat down to cards; after
which, of course, they had no more private conversation until the
company had left the house.
 CHAPTER XVII.

The week that preceded Elizabeth's wedding, seemed extremely

short to the whole of the parties immediately concerned; every day
was occupied with some excursion for their amusement, and every
evening was passed at the house of some friendly acquaintance,
who would not be refused the pleasure of their company. Nobody, at
this epoch, was more popular than the future Mrs. George Millar;
since her neighbours could not prevent her marriage, they were
determined to extract as much pleasure from the occurrence as
possible. For this end they gave a number of tea-parties to welcome
her brother and say good-bye to her sisters, and learn as much as
they could of the future plans and prospects of each. The handsome
Mr. Samuel Watson, with his lively manners, promising prospects,
and probable disengaged heart, was really a most interesting object;
and since Emma was supposed to be engaged, and there was no
further ground for her exciting jealousy, she was allowed, on all
hands, to be uncommonly handsome and agreeable too. Nothing,
therefore, was omitted, which could express their favourable opinion
of the whole family, or their anxiety to be on good terms with them
all.
It was no particular misery to Jane that, whilst every one else was
pressing for their company, there was not one day left disengaged
for her. She liked a great better to be invited to meet them, as she
was every evening: for, unless she could quite outshine all her
neighbours in the elegance of her entertainment, she preferred
giving none at all; and as it happened that Robert was in a stingy
mood, she had, with difficulty, extracted from him sufficient money
to buy the very handsome gown and bonnet in which she was to
appear at the wedding.
At all these parties where, of course, the Millars regularly met the
Watsons, Sam still contrived to be a great deal with Annie,—but the
most favourable opportunities for intercourse, were during their long
rambles in the country. Then he was always her cavalier, and they
quarrelled and laughed together without interruption. Her spirits
seemed as inexhaustible as her strength; she could both walk and
talk for miles without mental or bodily exhaustion, and often tired
out all her companions except Sam.
It was no wonder then, when he paid her the compliment of
untiring attention, and unvarying amusement, that she should, in her
turn, find him a most delightful companion, infinitely more agreeable
than any one she had ever known. No more was heard about his
profession—she forgot it entirely, and only considered him in the
light of a very pleasant acquaintance.
It was natural that, during some of their many engagements,
Emma should again meet Mr. Morgan; and equally natural that she
should feel some embarrassing recollections at doing so. A bow was
all that their situation, at the first moment of meeting, allowed to
pass between them; but, when by a movement amongst her
neighbours, a vacant seat, and the power of reaching it allowed him,
he did not hesitate to avail himself of the opportunity, and place
himself by her side.
There was nothing of restraint or embarrassment in his manner—
no appearance of consciousness or shame; he did not know,
perhaps, how much their joint names had been made the subject of
gossip and scandal—she thought so for a moment, but then, from
what she remembered, she knew he must have been aware of it;
then she felt angry at his impudence; but finally, she concluded that,
after all, he was taking the wisest course; and that to converse
quietly, as if nothing had passed to raise an unpleasant feeling,
would be, on the whole, the conduct least calculated to excite
attention.
 Calm and polite as she was, he was sensible of a difference in her
manners from past days, and he did not indulge a hope of regaining
her confidence; but it wounded his vanity to suppose that she,
amongst all the women of his acquaintance, beheld him with calm
dislike; whilst he could not even to himself deny her superiority over
the many whose approbation or admiration constantly followed his
footsteps.
If he could not regain her friendship he wanted at least to excite
some emotion in her mind, and call up one of her former smiles so
full of brightness and feeling. With the tact which gave him half his
popularity, he hit upon the subject most likely to awaken kind
sentiments in her heart; he began praising her brother. The
introduction had given him so much pleasure, he was, he would not
say astonished, but certainly most agreeably surprised to find Mr.
Samuel Watson so very superior a young man. There was no
likeness to Mr. Watson—no—he could not compliment his good
friend, Robert, by saying that there was; seldom had he seen two
brothers more dissimilar; but her younger brother's manners were so
good—such a young man must make his way in the world, must be
a favourite; there was every probability of his success; nay, there
was certainty of it: there was intelligence and spirit in his eye, which
promised nobly. Then he enquired minutely into his prospects;
entered with the warmth of a friend into the plan for his establishing
himself at Chichester, and gave several hints for his benefit.
Emma, in spite of her aversion to the speaker, and her
determination that nothing should make her admit even the
semblance of mutual friendship in their future intercourse, found
herself speaking with unintentional warmth and animation. She
checked herself immediately, and a shade of vexation passed over
her countenance; which was not lost on her companion. Accustomed
to study the minds and inclinations of his various patients, his
quickness at reading all the little marks of feeling evinced in their
countenances, enabled him pretty well to appreciate the state of her
mind; but when he proceeded on the same subject, in hopes of once
more inducing her to express her feelings, he was extremely vexed
to find that, after making him some short and trivial reply, she rose
and walked away.
This movement marked a decided aversion on her part which
piqued him deeply, and for which he was not prepared. He remained
in his seat, spoke to no one else, and occupied himself, whilst he
continued in the room, in considering whether he no longer had any
chance of regaining his influence with her.
He knew pretty well all that had passed, and all that had been
whispered about their former intimacy; but he thought that since all
that had been set in a favourable point of view, and her character
perfectly cleared, she need not now have been so cold and distant to
him. If, as was whispered, she was engaged to some one else, there
was no reason for shunning him, unless, and the thought actually
thrilled his mind with delight, unless she had really preferred him,
and now feared to trust herself in his power. This would account for
all her conduct; her flight to Burton—her engagement itself, and her
present shrinking from him—all might be traced to the same source.
