Unit I

Introduction to Petroleum:
Petroleum is a mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon compounds that occur in sedimentary rock
deposits throughout the world and also contains small quantities of nitrogen-, oxygen-, and sulfur-containing
compounds as well as trace amounts of metallic constituents (Bestougeff, 1967; Colombo, 1967; Thornton,
1977; Speight, 1990).
As per the definition given by ASTM, Petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons, generally in
a liquid state, which may also include compounds of sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and other elements.
Petroleum has also been defined as:
1. Any naturally occurring hydrocarbon, whether in a liquid, gaseous, or solid state
2. Any naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons, whether in a liquid, gaseous, or solid state
3. Any naturally occurring mixture of one or more hydrocarbons, whether in a liquid, gaseous, or solid state and
one or more of the following, that is to say, hydrogen sulfide, helium, and carbon dioxide
The use of petroleum and related materials has been observed for almost 6000 years. During this time, the use
of petroleum has progressed from the relatively simple use of asphalt from Mesopotamian seepage sites to the
present-day refining operations that yield a wide variety of products and petrochemicals.
The modern petroleum industry began in the later years of the 1850s with the discovery, in 1857, and
subsequent commercialization of petroleum in Pennsylvania in 1859. The modern refining era can be said to
have commenced in 1862 with the first appearance of petroleum distillation.
In 1855, a mining enterprises send some mineral samples from the new Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company to
Professor Benjamin, Jr and asked him to research and report on those sample. After several months of work he
announced that about 50% of the black tar-like substance could be distilled into first-rate burning oils (which
would eventually be called kerosene and paraffin) and that an additional 40% of what was left could be distilled
for other purposes, such as lubrication and gaslight. On the basis of this single report, a company was launched
to finance the drilling of the Drake Well at Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, and in 1857 it became the first well to
produce petroleum. It would be another 50 years before Silliman’s reference to other fractions available from
the oil through extra distillation would provide gasoline for the combustion engine of the first automobile.
Origin:
There are two theories on the origin of carbon fuels: the abiogenic theory and the biogenic theory.
Abiogenic Origin:
There have been several attempts at formulating theories that describe the detail of the origin of petroleum, of
which the early postulates started with inorganic substances as source material. For example, in 1866, Berthelot
considered acetylene the basic material and crude oil constituents were produced from the acetylene. Initially,
inorganic carbides were formed by the action of alkali metals on carbonates after which acetylene was produced
by the reaction of the carbides with water.
Mendelejeff described another theory in which acetylene is considered to be the basic material. He proposed
that the action of dilute acids or hot water on mixed iron and manganese carbides produces a mixture of
hydrocarbons from which petroleum evolved.

Thus, the idea of abiogenic petroleum origin proposes that large amounts of carbon exist naturally in the planet,
some in the form of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are less dense than aqueous pore fluids, and migrate upward
through deep fracture networks. Thermophilic, rock-dwelling microbial life-forms are in part responsible for the
biomarkers found in petroleum. However, their role in the formation, alteration, or contamination of the various
hydrocarbon deposits is not yet understood.
Thermodynamic calculations and experimental studies confirm that n-alkanes (common petroleum components)
do not spontaneously evolve from methane at pressures typically found in sedimentary basins, and so the theory
of an abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons suggests deep generation (below 200 km).
From the chemical point of view the inorganic theories are interesting because of their historical importance,
but these theories have not received much attention. Geological and chemical methods have demonstrated the
optical activity of petroleum constituents, the presence of thermally labile organic compounds, and the almost
exclusive occurrence of oil in sedimentary rocks.
Biogenic Origin:
Most geologists view crude oil and natural gas as the products of compression and heating of ancient vegetation
over geological time scales. According to this theory, it is formed from the decayed remains of prehistoric
marine animals and terrestrial plants. Over many centuries this organic matter, mixed with mud, is buried under
thick sedimentary layers of material. These organic matter undergoes many changes. These can be conveniently
grouped into three stages: diagenesis, catagenesis, and metagenesis. Diagenesis occurs in the shallow subsurface
at near normal temperatures and pressures. Methane, carbon dioxide, and water are driven off from the organic
matter to leave a complex hydrocarbon termed kerogen. With increasing burial the source bed is subjected to
rising temperature and pressure. Diagenesis merges into catagenesis. This is the principal phase of petroleum
generation. These then migrate through adjacent rock layers until they become trapped underground in porous
rocks called reservoirs, forming an oil field, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.
The third phase is referred to as Metagensis. It occurs at very high temperatures and pressures which border on
low grade metamorphism. At this stage, the kerogen has yielded up all its petroleum. The last hydrocarbons
released from the kerogen are generally only methane. The H:C ratio declines until the residue remaining is
comprised mostly of C (carbon) in the form of graphite.
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a rich source rock, a migration conduit, and a trap
(seal) that forms the reservoir. The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first-order
breakdown reactions, where kerogen breaks down to oil and natural gas by a large set of parallel reactions, and
oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions.
Chemically, it is generally proposed that petroleum is formed through the progressive chemical change of
materials provided by microscopic aquatic organisms that were incorporated over eons in marine or near-marine
sedimentary rocks. In fact, the details of petroleum genesis (diagenesis, catagenesis, and metagenesis) have long
been a topic of interest. However, the details of this transformation and the mechanism by which petroleum is
expelled from the source sediment and accumulates in the reservoir rock are still uncertain.
Exploration
Exploration for petroleum originated in the latter part of the nineteenth century when geologists began to map
land features to search out favorable places to drill for oil. Of particular interest to geologists were outcrops that
provided evidence of alternating layers of porous and impermeable rock. The porous rock (typically a
sandstone, limestone, or dolomite) provides the reservoir for petroleum; the impermeable rock (typically clay or
shale) acts as a trap and prevents migration of the petroleum from the reservoir.
The principles used to analyze the subsurface are basically magnetism (magnetometer), gravity (gravimeter),
and sound waves (seismograph). These techniques are based on the physical properties of materials that can be
utilized for measurements and include those that are responsive to the methods of applied geophysics.
Gravity Methods
Gravity methods are based on the measurement of physical quantities related to the gravitational field, which in
turn are affected by differences in the density and the disposition of underlying geological bodies. In oil and gas
exploration, in which no direct density control is associated with the material being sought, exploration is based
on the mapping of geological structures to determine situations that might localize the material being sought. In
such cases, the significant density values are salt 2.1 to 2.2, igneous rocks 2.5 to 3.0, and sedimentary rocks 1.6
to 2.8. The last value increases with depth owing to consolidation and geological age, and as a result, structural
deformation associated with faults and folding can be detected.
Thus, the gravimeter detects differences in gravity and gives an indication of the location and density of
underground rock formations. Differences from the normal can be caused by geological and other influences,
and such differences provide an indication of subsurface structural formations.
There is a variety of gravimeters, but those in common use consist essentially of a weighted boom that pivots
about a hinge point. The boom is linked to a spring system so that the unit is essentially unstable and hence very
sensitive to slight variations in gravitational attraction. Deflections of the boom from a central (zero) position
are measured by observing the change in the tension in the spring system required to bring the boom back to
that position. Readings are taken from a graduated dial on the head of the instrument that is attached to the
spring system through a screw. There must be an accurate calibration of the screw, reading dial, and spring
response for the readings to have gravitational significance.