CHEMISTRY

It is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure,

properties and change of matter.

MATTER AND ITS STATES

Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
When a substance goes from one state of matter to another, the process is
called a change of state, or phase change.
Two major categories of classification of matter are physical classification
and chemical classification.
Physical Classification: Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma
Chemical Classification : Pure Substances and Mixture

Physical Classification of Matter

Solid
Solids are matter having fixed shape, fixed volume and are almost
impossible to compress.
Solids are composed of particles which are very near to each other.
It can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
e.g. Iron, cobalt, zink, nickel, gold, silver, radium etc.

Liquid
Liquids are matter having a fixed volume but no fixed shape – they take the
shape of the container. Liquids are very difficult to compress.
Liquids are composed of higher energy particles which overcome their
mutual forces of attraction and move independently.
The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant.
The intermolecular force of attraction for liquid matter is weaker than solid
matter.
e.g. mercury, bromine, water, milk

Gas
Gases are matter having neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. They
are very
easy to compress.
Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also
expand to fill the container.
The intermolecular force of attraction for gaseous matter is negligible. e.g.
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium etc.

Plasma
A plasma is an ionized gas, a gas into which sufficient energy is provided to
free electrons from atoms or molecules and to allow both species, ions and
electrons, to coexist.
Plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric
currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces.
Example :-the Earth's ionosphere, the tail of a comet, the excited
low-pressure gas inside neon signs and fluorescent lights, a fireball of a
nuclear explosion, stars

Bose–Einstein condensate
It is a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperatures very
close to absolute zero (that is, very near 0 K or −273.16 °C).
Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy the lowest
quantum state, at which point macroscopic quantum phenomena become
apparent.
This form of matter was predicted in 1924 by Albert Einstein on the basis of
the quantum formulations of the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.
Examples :- Two examples of materials containing Bose-Einstein
condensates are superconductors and superfluids. Superconductors
conduct electricity with virtually zero electrical resistance: Once a current is
started, it flows indefinitely. The liquid in a superfluid also flows forever. In
effect, there is no friction.
Change of State of matter
Melting
It is the change of state from solid to liquid.
Melting Point : It is the temperature at which a solid melts. It decreases in
the presence of impurity. The melting point of ice is 0°C or 32°F.

Evaporation
It is the change of state from liquid to gas.
Boiling is also evaporation.
Boiling Point : It is the temperature at which a liquid evaporates. Boiling
point of water at normal condition is 100°C or 212°F.

Difference between Evaporation and Boiling

Freezing
It is the change of state from liquid to solid.
Freezing Point : The temperature at which a liquid starts to freeze . Water
freezes at 0°C or 32°F.

Condensation
It is the conversion of a gas into liquid after cooling.
It can be observed in droplets of water on the outer surface of a glass filled
with ice.

Sublimation
It is a change of state from Solid to Gas, without passing through the
intermediary state of liquid.
Example: Burning of camphor, evaporation of Dry ice, etc.
Solid obtained from sublimated gas on reversal of process is called
Sublimate.

Chemical Classification of Matter

Pure Substance
A material that is composed of only one type of particle.
Examples of a pure substance include gold, oxygen and water.
It can be either an element or a compound, but the composition of a pure
substance doesn’t vary.
Atom is the smallest amount of an
element. It is composed of a dense core called the nucleus and a series of
outer shells occupied by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, is at the center of an
atom.
Protons have a positive electric charge while neutrons are neutral.
Molecule is two or more atoms that are chemically joined together.

Element
An element is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same
number of protons - i.e. the same atomic number.
It can only be changed into other elements using nuclear methods.
In the earth's crust, oxygen (47 %) is the most abundant element, followed
by silicon (28 %) and aluminum (8 %).
There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94
occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements.
On the Periodic Table, there are three major types of elements known as
Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids.
Metals are generally shiny, malleable, and hard. Metals are also good
conductors of electricity. e.g. Gold, Silver, Iron, etc.
Non-metals do not conduct heat or electricity very well. Non-metals are
typically brittle and are not easily molded into shapes. e.g. Hydrogen,
Carbon, etc.
Metalloids share characteristics of both metals and non-metals and are
also called semimetals. Metalloids are typically semiconductors, which
mean that they both insulate and conduct electricity. E.g. Silicon, Boron,
etc.

Elements with Atomic Numbers 113, 115,

117 and 118 were discovered in 2016. Named as Ununtrium (Uut),
Ununpentium (Uup), Ununseptium (Uus) and Ununoctium (Uuo)
respectively.
These elements were discovered by Russian- American team of scientists
at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory in California.

Compounds
It is composed of two or more different atoms chemically bonded to one
another.
It can be destroyed by chemical means.
It might be broken down into simpler compounds, into its elements or a
combination of the two.
For example, water (𝐻2𝑂) is a compound made up of two elements,
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
Compounds are divided into two main categories: Organic compounds
and
Inorganic compounds.
❖ Organic Compounds :-
● Organic compounds are mainly found in most of the
living things
● Organic compounds consisting of hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon, and their other derivatives
● These compounds have the carbon-hydrogen
bonds. Organic compounds form covalent bonds
● Examples of organic compounds include fats,
nucleic acids, sugars, enzymes, proteins and
hydrocarbon fuels

❖ Inorganic Compounds :-
● These compounds are found in non-living things.
● They do not possess hydrogen or oxygen and their
derivatives and also not necessarily have Carbon
Hydrogen Bond.
● Inorganic compounds form ionic bonds between the
atoms of molecules
 ● The example for inorganic compounds includes
non-metals, salts, metals, acids, bases, substances
which are made from single elements

Mixtures or Impure Substances

It is a material system made up of two or more different substances which
are mixed but are not combined chemically.
Homogeneous mixture : It is relatively uniform in composition; every
portion of the mixture is like every other portion. Example :- Air, Alloys,
Milk-Water, Salt-water etc.

Heterogeneous mixture : It is a mixture whose composition varies from

position to position within the sample. Example :- Oil-Water, Sand-water,
Mud, etc.

VARIOUS SEPARATION PROCESSES OF MIXTURES

Sedimentation is the process of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid

in which it is suspended by allowing it to settle to the bottom of the
container. If this also involves pouring off of the liquid leaving the solid
behind, it is called decantation.
Example :- To separate insoluble impurity from drinking water,

Filtration is used for separating insoluble solids from a liquid.

Example :- filtration after tea making, to separate pulp from juice of a fruit or
vegetable.

Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solid substances from

solutions by evaporating
the solvent. The solute “dissolves out” and is left behind.
Example : commercial slat making,
Crystallisation is a sophisticated form of evaporation technique in which
crystals of the solute are encouraged to develop during the process of
“dissolving out” from the solution as the solvent evaporates.
Example :- If you have an old bottle of honey, look inside. There will likely
be little crystals of sugar within the liquid. If you want to speed the process
up, put the honey in the refrigerator. The cooling of the liquid decreases the
solubility of the sugar within the liquid, and it will rapidly form crystals.