His vanity was excited to the highest pitch, as he thought of this
interpretation, and he could believe her quite capable of such
strength of mind, and firmness of purpose. Other women when they
had liked him, had thrown themselves in his way, but it was perfectly
consonant with what he supposed her character to be, that she
should follow a precisely opposite course of conduct.
If this were the case he felt sure he might regain his former
influence by a little dexterous management, and as a first step
towards it, he resolved to cultivate the friendship of her youngest
brother. Had he known that he was perfectly excluded from her
regard by the double barrier of a very ill opinion of himself, and a
warm attachment to Mr. Howard, he might have spared himself the
trouble of the attempt.
Towards the end of the week a sort of gipsy party had been
arranged to form an expedition to a pretty park in the
neighbourhood, which from the absence of the owner was a
frequent resort on such occasions. Mr. Morgan was not originally
asked to join it; but knowing what was going on, he presented
himself at the door of George Millar's house just before the company
started, and his expressions of regret at not having time to see more
of Sam speedily produced a very hearty invitation from Mrs. Turner,
the chaperone of the party, to accompany them; for, as she
observed, "on such occasions the more the merrier."
It was a very large party without him. Mrs. Turner and the two
Millars, four Watsons, for Jane was of the party, with Alfred
Freemantle as her escort, since her husband would not leave the
office, two cousins of hers, young ladies who had arrived the day
before to grace Elizabeth's wedding, Miss Bridge, and some young
ladies, natives of the town: in short they numbered fourteen without
Mr. Morgan, but as ladies were in the majority he was heartily
welcomed by several of the party at least, if not by those particular
individuals whose favour he most desired.
How the whole of the party were disposed of in different vehicles,
need not now be particularised; there was variety at least in their
equipages, and the power of choice in arranging themselves. Sam
was the charioteer of an "inside Irish car," which of course amongst
its passengers numbered Annie Millar, and likewise Emma Watson;
Mrs. Robert Watson; two young cousins, completed this party, and
apparently made any addition impossible; but one of the girls, not
liking to be entitled to only a fifth part of the attention of any
gentleman, suddenly abdicated her seat in favour of Mr. Morgan,
that she might enjoy the place of third in a gig, under the escort of
Alfred Freemantle. Nothing could have been more consonant to his
wishes, than this sudden piece of good luck which thus befell Mr.
Morgan: his gaiety was quite remarkable, but his judgment and tact,
were still more so. For he devoted himself at first to please the
stranger, and do the honors of the country to her; he was bent on
making himself agreeable, but it was in the most open and
unsuspicious way. There was nothing of tenderness or sentiment in
his manners, nothing approaching to flirtation in his address to Miss
Hall, and to the others it was as perfectly correct, as if dictated by
Lord Chesterfield himself.
 Annie, indeed, was too much engrossed by the driver to notice the
intruder; she had no attention to bestow on any one else; and had
not the horse been particularly quiet and sagacious, and the road
remarkably smooth and straight, it is by no means unlikely that their
drive might have terminated abruptly under some hedge, so much
more was Sam himself occupied with the lady behind, than the road
in front of him. Neither Miss Hall nor Emma, however, made any
complaint of his coachmanship; for Emma, being opposite to Annie,
enjoyed the full benefit of her lively remarks; and whilst her
neighbour confined his attention to his vis-à-vis, the proximity to
him, in which she unexpectedly found herself, did not discompose
her at all, nor did she feel any impatience for the termination of so
agreeable a drive.
When they alighted in the park, which was the termination of their
drive, they found most of the company assembled before them, and
separated into groups strolling about on the borders of the artificial
lake, a sail on which was one of their projected pleasures. In
consequence of this, these five were left together to entertain each
other, until the arrival of the whole party enabled them to arrange
their plans for the day's amusement. The point of rendezvous was
an ornamental boat-house, standing at one angle of the lake,
embowered in fir trees, and commanding a pretty view of the
opposite banks, which were high and woody. Miss Hall was, what
was then more rare than now, a sketching young lady: and her
pencils were speedily produced. But she could not bear inspection
whilst taking her views, and unceremoniously desired the other four
to walk away.
It was a proof of Sam's great good-nature to Emma, that he
continued with her, and declined the tempting opportunity of
securing a comfortable walk with Annie Millar, that he might not
leave his sister with no other companion than Mr. Morgan. Perhaps
Miss Millar might not entirely appreciate this self-sacrifice on his
part, or possibly might not thank him for it, so much as Emma;
certainly Mr. Morgan, who had calculated on a different line of
conduct, judging from the evident admiration which Sam had
previously testified for Annie, was very much disappointed at it. He
took care to keep close to Emma's side, ready to improve any
opportunity that might present itself; and thus they wandered about,
without thinking much of where they were going, or paying much
attention to the really pretty scenery around them. The consequence
of this was, that they lost their place in the boat, for being quite out
of sight and hearing when it was ready, their companions did not
wait for them; and the intended sail had so entirely escaped the
memory of the quartet, that the first thing which recalled it to their
memory, was the sight of the boat, which caught their eyes just us
they gained the summit of an eminence commanding a view of the
whole sheet of water at their feet.
Sam expressed a hope that Miss Millar was not vexed at this
incident. Annie protested that for herself she did not care about it,
but she should be very sorry indeed, if she had beguiled Emma from
sharing in any pleasure she would have enjoyed.
Emma, on her side, was of opinion that they were much more
comfortable as they were; the boat seemed very much crowded, and
she thought to be squeezed in such a way that they could not move,
nor even turn their heads to contemplate the scenery, was not half
so pleasant as sitting on the green bank where they were resting so
comfortably.
"In parties of this sort," said Mr. Morgan, "all depends on the
company; an uncongenial companion will spoil everything—even the
finest landscape in the world."
"Very true," replied Annie, quickly; "but how can one help that?
One can not say to a disagreeable person, 'Go away—you annoy and
distress me!' One can only smile politely and suffer internally."
"You, I dare say, can smile whilst annoyed," observed Sam, "but I
never can; whether I am happy or miserable, I show it immediately."
"Do you indeed," replied she, "I am sorry to hear that; I had been
hoping that the gloomy look and air of despondency with which you
have treated us, were your habitual manners, and might not really
indicate the state of intense suffering to which I suppose I must now
attribute them."
"I am certain my looks have expressed my feelings accurately,"
replied he sturdily.
"Very well, I shall set my imagination to work to invent some
romantic cause for the dejection of spirits which you display. You
are, probably, repenting over some lost patient, whose end you
hastened by your surgical arts."
"I do not think you ought to jest on such subjects," replied he,
gravely; then, as she turned her head towards him with an
expression of surprise, he added, "Excuse my liberty of speech. I
quite forgot who I was speaking to."
She was silent and looked down, so that her bonnet concealed her
countenance. He viewed her uneasily, and wanted to know whether
she was affronted—or from what other reason she maintained this
silence. Mr. Morgan saw all this; he could not read Annie's feelings
exactly, but he felt convinced that, had they, at that moment, been
without witnesses, some very tender scene would have ensued.
He now took up the conversation by observing, how much more
beautiful the landscape would be in two months' time, when the
tints of autumn gave a little variety to the scenery. The dull, heavy
green of summer, he declared, reminded him always of mourning; it
was so sombre.
He appealed to Emma, and she was compelled to reply. She had
nothing to urge against his preference for the autumnal tints—
except, that their proximity to winter gave them sadness, which, in
themselves, they did not merit.
"The sadness of autumn is, however, compensated by the hopes
of returning spring; we can bear to part with the verdure, which we
know will be restored in fresh beauty. In that respect, how superior
is inanimate nature, and our feeling of love for it, to human
friendship, or regard, or esteem."
 "I do not see that," said Emma.
"Who can tell when a faded friendship shall be renewed, or when
a withered hope shall again look flourishing and verdant. The blast
of winter is certain to pass away, and its consequences vanish with it
—but the fatal breath of enmity—the chilling effects of whispered
malevolence—the poison of calumny—tell me Miss Watson, of a cure
for these, if you can."
"I know of none, save patience and a good conscience," replied
Emma.
"Yes, patience—one needs that, indeed, to bear what I alluded to
—when one sees the face which used to meet one with a smile,
averted gravely—the hand once freely extended, now drawn back—
the kindly words, once gushing out from the friendly heart, like
water from a copious fountain, exchanged for the slow and
measured accents which freeze the heart, as they drop out one by
one; when one sees all this," he continued, lowering his voice, but
speaking with impressive energy; "and knows it to be the cold
deadness of feeling produced by the ill-will of others—the blighting
words of malice—what can one hope—to what spring shall one look
forward? when may one expect the young feelings of friendship to
bud again?"
"Depend upon it they will, unless there is something more than
unkind breath to check them. To pursue your allegory, Mr. Morgan, if
the plant of friendship wither irretrievably, it must be because there
is something wrong at the root, otherwise, it is certain once more to
revive."
"I believe," said he, after a momentary pause, "my feelings are
deeper and more permanent, than those of most people."
"Yours Mr. Morgan!" interposed Annie, amazed, "I had no idea you
were troubled with any thing of the sort—when did you first find out
that you had any feelings?"
"Have I ever given you cause to doubt it," enquired he,
significantly.
 "Why, to own the truth, though we have been so long
acquainted," said she, "I cannot say that I ever undertook to
investigate the nature or extent of your feelings on any subject. I
had a sort of general idea that you had some; but of what quality I
should have been very much puzzled to say, except that I certainly
should not have thought of constancy as your particular forte.
However, I am willing to plead total ignorance on the subject.
Ignorance for which I alone am to blame, arising from indifference
and inattention."
"You need hardly remind me of that, Miss Millar," retorted he with
mock humility, "I am quite aware that I am too entirely an object of
indifference to you, for my feelings to be considered worth a
moment's attention."
He walked away, as he spoke, to a short distance, and seemed
occupied in viewing the landscape from the brow of the hill on which
he stood, his features expressing an appearance of wounded
feelings struggling with pride.
"You have hurt him, Annie," whispered Emma, "you are too
severe."
"At least he wants to make us believe so," replied she softly, "but
it's all seeming—seeming—there is nothing real about that man."
"Now I rather like him," said Sam, "he seems so kind and friendly
towards me, I am quite indebted to him for the interest which he
has taken in my prospects, and the useful hints which he has given
me."
"Did he recommend you to marry, Sam?" enquired Emma.
"I did not consult him on the subject, it is a point on which I
should neither ask nor take advice."
"Bravo, Mr. Watson—a most spirited determination. It is a point of
so little consequence indeed, and one in which your own experience
must be so calculated to guide you, that no doubt your intention to
reject all advice, is most judicious and praise-worthy."
 "Are you of opinion that I am incompetent to act for myself in
such a case?" enquired he.
"I shall tell you as I did Mr. Morgan just now, I am ignorant and
indifferent on that subject—and now you can go and walk on the
other side of the hill—or if you think it will look more picturesque, by
the side of yonder angry gentleman."