Distillation is the process of heating a solution containing soluble solids to

form vapours of
the liquid and then cooling the vapours to get the liquid back.
Example :- Preparation of Alcohol

Sublimation is a process in which some solids, on heating, are

transformed directly to
vapour without passing through the liquid phase, and vice versa. This
technique can be used to separate a mixture of solids, one of which can
undergo sublimation. The vapours are then cooled separately to get the
sublimed solid back.
Example :- Separation of mixture of Camphor and Common Salts,

Extraction is the process of dissolving out the soluble component from a

mixture, and subsequently treating the solution to get the solid.
Example :- Removal of water soluble impurities from ores,

Magnetic separation is separation of iron or other magnetic materials

from a mixture.
Example:- Separation of iron filings from salt or sugar

Chromatography is an advanced technique of separation in which

individual components of a mixture are separated from each other using
the property of differential migration (different
rates of flow).
Example : In pathological blood test, In dyes factory etc.
Fractional distillation is the process of separating two or more miscible
liquids by a modified distillation process, in which the distillates are
collected as fractions having different boiling points. The separation of the
liquids by this method is based on the difference in their boiling points.
Example :- Petroleum Refining from Crude Oil, Separation of Constituent
gases for Air etc.

Reverse Osmosis (RO) is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of

high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region
of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic
pressure.
Example :- In Water Purifier,

Chemical And Physical Change

Chemical Changes
These affect the composition as well as chemical properties of matter and
result in the formation of a new substance.In this change existing chemical
bonds dissolve and new bonds are formed, therefore energy change takes
place in chemical change.
Examples of chemical changes are combustion (burning), cooking an egg,
rusting of an iron pan, and mixing hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
to make salt and water etc.

Physical Changes
It is the change which only affects the physical properties like colour:
hardness, density, melting point etc. of matter. There is no change in
energy during a physical change.
It does not affect the composition and chemical properties of matter.
Examples of physical are crushing a can, melting an ice cube, and breaking
a bottle etc.
Mole Concept
It is defined as the quantity of a substance that has the same number of
particles as are found in 12 grams of carbon-12.
The number of atoms present in 12 grams of carbon 12 (C-12) which is
23
equal to 6.023 X 10 . This is also known as Avogadro's constant.
1 mol = 6.023 X 1023 = Avogadro's Number or Constant

Atomic mass : It is the mass of one atom of that element in atomic mass
units (u).

Molar mass : It is equal to the numerical value of the atomic mass. Its unit
is g. The molar mass of an atom is also known as gram atomic mass. It is
the mass of 1 Mole of a particle.

Molecular mass : It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
molecule of a substance.

THE GAS LAWS

It is also known as the Pressure, Volume and Temperature Relationship.

For, P is the pressure, V is the volume of a gas, T is the absolute

temperature, n is the number of moles of the gas, k is the constant and R is
the universal gas constant, We have the following laws :

Boyle's Law: The Pressure-Volume Law

It states that, at constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of
gas (number of moles) is inversely proportional to its volume.
When pressure goes up, volume goes down. When volume goes up,
pressure goes down.

Charles' Law: The Temperature-VolumeLaw

It states that, at constant pressure volume of a fixed mass of a gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

As the temperature goes up, the volume also goes up, and vice-versa.

Gay-Lussac's Law: The Pressure Temperature Law

It states that the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume
is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature (absolute temperature).

As the pressure goes up, the temperature also goes up, and vice-versa
Avogadro's Law: The Volume Amount Law
It states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the equal number of molecules.

Ideal Gas Equation or Combined gas laws

It is formed by the combination of the three laws (Charle’s, Boyel’s and
Gay-Lussac’s law), and shows the relationship between the pressure,
volume, and temperature:

Dalton's law of partial pressures

It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of
partial pressure of each individual gas present. Each gas is assumed to be
an ideal gas.

Where , 𝑝1,𝑝2, 𝑝3,......................𝑝𝑛 represent the partial pressure of each

component
Ideal and Real Gases
❖ Ideal gases follow gas laws in all conditions of temperature and
pressure.
❖ Real gases follow gas laws only at high temperature and low
pressure

Atomic Structure

Atoms are the smallest particle of an element and can be regarded as the
building blocks of everything.
Atoms can’t exist independently . Atoms combine to form molecules.
Molecules are the smallest particle of either an element or a compound that
can exist independently.

He was Indian Philosopher Maharshi Kanda, who gave the word “

Pramanu” which means the indivisible and the building block particles for
everything.

Dalton's Postulates
The first scientific theory of atomic structure was proposed by John Dalton
in the 1800s. These are the Dalton’s Postulates :
● Every matter is made up of atoms.
● Atoms are indivisible.
● Specific elements have only one type of atoms in them.
● Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to
element.
● Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
● Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to another.
Subatomic Particles and Discoveries

Atomic Models

Thomson Atomic Model

On the basis of Cathode Ray Experiment, J. J. Thomson discovered
electrons.

Based on conclusions from his cathode ray experiment, Thomson

described the atomic structure as a positively charged sphere into which
negatively charged electrons were embedded.

It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model” because it can

be visualized as a plum pudding dish where the pudding describes the
positively charged atom and the plum pieces describe the electrons.
Thomson’s atomic structure described atoms as electrically neutral, i.e. the
positive and the negative charges were of equal magnitude and gave the
idea that not only negative but there is also positive subatomic particle is
present.

Rutherford’s Structure of Atom

Rutherford performed the Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment which led to
the discovery of Nucleus and Proton.
His Experiment and Observation:
He took a very thin gold foil and bombarded it with Alpha rays which
are basically charged Helium ions which is of positive nature.
● Most of the rays just went through the gold foil.
● A few rays get reflected after hitting the gold foil.
● One in 1000 rays get reflected by an angle of 180° (retraced path)
after hitting the gold foil.

Conclusions:
● Since most rays passed through, Rutherford concluded that most of
the space inside the atom is empty.
● Few rays got reflected because of the repulsion of its positive with
some other positive charge inside the atom.
● 1/1000th of rays got strongly deflected because of a very strong
positive charge in the center of the atom. He called this central part
“nucleus” which is positively charged/
● He said most of the charge and mass of the atom resides in the
Nucleus. And repulsion of Alpha ray led to the discovery of Proton.

Rutherford’s Model

❖ The nucleus is at the center of an atom, where most of the

charge and mass are concentrated. Nucleus is positively
charged.
❖ Atomic structure is spherical.
 ❖ Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar
to the way planets orbit the sun

However, Rutherford’s atomic model failed to describe the stability of an

atom.

Bohr’s Atomic Theory

Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915.

● The electrons inside atoms are placed in discrete orbits called

“stationary orbits”.
● The energy levels of these shells can be represented via quantum
numbers.
● Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to
lower energy levels by losing or emitting its energy.
● As long as an electron stays in its own stationery, there will be no
absorption or emission of energy.

This model rectified all the drawbacks of Ruthorford’s Atomic Model.

Atomic or Chemical Symbol

The atomic symbol is used to identify the element to which an atom

belongs and the number of electrons, protons and neutrons it contains.