"No, Miss Millar, your ignorance, and indifference shall not drive
me from you; I would rather try to enlighten the one and overcome
the other."
This, though whispered softly, seemed to overpower her; she
coloured deeply; rose from the bank where they were sitting, and
walked away to the side of an adjoining thicket, where she employed
herself in trying to gather some brier roses from the hedge. Sam
watched her for some minutes, then perceiving that in stretching
forward to grasp a blossom, her veil had become entangled in a
thorny shrub, he started up, and in a moment was at her side to aid
and release her.
Emma did not like to follow them, thinking she should be in the
way, and expecting that a few minutes would bring them back. In
the mean time Mr. Morgan looked round, and seeing her alone
joined her. He still affected to look hurt and sad, and Emma
generously gave him credit for more feeling than he deserved.
"That volatile girl—" said he, and then stopped.
"You must not mind what she says," suggested Emma kindly, "I
am certain she sometimes speaks without thinking, but never from
malice or ill will, even when she seems severe."
"She does not surprise me," replied he; "I am used to her ways,
and there is no change in her; she is always the same, it is
vacillations of friendship, variations of good opinion which I confess
astonish and pain me. And yet why should they—after all, the
human mind is so liable to error, so prone to seek misconstructions,
so inclined to change and variation, that nothing of the kind ought to
surprise me."
 She was determined to be silent, and occupied herself in wishing
for the return of her brother and Annie, who had strayed farther
than she had expected, and were now out of sight.
He was disappointed at her silence, and changed the subject into
an enquiry as to whether she should make a long stay at Croydon.
She told him she was only to remain until her sister's marriage,
which would, as he knew, very shortly occur.
"And then," said he, "may I ask where you are going—do you
return to Osborne Castle?"
"Certainly not," replied she decisively, "I do not think I am likely to
go there at all. Sir William and Lady Gordon have taken a house in
the neighbourhood of his own property, and if I visit them, it will be
there."
"Then where will be your home?"
"At Burton, with Miss Bridge, for the present I believe."
"I trust you, with your talents and accomplishments, your taste
and your sensibility, are not doomed to pass your life as the
companion of an elderly lady, buried in an obscure country village,
unknown and unadmired."
"There might be many worse positions in life, more disagreeable
companions, and more trying situations, Mr. Morgan," replied Emma
with warmth.
"Forgive me if my interest for you has led me to express my
feelings in an unauthorised way. I cannot entirely forget the past,
nor consign to oblivion all that I once flatter myself was felt between
us."
She could not exactly tell what to answer him, for she really hardly
knew what construction to place upon his words. He paused for a
moment and then resumed.
"Rumour was wrong then, when it asserted that there were ties in
contemplation, which would bind you closely to Osborne Castle—
that, in short, the young lord, doing justice to the merits which
would grace a higher rank, had sought to make you his wife."
"I am not engaged to Lord Osborne, if that is what you mean,"
said Emma calmly.
"I had thought it strange indeed if a young man so unformed, so
bearish, so almost brutal, had known how to value, much more to
win, a jewel so bright and excellent."
"I must beg, Mr. Morgan, if you mention Lord Osborne's name at
all, it may be in terms such as I may listen to without offence. Pray
remember that I am under obligations to that family, for which it
would be a bad return to hear, without remonstrance, such
aspersions cast on the head of it. But I must confess I see no reason
why either they or myself should form the subject of your
interrogatories. You have no claim either past or present, which can
make these enquiries anything short of impertinent, and I must beg
they may cease entirely."
She then walked a few steps to see if she could obtain any view of
her brother and friend, for whose return she felt anxious. Nothing,
however, was to be seen of them, and as she paused, her
companion was again at her side.
"How unfortunate I am," said he in a low tone, "it is constantly my
fate to offend those for whom I feel the deepest interest, and to be
misunderstood on every occasion where my sentiments are
concerned. Interest, friendship, zeal, constantly carry me beyond the
bounds proscribed by cold custom and formality, and I am repulsed
in a way which all but annihilates me. At this moment you are angry
with me; have I sinned unpardonably?"
"I am not angry" said Emma, drily, "but I must beg that all
personal subjects of conversation may be dropped; we have neither
sentiments nor interests in common, and on all topics connected
with feeling I must impose a total silence."
"Unfeeling, cruel girl," cried he, then seeing that she resolutely
walked away in the direction of the boat-house, where she
concluded the party must be now assembled, he followed her steps
in haste, and placing himself by her side, he continued in a low but
emphatic tone,
"Emma Watson, why should you scorn my offers of friendship, and
my professions of regard? Why should you shun me as if I were
some dangerous enemy? Do you mistrust my word; or am I
responsible for the silly gossiping of idle women? Did I not warn you
against it?—why then visit it on me? Or have I personally offended
you?—what have I done?—you will not speak—you try to elude me—
nay, but you shall hear me; you shall answer me by heaven!—Who
has wronged me in your opinion?"
"Mr. Morgan, let go my hand—is this honourable?—is this manly to
attempt to obtain an answer to impertinent enquiries by compulsion?
—Let go my hand—I tell you I will neither hear nor answer you!"
"Emma, I was wrong—" said he, softening his voice, but instead of
releasing her hand, clasping it in both of his, "I ought to know you
better—I understand your heart and feelings—"
"You do no such thing, sir,—or you would not detain me here, or
compel me to listen to such language. Let me go—I command you."
"Emma, your heart is no longer your own—am I not right?—you
love!"
"And if I do—what concern is that of yours?" retorted she.