Let us take an example :

❖ Number of protons = Number of electrons = atomic number = Z

(placed as a left subscript)
❖ Mass number (A) is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in
the isotope
❖ As the mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons:
❖ Number of neutrons = Mass Number - Number of protons = A – Z
Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Isomers

Electron Configuration
❖ It is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or
molecular orbitals.
❖ It is written as nlx. Where, n = the principal quantum number, l =
subshell or azimuthal quantum
❖ number, x = the number of electrons
2
❖ Number of electrons in n shell = 2𝑛 e.g., in 2nd shell the number of
2
electrons = 2 x 2 = 8.
❖ It is also written as 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32.
Some Important Theories

Planck’s Quantum Theory

Max Planck suggested that the energy of light is proportional to its
frequency, also showing that light exists in discrete quanta of energy.
The energy E of the quantum is related to the frequency ν by E = hν.
−34
The quantity h is known as the Planck’s constant, h = 6.626 X 10 Js.

Louis de Broglie's Concept of Matter Waves

Louis de-Broglie (in 1924) proposed that matter waves ( or Electromagnetic
Radiations) have dual nature.
When the matter is moving it shows the wave properties (like interference,
diffraction etc.) are associated with it and when it is in the state of rest then
it shows particle properties.

It states that the wavelength (λ) of an electron is inversely proportional to its

momentum (p).

ℎ ℎ
⇒λ = 𝑝
= 𝑚𝑣
Where h is Planck’s constant.

Quantum Numbers
There are a total of four quantum numbers which are used to completely
describe the movement and trajectories of each electron within an atom.
It can be used to determine the electron configuration of an atom and the
probable location of the atom's electrons.
It also used to determine other characteristics of atoms, such as ionization
energy and the atomic radius etc.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

It states that, in an atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the same
four electronic quantum numbers.

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Radioactivity
Some atoms become unstable due to the large neutron to proton ratio.
Such unstable nuclei emit some radiation and convert into some other
stable nucleus known as Radioactive Elements.
These radiations are termed as Radioactive Rays.
The property of emission of radioactive rays from radioactive elements is
termed as Radioactivity.
It was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896.
Generally, elements with atomic number more than 82 show radioactivity
and disintegrated to small nuclei with the emission of alpha, beta, proton,
neutron particles or gamma rays.
This nuclei with decomposed is called as parent nuclei and the product
nuclei is termed as daughter nuclei.
The atomic number and mass depends upon the type of radioactive rays
emitted during a nuclear reaction.
The decay of radioactive parent nuclei to stable nuclei is known as
Radioactive decay or nuclear decay.
The type of decay depends on the type of radioactive particles emitted in
decay. For example, Alpha decay, Beta decay and Gamma decay.

Nuclear Fusion and Fission

Nuclear Reactor
It is a system that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions.
It is used for generating electricity, moving aircraft carriers and submarines,
producing medical isotopes for imaging and cancer treatment, and for
conducting research.
The most common nuclear fuels are Uranium 235 and Plutonium 239.
Moderators such as heavy water (𝐷2𝑂) are used to slow down neutrons
and control rods to absorb neutrons.
It also contains liquid sodium as coolant.

Radioactive Half-Life
The radioactive half-life for a given radioisotope is the time for half the
radioactive nuclei in any sample to undergo radioactive decay.
After two half-lives, there will be one fourth the original sample, after three
half-lives one eight the original sample, and so forth.
Half Life Period is defined as the time taken for half of the reaction to be
completed.
Atom Bomb or A-bomb or fission bomb
It is a weapon that infers its disparaging and explosive power with nuclear
fission.
The atomic bomb worked in the way that radioactive element which
includes plutonium (239Pu) or uranium (235U), is joined into supercritical
mass, the quantity of material expected to start a chain reaction.
The destructive material that exists in a bomb, when exploded, will start a
chain reaction that leads to the blast.

Hydrogen Bomb or H-bomb or thermonuclear weapon

It is a weapon that infers its hazardous and ruinous power with nuclear
fusion reaction.
It worked in a way that a fission bomb is set within a radiation-reflecting
holder alongside fusion fuel, like deuterium and tritium.
It took its name from the way that deuterium and tritium are isotopes of
hydrogen.
The disparaging material, fission bomb, blasts, which is called as primary
reaction.
After that it compresses and warms fusion fuel, which then brings about
additional
chain reaction, called as the secondary reaction.

Radioactive Isotope
It is a natural or artificially created isotope of a chemical element having an
unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays until
stability is reached.
Radiocarbon Dating or Carbon Dating or Carbon-14 Dating
It is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic
material by using the properties of radiocarbon or Carbon-14, a radioactive
isotope of carbon.

Uranium Dating
It is used to determine the age of earth, minerals and rocks.
235 238
It is based on the radioactive isotopes of uranium, usually𝑈 or 𝑈

CHEMICAL BONDING and CHEMICAL REACTION

Chemical Bond
It is the attraction between two atoms or ions that holds them together.
It is caused by the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite
charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole
attraction.
Covalent or Ionic bonds are strong bonds and Dipole–Dipole bonds and
Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds.

Valence
The valence or valency of an element is a measure of its combining power
with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules.
It is denoted using a positive or negative integer used to represent this
binding
capacity. It is also known as valency or valence number.

Ions
It is a charged atom or molecule. It is charged because the number of
electrons
do not equal the number of protons in the atom or molecule.
An atom can acquire a positive charge or a negative charge depending on
whether the number of electrons in an atom is greater or less then the
number of protons in the atom.
When an atom is attracted to another atom because it has an unequal
number of
electrons and protons, the atom is called an Ion.
Cl
2

If the atom has more electrons than protons, it is a negative ion, or Anion.
e.g.
−1 −2
Hydroxide anion (𝑂𝐻) , Oxide anion (𝑂 )
If it has more protons than electrons,it is a positive ion, or Cation. e.g.
Silver (Ag+), Hydronium (H3O+)
Ionic Compound is a compound composed of cations and anions held
together by electrostatic forces.

Ionic Bond
It is formed by the electrostatic force of attraction between two oppositely
charged ions.
It is formed due to transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
Generally, it is formed between a metal atom and a nonmetal atom.
Its properties are Crystalline, stronger force of attraction, thermally
stable, low volatility, high density, high melting point and boiling
point.
e.g. NaCl, Mg𝑂2, Ca𝐶𝑙2 , etc.

Covalent Bond
It formed between two atoms due to the sharing of electron pairs.
Generally, it is formed by two nonmetal atoms.
Its properties are low melting point and boiling point, non-conductor,
and soluble in non-polar solvent, rigid and directional bonds.
e.g. 𝐻2 𝐶𝑙2 etc.

Coordinate Covalent Bond

It is formed when one atom donates both of the electrons to form a single
covalent
bond. These electrons originate from the donor atom as an unshared pair.

Its properties are Sparingly soluble in water, not forming ions, largely
soluble in
non-polar solvents, High Melting and boiling points, Stable, Non
conductor, rigid and directional bond. e.g. Ammonium Ion (NH4+)

Hydrogen Bond
It is the electrostatic attraction between polar groups that occurs when a
hydrogen
(H) atom bound to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N),
oxygen (O) or fluorine (F) experiences attraction to some other nearby
highly electronegative atom.
It tends to be stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than
covalent bonds or ionic bonds.
It is two types; intermolecular (between two molecules) and
intramolecular (within a molecule).

Van Der Waals’ Force / Interaction

It is the attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules.
It is the weakest of all intermolecular attractions between molecules.
With a lot of Van der Waals forces interacting between two objects, the
interaction can be very strong.
Metallic Bond
It is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions.
It is the sharing of many detached electrons between many positive ions,
where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite
structure.
It is formed between electropositive metal atoms of the same or different
elements.
It is also considered a highly delocalized covalent bond.
E.g. The metal atoms Na, Cu, Ag, Fe etc. are bound to each other in their
crystals by
metallic bond.
That is why metallic molecules are mono-atomic.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Combination Reaction
A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a
single product is known as a combination reaction.

It takes the form of A + B → AB

It is also known as a synthesis reaction.

Example of combination reaction: 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Decomposition Reaction
A reaction in which a single compound breaks into two or more
simpler compounds is known as a decomposition reaction.

It takes the form of AB → A + B

A decomposition reaction is just the opposite of a combination

reaction.
 A decomposition reaction in which decomposition occur with the help
of Heat is called Thermal Decomposition.

Example of a decomposition reaction: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Displacement Reaction
A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a
less reactive element from its solution

It takes the form A + BC → AC + B

It is also called a substitution reaction

Example of displacement reaction: Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Double Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which ions get exchanged between two
reactants which form a new compound is called a double
displacement reaction.

It takes the form of AB + CD → AC + BD

Example of double displacement reaction:

BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

Two examples of Double Displacement Reactions are Precipitation
Reaction and Neutralization Reaction.

Precipitation Reaction
A chemical reaction that involves the formation of an insoluble
product is called Precipitation reaction.

The insoluble product is called Precipitate.

The reactants are soluble, but the product formed would be insoluble
and separates out as a solid.
 Example : 2𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐴𝑔2𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 ↓
In this reaction AgCl is precipitate.

Neutralization Reaction
In a Neutralization Reaction, An acid and a base react with each other.
Generally, the product of this reaction is salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2𝑂

Oxidation Reaction
Reaction in which :
1. Oxygen is added to one element.
2. Hydrogen is removed from one element.
3. Electron is donated by an element
This is called the Oxidation reaction and the element is called oxidised.

Reduction Reaction
Reaction in which :
4. Hydrogen is added to one element.
5. Oxygen is removed from one element.
6. Electron is gained by an element
This is called the Reduction reaction and the element is called Reduced.

It is generally observed that, whenever an oxidation reaction occurs, in the

same reaction reductio also happens. So, It is generally termed as Redox
Reaction.
Catalysts and Catalysis
Catalysis is the process by which some substance is added to a reaction in
order to make the reaction occur more quickly.
Catalyst is the substance that is added to produce the result.
Catalyst takes part in reaction only to alter the rate of reaction, but catalyst
doesn’t undergo any chemical change itself.

Homogeneous catalysis
It is a reaction involving a catalyst where the catalyst is in the same phase
as the reactants.
E.g. Oxidation of Sulphur dioxide to Sulphur trioxide in presence of Nitric
oxide as catalyst.
2S𝑂2 (g) + 𝑂2 (g) + NO (g) → 2S𝑂3 (g)

Heterogeneous catalysis
It is a catalyst where the phase of the catalyst is different from the phase of
the reactants.

E.g. Manufacture of ammonia from N2 and H2 in presence of Iron (Fe) as

catalyst.
𝑁2 (g) + 3𝐻2 (g) + Fe (s) → 2N𝐻3 (g)
ACID, BASE and SALT

Acid
The word acid, comes from a latin word ‘acere’ which means ‘sour’.
Acidic substances contain acids and hence have a sour taste. e.g. orange
juice, curd,
lemon juice, etc.
It turns blue litmus paper red.
The most common acids are: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric Acid (
𝐻2𝑆𝑂4), etc.

Properties of Acid
1. corrosive in nature.
2. good conductors of electricity.
3. It has pH less than 7.
4. It yields hydrogen ion (H+), when dissolved in water.

Types of Acid
Natural acid or organic acid are the acids which are basically present in
food. e.g. acetic
acid, tartaric acid, lactic acid, etc.

Mineral acid or inorganic acid are the acids prepared from minerals and
used in various laboratory processes. e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, etc.
Strength of Acids

Base
It is bitter in taste and feels soapy on touch. e.g baking soda
It turns red litmus paper blue.
Bases are substances made of hydroxide OH- ions and a metal.
Common base are : Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), calcium hydroxide,
sodium carbonate (washing soda), lime (Calcium oxide), potassium
hydroxide (caustic potash)
Properties of Base
1. When used in aqueous state they are good
conductors of electricity.
2. Its pH value is greater than 7.
3. Strong bases are corrosive

Types of Base
Base can be divided in two types: Water soluble and water insoluble.
Water soluble bases are called Alkali. And the solution formed is called
Alkaline solution.

Strength of Bases

pH Scale (Power of Hydrogen ion Scale)

The strength of acid or base depends upon the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH is a scale which quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ion in a
solution.
The range of pH scale is between 0 to 14.
Substances with a pH value below 7 are acidic.
Substances with pH value above 7 are basic.
Substances with a pH value of 7 are neutral.
Litmus Paper or Solution
This indicator is present in two colors: red and blue.
Blue litmus paper or solution is used to test a substance for acidity.
Red litmus paper or solution is used to test a substance for alkalinity.

Salts
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization
reaction between acid and base.
Salts are electrically neutral.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as table salt or common salt.

Family of Salt
Salts having common acidic or basic radicals are said to belong to the
same family.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Calcium chloride (CaCl2) belong to the
chloride family.
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4) belong to the
calcium family.
Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) belong to the zinc family.

Characteristics of salt
1. Most of the salts are crystalline solid.
2. Salts may be transparent or opaque.
3. Most of the salts are soluble in water.
4. Solution of salts conducts electricity. Salts conduct electricity in their
molten state also.
5. The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter and umami (savoury).
6. Neutral salts are odourless.

Acidic, Basic and Neutral Salts

Acidic salt: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a strong
acid and weak base are called acidic salt.
The pH value of acidic salt is lower than 7. e.g. ammonium sulphate,
ammonium chloride, etc.

Basic Salt: Salts which are formed after the reaction between weak acid
and strong base are called basic salt.
The pH value of a basic salt is more than 7. e.g. sodium carbonate, sodium
acetate, etc.