"Of mine, it is everything in the world to me—you love me—deny
it if you can."
"Insolence!" exclaimed Emma, "unmanly insolence."
"No, it is not insolence, Emma, you look beautiful in scorn, but you
need not scorn me; I am your equal in birth and education—aye!
and in taste and mental qualities too—and happily possessed of the
fortune which you want. And I love you, and tender all to you. You
have done what no other woman ever did—for your sake I would
even stoop to the yoke of matrimony; so great is my love and
admiration for you. Now have I said enough—now you may venture
to confess the feelings long treasured in your heart—the love which I
have long read in your downcast eye, and averted smile—maiden
modesty need no more compel you to silence—speak, my Emma—
bless me with the words I am longing, panting to hear."
He advanced one step nearer as he spoke, and seemed about to
pass his arm round her waist, but Emma availed herself of the
movement to snatch her hand from his, and stepping back, whilst
she cast on him a look of withering scorn, she replied,
"Yes, you have said enough, Mr. Morgan, to warrant my speaking
plainly—and I will speak—from what extraordinary perversion of
reasoning, you have persuaded yourself I loved you I cannot tell, but
I trust you will believe me once for all—when I say my feelings are
entirely the reverse of yours—and when I add—I love and am
engaged to another."
Mr. Morgan stepped back in his turn with an air in which disbelief
and bitter mortification struggled, with an attempt at indifference
and contempt.
"Engaged—impossible—Emma, you are deceiving me—it is a
downright falsehood!" exclaimed he.
"I must beg you to leave me," said she, haughtily. "I am not
accustomed to associate with those who accuse me of falsehood—I
can find my way alone."
She had continued to walk on from the moment she had declared
her engagement, and she flattered herself she must be approaching
the boat-house, but as they had reached the low ground, and were
making their way amidst thickets intersected with narrow paths, they
could not see the building.
"And it is for this," he exclaimed, presently, "that I stooped to ask
your hand—that I humbled myself as I never before did to woman,
to be scorned and rejected—false-hearted girl—true type of your
weak and vacillating sex—leading me to believe you preferred me,
that you might spurn me from you with disdain!" he approached one
step nearer as he spoke, and his face wore a look of malignity which
absolutely frightened Emma—he saw it.
"No, you need not shrink from me—I am not so mad as to do you
harm; you are safe under the protection of the laws. I would not risk
my freedom for all the girls in Surrey. But I must speak my feelings
—"
He had no time, however, to say more, for hurried footsteps were
heard behind them, and in another moment Sam was beside his
sister.
"My dearest Emma, I beg ten thousand pardons, but I was so
sorry that I left you—I assure you I had no intention of doing so—
only—only—Annie Millar persuaded me; but the moment we met
some one whom she could join, I ran back for you, and found you
were gone—I am very sorry. You are not angry with me?"
"No," said Emma softly; "but I am very glad you are come, dear
Sam."
He felt her hand tremble under his arm, and looking in her face,
perceived she was very pale.
"You have walked too far, dear Emma," said he affectionately;
"you wanted my arm—how sorry I am. Why did not Morgan support
you?"
He looked round, but the gentleman in question had taken
another path and was out of sight. Emma tried to speak, but instead
of articulating words, she only burst into tears, and astonished Sam
by appearing on the verge of a fit of hysterics.
He had too much sense to press for an explanation, but contented
himself with making her sit down, removing her bonnet and gloves,
and supporting her till she was calm again.
He then begged for some explanation of her emotion: she said
she was foolish: he admitted that was possible, but only if she
refused him all reasons for her conduct. She promised to be more
explicit some other time if he would only now give her back her
bonnet, allow her to make herself tidy, and rejoin the party.
These very reasonable requests could not be refused, and they
returned to the boat-house together, just as another division of their
party entered it likewise; consequently their appearance without Mr.
Morgan created no surprise or remark.
He returned a short time after, quite calm and happy in
appearance, and nothing on either side transpired to attract the
attention of the company, or give rise to the smallest surmise that
anything unusual had occurred. It was some comfort to have to deal
with so complete an actor, one who would betray nothing
undesirable, by word or deed.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

After dinner Sam again drew Emma aside and would not be
satisfied till he had, by close questioning, extorted from her
everything that had passed. Nothing less than the exact words, so
far as she could remember them, would do for him; he supposed
things twenty times worse than the truth, unless she could assert,
on her honour, the exact state of the facts. She was quite miserable
at telling him, because she could not get him to own what he
thought, or promise to take no further notice of the circumstance.
Instead of giving her the assurance she required, he sometimes
laughed and put her off with an evasive answer, sometimes frowned
and resolutely closed his lips—sometimes told her to go away for a
foolish girl, and not meddle with what did not concern her.
She was certain he meditated more than he would own, and her
fears made her apprehend that any demand for explanation or
apology from Mr. Morgan, would produce a quarrel which must end
in a challenge. With wretched feelings she returned to the party.
Here they found a rather noisy scene. Alfred Freemantle and Mr.
Morgan, having both elevated their spirits by the great quantity of
bad wine which they had imbibed at dinner, were trying to induce
some of the young ladies to accompany them in the boat, which was
lying near the shore. The two Miss Halls and Mrs. Robert Watson,
were carrying on a half-romping opposition to this plan, but
evidently intending to yield their consent after a proper opposition.
Alfred Freemantle accused them of being cowards, which the
three ladies of course denied.
 "Come, then," cried Mr. Morgan, catching her hand and dragging
Mrs. Watson down the bank. "Come and shew that you trust me!"