Neutral Salt: Salts produced because of reaction between strong acid and
strong base are neutral in nature.
The pH of value of such salts is equal to 7, i.e. neutral. e.g. Sodium
chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium chloride, etc.
Application of Some Salts

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Periodic Table
It is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their
atomic number
(number of protons), electron configurations, and recurring chemical
properties.
The horizontal rows of the table are called periods; the vertical columns
are called groups.
Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the invention of the periodic
table.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian scientist arranged the elements in
increasing order of their relative atomic masses.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that the properties of elements are the
periodic function of their relative atomic masses.
Mendeleev arranged all 63 elements in a tabular form. It is known as
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
It contains eight vertical columns of elements called 'groups' and seven
horizontal rows called 'periods', Each group has two sub-groups A and B.
The properties of elements of a sub-group resemble each other more
markedly than the properties of those between the elements of the two
sub-groups.

Modern Periodic Table

In 1913 Sir Henry Moseley discovered that elements positions in the
periodic table are better predicted by their atomic numbers than their
atomic weights.
The Law of Modern Periodic Table states that properties of elements are
the periodic function of their atomic numbers.
In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of their
increasing atomic numbers.
The vertical columns are known as Groups and horizontal columns are
known as Periods; in the Modern Periodic Table.
There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the modern periodic table.
 ❖ This periodic table is based on the electronic configuration of
elements.
❖ There are 118 elements identified.
❖ A block of the periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups.
❖ The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block
belong to the same atomic
❖ orbital type. Each block is named after its characteristic orbital; thus,
the blocks are: s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block

s-block
It contains 1 & 2 groups.
Element Properties are Soft Metal, Electropositive, basic oxides, reactive
metals with low ionization, good reducing agents

p-block
It contains 13 to 18 groups.
It includes metals, non-metals and metalloids.
d-block
It contains 3 to 12 groups.
It has high melting and boiling points and forms coloured salts.
These elements are transition elements.

f-block
It contains the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and
comprises lanthanides and actinides (the last two rows).
Actinides (5f series) are radioactive elements.
It has high melting and boiling points and form coloured salts.

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
1. Atomic Radius is the total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the
outermost orbital
of electrons. Smallest atom is hydrogen and the largest is cesium.
2. Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove an electron from the
atom in the gas phase.
3. Electron Affinity reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
4. Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for the
electrons in a chemical bond.
5. Metallic Character is the chemical properties of elements that are
metals. The strongest natural metal is Tungsten.

Moving Left → Right

❖ Atomic Radius Decreases
❖ Ionization Energy Increases
❖ Electron Affinity Generally Increases(except Noble Gas Electron
Affinity Near Zero)
❖ Electronegativity Increases
❖ Metallic Character Decreases

Moving Top → Bottom

❖ Atomic Radius Increases
❖ Ionization Energy Decreases
 ❖ Electron Affinity Generally Decreases Moving Down a Group
❖ Electronegativity Decreases
❖ Metallic Character Increases

Metal, Metaloid, Non-Metal

Metallurgy

Rock, Mineral and Ore

Rocks
A rock is made up of 2 or more minerals. You need minerals to make rocks,
but you don't need rocks to make minerals. All rocks are made of minerals.

Minerals
A mineral is composed of the same substance throughout. There are about
3000 different minerals in the world.
Minerals are made of chemicals - either a single chemical or a combination
of chemicals.
Difference between rock and mineral- A rock is made up of 2 or more
minerals, whereas a mineral is composed of the same substance
throughout.
Ore
A mineral occurring in sufficient quantity and containing enough metal to
permit its recovery and
extraction at a profit. Or, a mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which
a valuable constituent, especially a metal, can be profitably mined or
extracted is an ore.
Simple ores are ores that yield a single metal. Complex ores are ores that
yield more than one metal.
Extraction of Metals
1. Crushing and grinding: The first process in metallurgy is crushing of
ores into a fine powder in a crusher or ball mill. This process is known as
pulverization.
2. The concentration of ores: The process of removing impurities from
ore is known as a concentration of minerals or ore dressing. In metallurgy,
we concentrate the ores mainly by the following methods.
3. Hydrolytic method: In this method, we pour the ore over a sloping,
vibrating corrugated table with grooves. A jet of water is allowed to flow
over the surface. The denser ore particles settle in the grooves, and the
impurities are washed away by water.
4. Magnetic separation: In this case, the crushed ore is placed on a
conveyor belt. This belt rotates around two wheels in which one of the
wheels is magnetic, and therefore the magnetic particles get attracted to
the magnetic wheel and fall apart from the non-magnetic particles.
5. Froth floatation: In this process, we take the crushed ore in a large tank
which contains oil and water. A current of compressed air is passed
through it. The ore gets wet by oil and is separated from the impurities in
the form of froth. Ore is lighter, and so it comes on the surface and
impurities are left behind.
6. Roasting and calcination: In metallurgy, the process of heating a
concentrated ore in the presence of oxygen is known as roasting. This
process is applied in the case of sulfide ores.
For ores containing carbonate or hydrated oxides, heating is done in the
absence of air to melt the ores, and this process is known as calcination.

Alloys
It is a material containing a mixture of two or more metals.
It can be used to provide increased strength or a lighter weight material.
Its constituents are usually measured by mass.

Some common Alloys and their uses are as follows:

Aqua Regia
It is a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3) at a ratio of
either 3:1 or 4:1.
It is a reddish-orange or yellowish-orange fuming liquid.
The term is a Latin phrase, meaning "king's water".
It dissolves the noble metals gold, platinum, and palladium. It will not
dissolve all noble metals.
e.g. iridium and tantalum are not dissolved.
It is also known as Royal Water, Nitro-Muriatic Acid (1789 name by Antoine
Lavoisier).

COAL, PETROLEUM and FLAMES

Natural Resources
It is anything that people can use which comes from nature.
There are two types of natural resources:

Inexhaustible Natural Resources:

Resources which do not exhaust and which are available in plenty in nature
are known as inexhaustible natural resources. For example – air, sunlight,
etc.

Exhaustible Natural Resources:

Resources which get exhausted and are not available in nature in plenty
and are known as exhaustible natural resources. They take longer to get
replenished. For example – coal, petroleum, forest, minerals, etc.
Coal

● The formation of coal takes millions of years, which is why it is an

exhaustible and non-renewable natural resource.
● It was formed around 300 million years ago when the earth was
covered with swampy forests.
● When plants in these forests- mainly trees, mosses, ferns, and reeds
died, they fell into the swamps.
● Thus, there was a thick layer of dead vegetation in the swamp
formed.
● As years passed, more and more plants died and many such layers
were formed, one above each other.
 ● The topmost layers compressed the layers below. Heat and pressure
caused some physical and chemical changes and eventually, some
carbon-rich deposits were formed.

Types of Coal

Charcoal

It is a light, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash,

obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and
vegetation substances.

It is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other

substances in the absence of oxygen.

Lamp Black

It is a velvety black powder and used in ink, printer's ink, black paint,
carbon papers, etc.

Carbon Black

It is black, finely divided pellet or powder. It is used in tires, rubber and

plastic products, and coatings.
Petroleum or Rock oil or Crude oil

It is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture

of hydrocarbons. Various usable substances are obtained from petroleum.

Formation of Petroleum
❖ Petroleum is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals.
❖ When plants and animals die, they sink and settle on the seabed.
❖ Millions of years ago, these dead wildlife and vegetation decomposed
and got mixed with sand and silt.
❖ Certain bacteria helped in the decomposition of this organic matter
and caused some chemical changes.
❖ Matter consisting of largely carbon and hydrogen was left behind.
However, as there is not sufficient oxygen at the bottom of the sea,
the matter could not decompose completely.
❖ The partially decomposed matter remained on the seabed and
eventually was covered with multiple layers of sand and silt.
❖ This burial took millions of years, and finally, due to high temperature
and pressure, the organic matter decomposed completely and formed
oil.

Petroleum Refining
Since Petroleum is a mixture of many substances such as gas, petrol,
diesel, kerosene, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc. so it is essential to
separate them for their respective uses.
This process of separation of various constituents of petroleum is called
petroleum refining.

This is done in oil refineries. It is a three-step process.

❖ The first step is separation where the crude oil is separated into
various components through a Fractional distillation process. The
heavier constituents remain settled at the bottom whereas lighter
constituents rise up as vapour, or remain liquid.
❖ In the Second step, quite heavy constituents are converted into gas,
gasoline, and diesel. Thus, the next step is conversion.
❖ The third step is purification. These gases and oil have certain
impurities, so the last step is treating, where they are treated to obtain
pure forms of various products.
Uses of Petroleum Product

NATURAL GAS
It is naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas. It is a mixture of methane, higher
alkanes, carbon dioxide, etc.
It is found in deep underground rock formation as fossil fuel.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used for running vehicles.
CNG : Compressed Natural Gas
Its constituent is methane.
It is obtained from natural gas-and condensate wells, oil wells, coal bed
methane wells.
It is the substitute for gasoline in automobiles.
It releases less greenhouse gas.
It is lighter than air and hence disperses quickly in the event of spillage.

LPG : Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Its constituents are Propane and Butane
It is automatically generated from gas fields when natural gas is extracted
from the reservoir.
It is the by-product of the cracking process during crude-oil refining.
It is used as fuel in households, and in vehicles.
It releases CO2 which is a greenhouse gas but is cleaner when compared
to gasoline.
It is highly inflammable.

Ethanethiol or Ethyl Mercaptan

It is a colorless gas or clear liquid with a distinct scent.
It is added to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to help warn of gas leaks.

Octane Number or Octane Rating

It is a standard measure of the ignition quality of gas (gasoline or petrol).
It relates to the amount of compression the fuel can take before it ignites.
The greater the compression allowed then the greater the knock
resistance, and a higher octane rating is rated.
Antiknock Agent
It is a gasoline additive used to reduce engine knocking and increase the
fuel's octane rating by raising the temperature and pressure at which
ignition occurs.

Cetane Number or Cetane Rating

It is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel. It is an inverse of
the similar octane
rating for gasoline (petrol).

FLAME
It is the hot glowing body of ignited gas that is generated by something on
fire.

Zones of Candle Flame

A candle flame consists of three different zones. Each zone has different
temperatures. Every zone has a different colour and the temperatures .
1. The first zone is called the Outer zone:- Due to complete combustion,
the outer zone is blue. This zone is the hottest in temperature when
compared to the other zones. This blue coloured zone is the
non-luminous part of the flame

2. The second zone is called the Middle zone : The yellow colour region
which is the bright part of the flame is the middle zone. It is
moderately hot and partial combustion of fuel takes place.
 3. The third zone is called the Inner zone: The least hot region of the
flame is present innermost. This inner zone is black due to the
presence of unburnt wax vapours.

Different types of Flame Colourants

These are mainly used in fire crackers to produce colorful
combinations of cracker’s sparkle.
Fire Extinguisher
It is a portable device that discharges a jet of water, foam, gas, or other
material to extinguish a fire.
Different types of Fire Extinguishers are
❖ Water and foam: Takes away the heat and the oxygen element.
❖ Carbon Dioxide: Takes away the heat and the oxygen element.
❖ Dry Chemical: Interrupt the chemical reaction responsible for the fire.
❖ Wet Chemical Removes the heating element and blocks oxygen and
fuel from re-ignition.
❖ Clean Agent: Interrupts the chemical reaction of the fire.
❖ Dry Powder: Separates fuel from oxygen and removes heat.
❖ Water mist: Takes away the heating element.
❖ Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical: Interrupts the chemical reaction of
the fire.

Soda Fire Extinguisher :

Soda-acid fire extinguishers contain sodium bicarbonate and
sulphuric acid.
 It is the most efficient house-hold fire extinguisher.
It consists of a strong iron vessel with a side discharge nozzle.
The iron vessel is filled with a sodium bicarbonate solution.
There is a solution of sodium bicarbonate in water in the fire
extinguisher and sulphuric acid in a different bottle within it. The
sulphuric acid is combined with sodium bicarbonate solution and
creates an amount of carbon dioxide gas when the fire extinguisher is
operated by turning the knob on it.

Carbon dioxide gas is not combustible, nor does it endorse

combustion. It is heavier than air and cuts off the air’s supply of
oxygen, thus extinguishing the flames.

The following reaction takes place

2NaHCO 3+H 2SO 4→Na 2SO 4+2H 2​O+2CO 2

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

It is the study of systems in which electricity plays a role in the changes that
occur during a reaction.

Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox Reaction)

It is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons
between two species.
Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of
life, including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and corrosion or
rusting.
Oxidation is the process in which electrons are donated by a reactant.
The electron acceptor reactant is called as oxidizing agent,
Reduction is the process in which electrons are gained by a reactant
The electron donor reactant is called as reducing agent.
ELECTROLYSIS
It is a process by which electric current is passed through a substance to
effect a chemical change.
It is used extensively in metallurgical processes, such as in extraction
(electrowinning) or purification (electrorefining) of metals from ores or
compounds and in deposition of metals from solution (electroplating).
An electrolyte is a substance containing free ions which are the carriers of
electric current in the electrolyte.
A direct current (DC) supply provides the energy necessary to create or
discharge the ions in the electrolyte.
Electrode is an electrical conductor which provides the physical interface
between the electrical circuit providing the energy and the electrolyte.

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
In electrochemical cells Redox reactions take place.
It consist of two electrodes: an anode (the electrode at which the oxidation
reaction
occurs) and a cathode (the electrode at which the reduction reaction
occurs).
There are two types of electrochemical cells:
Galvanic Cell (ones that spontaneously produce electrical energy)
Electrolytic Cell (ones that consume electrical energy).

Galvanic Cell or Daniel cell or Voltaic cell

It induces a spontaneous redox reaction to create a flow of electrical
charges, or electricity.
It turns chemical energy into electrical energy.
Non-rechargeable batteries are examples of Galvanic cells.
Electrolytic Cell
An Electrolytic cell is one kind of battery that requires an outside electrical
source to drive the non-spontaneous redox reaction.
It turns electrical energy into chemical energy
Rechargeable batteries act as Electrolytic cells when they are being
recharged.