George Millar turned to Sam, and said softly,
"Morgan is half drunk—can you not prevent your sister going with
him."
"I have no influence with either," said Sam, coolly, "perhaps you
could dissuade her better than I!"
George followed her, and drawing her back, whispered something
in her ear, which was not communicated to the others, but which
seemed to have some effect upon her. She paused a moment, and
then returning to the others said,
"I think you are right, George Millar, it will not agree with me so
soon after dinner. I shall not go."
"And if you do not, Jane," said Miss Hall, "I am sure neither my
sister nor I shall venture—it would be quite improper without a
chaperone."
"I think you are very wise," observed Miss Bridge, quietly.
"I know what it is," cried Alfred, "you think we cannot manage the
boat, but you are quite mistaken, as you shall see. I am not drunk,
though you think we are; we will go without you!"
As he said these words he sprang on board after Mr. Morgan, who
was already there, and they pushed off from the shore, and rowed a
little way. Presently two of the other young ladies called to them to
enquire where they were going.
Mr. Morgan replied that they were going to land on a little island
opposite to smoke a cigar—would they come?
The girls acceded to the proposition; and, contrary to the advice
of the whole party, persisted in their determination. The boat
returned to take them on board, and no sooner where they seated,
than Alfred amused himself by making the boat roll in the water, in
order to frighten them. Had they sat still, there would have been no
danger—but in their alarm they both started up, and catching hold
of him at the same moment, they all three fell heavily against the
gun-wale and upset the boat at once.
A loud scream from the party on shore was, of course, the first
effort of their sympathy. The two other gentlemen simultaneously
rushed into the water, and without much difficulty, succeeded in
rescuing the two ladies—for the accident had happened so close to
the shore, that it was not out of their depth. Alfred Freemantle
likewise rose, and scrambled towards the bank, up which he crept a
deplorable object.
The young women of course, excited the greatest sympathy, and
none but Emma, at the first moment, remembered that there had
been a fourth person in the boat. But she had kept her eyes on the
place where he had sunk, and saw, with horror, that there was no
trace of him—he did not reappear.
"Mr. Morgan," she exclaimed, "what has become of him?"
Every one turned at the name, from the dripping objects round
which they had been crowding—ejaculations on every side were
heard.
"True, Morgan! he has sunk—he is drowning! good heavens! can
you do nothing? Call for help! run for the boatmen!" and twenty
other exclamations.
"Watson, we must look for him," said George.
Sam's coat was off before he had done speaking.
"But we must be cautious," continued Millar, "he may be sunk in a
hole, or entangled in the weeds—the bottom is very foul."
"Where did he sink," cried Sam, "did any one see."
Emma pointed out, as well as she could, the spot where he had
disappeared, and watched, with breathless anxiety, whilst the two
swam round and round, and dived again and again. His hat was
floating on the water at a little distance; but no sign or trace of him
appeared. One of the party had summoned the boatmen, who, after
much delay brought drags and hooks, and having succeeded in
righting the boat, they did their utmost to discover the missing man;
but they did not seem to have much expectation of success; they
said they knew it was a dangerous part of the bank; that there was
a deep hole just thereabouts, into which the gentleman had
probably sunk, and that many years ago, a similar accident having
happened, had occasioned the former owner of the place, to forbid
boating there at all. But his son had, for some years, allowed it,
though they should not wonder if he were to shut it up now from
the public.
Their conjectures on the subject might have lasted a long time
before any one interrupted them, for the whole party were too
horror-stricken to speak. The dripping and the dry alike stood
together in motionless excitement, or intense anxiety, watching the
result of their efforts. It seemed impossible, that one but lately so
full of life and spirit, one of themselves—one who had for so long a
time belonged to them, could have thus suddenly disappeared
without warning, and have left no vestige behind. It was too horrible
—to perish before their eyes, and from so trivial a cause. For many
minutes, the extremity of their feeling was shown by their total
silence; then, when the conviction was forced on them, that he was
really lost, hysterical sobs and screams were heard, especially from
the two girls, who had been the immediate cause of the accident,
and who, shocked at their own share of the misfortune, shivering
with cold, convulsed with horror, and in every way overcome, now
demanded the attention of such of the party, as had any sense or
self-possession left.
Fortunately the carriages were at this moment announced, and
the only possible thing to do, as they were far from all assistance,
was for the sufferers to be wrapped in such cloaks as could be found
amongst them, and conveyed back to Croydon as speedily as
possible.
 Neither George nor Sam would consent to leave the place, whilst a
shadow of a hope remained that the body might be recovered, but
they insisted that their sisters should return home at once, as they
proposed, when all was over, if the search was unsuccessful, to walk
to a public-house on the outskirts of the Park, and dry themselves
there, before returning to Croydon. Emma had the presence of mind
to propose that a carriage and a supply of dry clothes should be
despatched there to meet them, by the first of the party that arrived
at home.
Under the escort of Miss Bridge's manservant, instead of Sam,
Elizabeth, Emma, Annie, and Miss Hall, returned in the vehicle which
had borne them so gaily and light-hearted to the Park. But little
conversation passed, and the few words which were said, had no
reference to the fatal event; it was too recent and too shocking to
speak of. To Emma, indeed, after what had so lately passed between
them, the circumstance seemed beyond description or imagination
terrible. The angry feelings with which they had parted, the
malevolence he had expressed, and the evident state of half-
intoxication, to which he had perhaps resorted to drown his
disappointed feelings, and conceal his chagrin and mortification, all
seemed to rise up, as if to reproach her conscience. Why had she
been so scornful and so bitter; perhaps, had she answered more
mildly, had she shown less contempt and more compassion, he
might still have been alive, all this might not have happened. It
appeared like a horrid dream altogether, their angry dispute—Sam's
indignation, and her fears for him, and finally, Mr. Morgan's sudden
disappearance, all had passed so rapidly, that she could scarcely feel
it a reality.