Battery
It is a source of electrical energy, which is provided by one or more
electrochemical cells of the battery after conversion of stored chemical
energy.

Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical

energy. When the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be
readily restored to the battery.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their
chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell,
approximately restoring their original composition.

AIR, WATER, SOIL and THEIR POLLUTION

Air
❖ The air in our atmosphere is composed of molecules of different
gases.
 ❖ It consists of 78 % nitrogen gas, 21 % oxygen, 0.9 % argon, and 0.03
% carbon dioxide, water
❖ vapor-floating molecules of water and trace gases.
❖ Earth's atmosphere is divided into five main layers.

Water (𝐻2𝑂)

❖ It can occur in three states: solid (ice), liquid, or gas (vapor).

❖ It is a good polar solvent and is often referred to as the universal
solvent.
❖ It covers 71% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of
life.
❖ Its boiling point is 100₀C and freezing point is 0₀C.
 ❖ It is tasteless and odorless.
❖ The intrinsic colour of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although
both appear colorless in small quantities.

Soil
It is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the
countless organisms that together support life on Earth.
In terms of soil texture, soil type usually refers to the different sizes of
mineral particles in a particular sample.
Soil is made up in part of finely ground rock particles, grouped according to
size as sand and
silt in addition to clay, organic material such as decomposed plant matter.

POLLUTION
It is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
cause adverse change.

Pollutants
It is the substance or agent of pollution. It is harmful to nature.
Primary Pollutants are injected into the atmosphere directly. e.g. smoke,
carbon monoxide, nitric oxide , sulphur dioxide, dust, ash, salt particles,
etc.
Secondary pollutants are formed by chemical reaction between the
primary pollutants and
constituents of the environment (i.e. those which are already present in the
environment). e.g. smog, ozone, sulphur trioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc.

Air pollution
When some foreign particles enters the air and deteriorate its quality is
known as air
pollution.
These particles can be produced naturally or man made.
Dust storms, Bacteria and gases of volcanic eruptions are examples of
natural’s sources of pollutants.
Gases released from the automobile and the chimneys are the example of
man made pollutants.
Major Air pollutants: Carbon monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), etc.
Cause : Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust, Forest fires, volcanic eruptions,
dry soil erosion, and other natural sources, Building construction or
demolition

Water pollution
When some foreign particle, organic, inorganic or biological impurities are
added to the water so that it becomes unfit for use is known as water
pollution.
Major Water pollutants: Point Sources: Sewerage system and industrial
effluents etc.
Diffused sources: Agriculture. Mining and construction
etc.
Cause : Increased sediment from soil erosion, Improper waste disposal and
littering, Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies, Organic material
decay in water supplies

Soil pollution
When the productivity of the soil reduces due to the presence of pollutants
in it is known as soil pollution.
Man has polluted the soil by the excess use of pesticides.
Major soil pollutants: Pesticides, fungicides and herbicides
Cause : Hazardous waste and sewage spills, Non-sustainable farming
practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides, Strip mining,
deforestation, and other destructive practices, Household dumping and
littering

Greenhouse Effect
It is the exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation of sun rays or heat
that warms the Earth.
Carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, and a few other gases are greenhouse gases.

Global Warming
It is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of
greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil
fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape
from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.
It is the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth's
atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently
changing the Earth’s climate.

Effects of global warming

Increase of temperature on the earth by about 3° to 5° C (5.4° to 9°
Fahrenheit) by
the year 2100.
Rise of sea levels by at least 25 meters (82 feet) by the year 2100.

Acid Rain
It refers to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material such as
snow) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric
and sulfuric acids.
It has pH less than 5 due to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
The pH value of normal rain water is 5.6.
Particulate matter
It is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air, many of which
are hazardous.
This complex mixture contains for instance dust, pollen, soot, smoke, and
liquid droplets.
PM 2.5 represents the particulate matter which has a diameter less than
2.5 micrometer. These are the particles which cause major respiratory
disease in the present day.

Smog
Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility.
It is the mixture of smoke and fog that causes a major air pollution problem.
It occurs when emissions from industry, motor vehicles, incinerators, open
burning and other sources accumulate under certain climatic conditions.

CARBON and ITS COMPOUND

CARBON
It is a chemical element of group 14 on the periodic table, with symbol C
and atomic number 6.
Its electron configuration is 2, 4.
It is nonmetallic and tetravalent - making four electrons available to form
covalent chemical bonds.
It is the fourth most abundant element in the universe (hydrogen, helium,
and
oxygen are found in higher amounts, by mass).
Catenation : Due to the small size of carbon, it has a unique ability to
combine with other carbon atoms to form long chains.

Carbon occurs in two forms in nature.

Free State (Allotropes) : graphite, diamond, Fullerene

Combined State : Carbon Combines with other elements to form
compounds such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, etc.

Organic Compounds
These are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) generally.
Organic compounds contain at least one C – H bond. e.g. Methane (CH4),
Methanol (CH3OH),
Glucose (C6H12O6)

Hydrocarbons
Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen only, are known as
Hydrocarbons.
It can be classified in two types, which are Saturated and Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons.

Saturated Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons which contain only single bonds between the carbon atoms
are called alkanes.
Their general formula is 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+2.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds between the
carbon atoms are called alkenes. Their general formula is 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛.

Hydrocarbons which contain one or more triple bonds between the carbon
atoms are called alkynes. Their general formula is 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛−2

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Acyclic or open chain compounds
These compounds are also called as aliphatic compounds and consist of
straight or branched chain compounds, for example:

Cyclic or closed chain or ring compounds

(a) Alicyclic compounds
Homocyclic Alicyclic compounds contain carbon atoms joined in the form of
a ring.

Heterocyclic Alicyclic compounds which has atoms other than carbon also
in the ring

(b) Aromatic compounds

Aromatic compounds are special types of compounds. These include
benzene and other related ring compounds (benzenoid).
Like alicyclic compounds, aromatic comounds may also have hetero atom
in the ring. Such compounds are called heterocyclic aromatic compounds.

Functional Group
The functional group is an atom or a group of atoms joined to the carbon
chain which is responsible for the characteristic chemical properties of the
organic compounds.
The examples are hydroxyl group (–OH), aldehyde group (–CHO) and
carboxylic acid group (–COOH) etc.
Homologous Series
A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic
functional group forms a homologous series and the members of the series
are called homologous.
The members of a homologous series can be represented by general
molecular formula and the successive members differ from each other in
molecular formula by a –CH2 unit.
There are a number of homologous series of organic compounds.
Some of these are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alkanols,
alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic acids, amines etc.

Naming of Hydrocarbons
Inorganic Compounds
These do not have any C – H bond. e.g. carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is
slightly less dense than air. It is toxic in nature.
Carbon Monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom,
connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as
one dative covalent bond

HUMAN MADE MATERIALS

Soap
Soap is water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them
chemically with a strong alkali.
Used as surfactants (compounds that reduce the surface tension between
a liquid and another substance) for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but
they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of
lubricants.

Manufacturing Process of Soap

❖ Saponification is the most common process used for soap making. A

number of fats and oils are heated and mixed with a liquid alkali to
produce soap .
❖ The fats and oils required for manufacturing soaps are extracted from
the plants and animals.
❖ To make the fatty acids called triglyceride molecules, three fatty acid
molecules are added with one molecule of glycerine.
❖ Fatty acids are weak acids composed of two parts.
➢ A carboxylic acid group having one hydrogen (H) atom, two
oxygen (O) atoms, and one carbon (C) atom,
➢ a hydrocarbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group.
Normally, it is made up of a long straight chain of carbon (C)
atoms carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms.
❖ Earlier the alkali required for making soaps were obtained from the
animals but now they are clinically composed. The common alkalis
used in soap making are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called
caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide (KOH), and also called
caustic potash.

Working of Soap
It is a four-step process.
First step, the surface to be cleaned is made wet with water.
Second step, soap or detergent is applied to the surface to be
absorbed.Surface active molecules present in soaps dissolve in water. This
solution serves to loosen surface tension or the force that holds together
molecules on a surface or on cloth. When this happens, it helps water to
spread easily over a surface or soak into clothes.
Third step, when clothes are rubbed together, either by hand or in a
washing machine, dirt particles are broken up as surface-active molecules
work to separate the dirt from clothes and deposit them in the water.
Fourth step, the separated dirt is prevented from going and re-depositing
on the surface of clean clothes. Dirt particles are coated with soap
molecules. This keeps them suspended in water until the dirt is washed
away with rinsing.

Detergent
❖ Detergents are the potassium or sodium salts of a long alkyl chain
ending with a sulfonate group.
❖ They are soluble in hard water.
❖ This solubility is attributed to the fact that the sulfonate group does
not attach itself to the ions present in hard water.
❖ Detergent surfactants are much better solutions for the cleaning
purpose as the hardness of water does not affect them.
 ❖ In case of hard water, Soap with the metal part of salt present in hard
water forms insoluble precipitates called Soap Scum that is why it is
ineffective in case of cleansing action in hard water.
❖ Commonly, anionic detergents such as alkyl benzene sulfonates are
used for domestic purposes.
❖ The surfactants used in detergents are made up of petrochemical
solutions.

Fertilizer
It is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soils or to
plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth
of plants.
Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates
depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and
according to the particular crop.
Organic fertilizers use decaying plants, fish, bone or other animal waste.
Commercial and homemade fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (N-P-K) mixed in proportion to function.
Glass
It is a mixture having no definite boiling of freezing points.
It is also called a super cooled liquid.
Most glasses are silicates.
It is transparent and not affected by chemicals.
It can be moulded into any shape.
The ingredients for making glass are Limestone (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3), Soda ash (
𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3) and
Sand (Si𝑂2).
Types of Glasses
Soda glass or soda-lime glass is prepared by heating sodium
carbonate and silica. Uses: making window panes, tableware, bottles and
bulbs.

Colored structural glass is a heavy plate glass, available in many

colors. It is used in buildings as an exterior facing, and for interior walls,
partitions, and tabletops.

Plate glass It is made by floating a layer of molten glass over a layer

of molten tin. So, it is thicker than ordinary glass.
Uses: shop windows, doors, etc

Bullet-resistant glass is thick, multilayer laminated glass. This glass

can stop even
heavy-caliber bullets at close range. Bullet Resistant glass is heavy enough
to absorb the energy of the bullet, and the several plastic layers hold the
shattered fragments together. Such glass is used in bank teller windows
and in windshields for military tanks, aircraft, and special automobiles.

Optical glass is used in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes,

camera lenses, and many instruments for factories and laboratories. The
raw materials must be pure so that the glass can be made almost flawless.
The care required for producing optical glass makes it expensive compared
with other kinds of glass.

Pyrex glass or borosilicate glass is highly heat resistant. Uses in

Laboratory equipment, ovenware etc.

Photochromic glass darkens when exposed to ultraviolet rays and

clears up when the rays are removed. It is used for windows, sunglasses,
and instrument controls.

Chalcogenide glass is made up of elements from the chalcogen

group, including selenium, sulfur, and tellurium. The glass is transparent to
infrared light and is useful as a semiconductor in some electronic devices.
Chalcogenide glass fibers are a component of
devices used to perform laser surgery.

Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind
other materials together.
Concrete = Cement + water + sand + gravel
Plaster = Cement + water + sand
Mortar = Cement + lime + sand
Composition of cement
Lime (CaO) 60-65%
Silica (Si𝑂2) 20-25%
Alumina (𝐴𝑙2𝑂3) 4-8%
Iron Oxide (𝐹𝑒2𝑂3) 2-4%
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1-3%
Sodium oxide (𝑁𝑎2O) 0.1-0.5%
Sulphur Trioxide(S𝑂3) 1-2%

Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide,

CaO) mixed with silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum
oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw
material, and the other oxides are derived from an argillaceous (clayey)
material.

Polymers
These are substances whose molecules have high molar masses and are
composed of a
large number of repeating units.
There are both naturally occurring and synthetic polymers.
Among naturally occurring polymers are proteins, starches, cellulose, and
latex.

Plastic
It is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such
as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc.
Types of Plastic :
Thermoplastics and Thermosets

Thermoplastics which are softened by heat and can be moulded. e.g.

acrylic, polypropylene,
polystyrene, polythene and PVC.

Thermosets which are formed by ha heat process but are then set (like
concrete) and cannot change shape by reheating. E.g. melamine (kitchen
worktops), Bakelite (black saucepan handles), polyester and epoxy resins.

Natural Rubber
It is a high molecular weight polymeric substance with viscoelastic
properties.
It is obtained from the milky secretion (latex) of various plants, but the only
important commercial source of natural rubber (sometimes called Pará
rubber) is the tree Hevea brasiliensis.
The only other plant under cultivation as a commercial rubber source is
guayule.
Acetic Acid is used in the treatment of latex collected.
The main use of natural rubber is in automobiles.
Explosives
It is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy
that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied
by the production of light, heat,
sound, and pressure.
An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material. E.g.
TNT- trinitrotoluene, RDX- cyclonite, PETNpentaerythritol tetranitrate,
nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, etc.
Chemical explosive is a compound or mixture that releases chemical
energy violently and rapidly, creating heat and a shock wave generated by
a release of gases.

Dynamite is an explosive made by soaking an inert (inactive or stable),

absorbent substance with a mixture of
(1) nitroglycerin or ammonium nitrate,
(2) a combustible substance (a substance with the ability to
burn), such as wood pulp,
(3) an antacid.

Gunpowder is an explosive mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate, and

sulfur often used to propel bullets from guns and shells from cannons.

Nitroglycerine is an explosive liquid used to make dynamite. Also used as

a medicine to dilate blood vessels.

Nuclear explosive is a device that obtains its explosive force from the
release of nuclear
energy.
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a high explosive.

Some Industrial Compound with Chemical formula