One thing she was resolved—she would never join a large, mixed
pleasure-party again; it was impossible that real satisfaction could be
found in such society, and so far as her experience went, they
seemed always nothing but preludes to some heavy misfortune. It
was a relief to her to find herself once more at home in the Rectory
at Croydon, alone in her apartment, able to think without distraction,
rest without interruption, and cry without observation.
 She was so completely worn out, that to sit down and indulge in a
very hearty flood of tears was the greatest relief imaginable.
Sam called at the Rectory on his return to the town, and saw her
for a few minutes. It was dark and the candles were not lighted, so
she had ventured down stairs to meet him.
"Any news?" enquired Mr. Bridge.
"Nothing," said he: then crossing the room to his sister, he
whispered,
"Emma, you are avenged!"
She shuddered and did not answer.
 CHAPTER XIX.

The next day brought a pleasing change to the current of Emma's

thoughts. She was walking slowly under the old trees on the lawn,
and was not aware of any one's approach until an arm was suddenly
clasped round her waist, and she found herself obliged to submit to
several very unceremonious kisses from her lover, who had contrived
as usual thus unexpectedly to meet her.
"How you do startle one," cried she struggling to release herself.
"I will have you indicted for assault."
"Tears, Emma," said he looking at her attentively; "what are those
red eyes for?"
"You had better not ask questions," replied she, "lest you should
hear unpleasant truths."
"But I will ask questions, and you must answer me!" said he
earnestly; "I cannot let you cry without knowing the reason."
"But suppose there is none, what then?" suggested she playfully.
"Then I shall feel under the necessity of effacing the marks of
your tears in the best way I can," replied he.
She then relieved her mind and his feelings by telling him the
whole history of their yesterday's excursion and its termination,
which led of course to almost interminable references to past events,
explanations and details relative to Mr. Morgan himself, of all which
until this moment he had been profoundly ignorant. The slanders
circulated relative to Emma, the expedition of Lord Osborne to rebut
them, and the trouble he had taken on her account made a great
impression on him, and he took a vehement dislike to Croydon and
everything connected with a place where Emma had been exposed
to such misrepresentations. Of course he would not admit that she
was in the least degree to blame for past events, or that she had
showed any undue severity towards Mr. Morgan—on the contrary, he
thought she had throughout been too lenient towards him; but this
was an error arising from the rare goodness of disposition which led
her in so remarkable a degree to tolerate the imperfections and
weaknesses of those around her, of which her attachment to himself
was a conspicuous example.
He had some news to communicate in return for hers, which
though not of quite so tragical a nature, was to him a great
disappointment.
The rectory house at Carsdeane proved to be in so extremely
dilapidated a state that, in order to make it at all a comfortable
residence, Lord Osborne proposed to rebuild it entirely. In the
meantime there was no suitable home for Emma, and he feared
their marriage must be delayed at least for some months, instead as
he had hoped of taking place immediately.
This was a very great disappointment to them both. Emma had
ventured to hope that the Autumn would have seen her installed in a
settled home, of which she would be the mistress, and they tried
very hard to persuade themselves and each other, that it would not
be more prudent and advisable, to wait till Mr. Howard had a house
to receive his bride. They might have succeeded perhaps in thinking
so themselves, but they could not induce their friends to agree in
the decision. On the contrary, like most friends when two young
people wish to marry, they all concurred in considering it a very
great advantage that they should wait a little.
And I am far from supposing them wrong in the idea. Taking into
consideration Emma's youth, for she was not yet quite twenty, and
the shortness of their acquaintance, which had as yet lasted barely
six months, I am of opinion that the delay even of a whole year
would have been by no means detrimental to their future happiness.
It was perfectly natural that both Mr. and Miss Bridge should adopt
this idea, and I trust equally so that since they urged it, Emma
should yield to their prudent persuasions: the more especially as
appearing to yield at this time and agreeing to wait a twelvemonth,
would by no means preclude them from entirely changing their
minds in a couple of months time, in case they should see any
occasion for so doing.
As to any difficulty about Emma's home in the meantime, Miss
Bridge declared it could not exist, since her house was always open
to her, and she could regard her in no other light than as her
adopted child. In vain Mr. Howard remonstrated. Miss Bridge was so
firm in her conviction that Emma had better spend the next year in
her house, and professed so much satisfaction at the idea, that he at
last declared, in despair, he was certain it was for the sake of
securing her company that Miss Bridge interposed to prevent the
marriage.
Before however the two disputants could settle their conflicting
claims on Emma's society, a new turn was given to the affair by the
intervention of her youngest brother. He should want a companion at
Chichester, and it had always been an understood thing he declared,
that Emma was to live with him till she married. She readily admitted
the fact, and so it was settled; she was to accompany him to
Chichester immediately after Elizabeth's wedding, and remain there
as he said, "until they were tired of one another."
Howard yielded this point much more readily than the other.
Carsdeane was much nearer Chichester than Burton, and he could
easily visit her there. Besides his penetration led him to surmise that
Sam would be soon desirous of placing another person at the head
of his establishment; that a sister's society would not long content
him, and that when this change took place, he would probably be
thankful to be relieved from the charge he was undertaking. He
thought it likewise a great advantage that she should be removed
entirely from Croydon for a time, and from the painful impressions
which he observed seemed still to haunt her. She had suffered so
much there, as he now began to understand, that he could not help
wishing that she should see the place no more; a wish in which she
certainly did not concur when she remembered it would be
Elizabeth's future home.
The wedding that week was a very quiet one: the death of Mr.
Morgan had thrown a damp over the whole town from which it could
not at once recover, and no one felt inclined to indulge in festivities
where he would be so much missed. Accordingly everything was
conducted in the simplest manner, to the great disappointment of
Mrs. Watson, who vowed it was hardly worth putting on her new
and handsome clothes, when there would be no one to see her at
Church.
It was some alleviation to her distress of mind however to
remember that they would be equally handsome and more
interesting after the wedding was over, and she should be able to
appear in uncommon splendour, when returning all the
congratulatory visits on some subsequent occasion.
When all was over, and Mrs. George Millar and her husband had
set out from Croydon to make a short visit to London, which the
bride had never seen, Emma took an affectionate leave of Annie
Millar, and returned to the Rectory to prepare for her journey.
Sam remained a few minutes behind; it was only to ask Annie if
she still thought marriages as foolish as she had always declared
them to be.
"Twenty times worse," said she, "they are not only foolish but sad,
and I shall consider myself particularly fortunate when this miserable
day is fairly over."
"What do you consider the worst part of the affair," enquired he,
still lingering.
"Oh the leave takings," said Annie hastily, "if Elizabeth had never
married you would all have stayed on here waiting for it, and we
have been so happy for this last week. Now you are going, and you
must take Emma too!"
 "And will you give me leave to flatter myself that you are sorry at
my going."
"I dare say you would not wait for my leave; men always take it
for granted that women sit down and cry when they leave them,"
said she saucily.
"I should certainly entertain no such expectation Miss Millar; I am
aware my profession renders me too unpleasant in your eyes for you
to do otherwise than rejoice at my departure."
"Upon my word you make me out to be a very rational young
woman," replied she; "when did I ever find fault with your
profession, or express a wish that you were other than what you
are? Because I should never have chosen the surgical profession
myself is that any reason that I should detest a man who did—or so
long as you do not exercise your skill on me, or in my presence, do
you imagine I object to your exhibiting it elsewhere?"
"I had much rather you should detest my profession than consider
it with indifference, Miss Millar."
She only looked down and blushed, then holding out her hand,
said in a hurried manner,
"Good bye, I must go!" and left him, to his great disappointment.
If Sam felt discouraged by this sudden termination to his
interview, the feeling lasted no longer than till the receipt of Annie's
first letter to his sister after they were settled at Chichester; for
there the allusions and reminiscences were of a most flattering kind,
and the frequent mention of his name, and the manner in which it
was introduced gave him very great pleasure.
Emma became reconciled to Penelope's marriage when she saw
how well she was suited to her situation in life, and though she did
not greatly admire her brother-in-law, he was so very superior to
Tom Musgrove, that she thought her sister quite fortunate in
comparison with Margaret. To forget everything that had passed of
an unpleasant nature previous to her marriage was the wisest
source which her friends could adopt; and it is so exceedingly
common that there should be something which requires forgetting,
that if the relatives of all married couples acted in the same way,
there would be a great deal more of unity in the world than at
present.
Before she had been resident at Chichester three months, two
events occurred, which effected a change in her plans. One, as Mr.
Howard and many others had foreseen, was the engagement of Sam
and Annie, and preparations for their speedy marriage. The other
was more unexpected.
Her aunt, whose sudden and ill-advised marriage had originally
deprived her of her home, exasperated by the unkind and
unprincipled conduct of her young husband, quitted him abruptly;
procured a separation, and as she still retained the control of her
income, he was left very much as he deserved to be, no better off
than when he made his mercenary marriage. She returned to
England, wrote to Emma, then came to her; was delighted with
Sam, with Mr. Howard, and with everything she learnt of their
doings, past, present, or future. She made Emma a magnificent
wedding present, both in money and clothes, and declared her
determination of ultimately dividing her fortune between her
youngest nephew and niece. In the meantime, she took an elegant
mansion in the parish of Carsdeane, and insisted on the marriage
taking place immediately, and the young couple taking up their
residence with her, until the rectory house was prepared for them.
This advice was much too agreeable to be long resisted, and
before Emma and Mr. Howard had seen the anniversary of their first
meeting, they were man and wife.
Whether they ever repented the interference of Miss Bridge to
delay, or of Mrs. MacMahon to hurry the union, I leave entirely to
the imaginations of my readers to settle; satisfied with having done
my duty in detailing events as they really occurred.
 There is but one more circumstance of any importance to relate;
but that is, that Lord Osborne, after Emma's marriage, joined a
regiment abroad as a volunteer—fought for some years in the
Peninsular, and returned to England about ten years after he had
been refused by Emma, accompanied by his wife, a very charming
young Spanish lady, with whom he fell in love, because her dark
eyes reminded him of Mrs. Howard's.
He had forgotten the likeness long before he reached Osborne
Castle; and no one who saw Mrs. Howard when visiting the young
bride, or watched his devotion to Lady Osborne, could, for a
moment, have imagined that Lord Osborne's love could have had
such a foundation.
I have nothing more to say of any of the party, and only trust that
all who read my tale, may be convinced, as I am, that prudence,
gentleness, and good sense, will secure friends under the most
disadvantageous circumstances; but that marriage alone, unless
undertaken with right feelings and motives, cannot be considered a
certain recipe for worldly happiness.

THE END.

T. C. Newby, Printer, 30, Welbeck-street, Cavendish-sq.

Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookball.com