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Child Rearing Practices in India: A Comparative Study Between Paternal and Maternal
perspectives on child rearing practices across different sectors in indian context

Child-rearing practices encompass diverse techniques and strategies utilized by parents and
caregivers to nurture a child's emotional, social, and cognitive development. These practices play
a critical role in shaping a child’s personality, behaviors, and interactions with society. Effective
child-rearing involves balancing structure, independence, and warmth, which collectively impact
a child’s worldview, emotional resilience, and problem-solving abilities. Despite cultural,
socioeconomic, and religious variances, child-rearing generally benefits from universal
components like consistency, affection, and structure, which contribute to positive developmental
outcomes. For instance, children raised with clear expectations and supportive guidance are often
more adept at emotional regulation and social skills. Parenting styles are contextually influenced,
with some cultures emphasizing obedience and deference while others prioritize independence
and creativity. Caregiving quality directly impacts children’s attachment security, shaping their
future social interactions and emotional well-being. Conversely, inadequate practices like neglect
or abuse can foster emotional and behavioral challenges. Generally, sound parenting creates a
foundation for children's growth, aiding them in later life as they navigate relationships and
challenges (Baumrind, 1967; Bowlby, 1988).

Types of Child Rearing Practices

Diana Baumrind (1967) categorizes parenting styles into four main types: authoritative,
authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. Each type influences children’s development
differently:

Authoritative Parenting

This style combines warmth with high expectations. Authoritative parents are nurturing
and supportive, yet they set clear limits and rules. Children in such environments are often more
independent, self-assured, and socially skilled. Empirical evidence suggests that authoritative
parenting leads to optimal outcomes, enhancing self-esteem, social competence, and academic
performance (Baumrind, 1967).

Authoritarian Parenting

Unlike authoritative parents, authoritarian parents are demanding yet emotionally distant.
They emphasize strict rules and expect unquestioning obedience. Although this style may
produce disciplined behavior, it is often associated with lower self-esteem and social skills, along
with higher levels of anxiety and depression (Baumrind, 1967; Yaffe, 2020).

Permissive Parenting
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Permissive parents are responsive but lack expectations or rules. Although their children
may feel loved and supported, they often struggle with self-control, impulsivity, and may exhibit
behavioral issues due to the absence of boundaries (Baumrind, 1967; Sarya et al., 2015).

Uninvolved Parenting

Characterized by low expectations and low responsiveness, uninvolved parenting

involves minimal emotional engagement or guidance. Children raised in such environments are
at a higher risk of emotional instability, behavioral problems, and poor academic performance
due to a lack of parental involvement and support (Baumrind, 1967).

Each parenting approach uniquely impacts children’s social, emotional, and cognitive
development, influencing their academic success, self-concept, and emotional resilience (Kara &
Sümer, 2022).

Cultural Context in Parenting Practices

Child-rearing practices profoundly shape children's socioemotional, moral, and cognitive

development, with cultural contexts playing a critical role. In collectivist societies like India and
China, parenting emphasizes familial unity, obedience, and respect for authority. These practices
foster a strong sense of belonging and discipline, which support socioemotional stability and
moral adherence to family and societal norms. However, the emphasis on conformity may limit
emotional expression and critical thinking, potentially impacting creativity and cognitive
flexibility (Puspita Sarya & Turnipa, 2014). Conversely, individualistic cultures, such as those in
Western countries, prioritize autonomy, open communication, and self-expression, encouraging
children to develop independence, assertiveness, and moral reasoning. This approach nurtures
emotional resilience and cognitive adaptability, although it may sometimes undermine collective
responsibility (Baumrind, 1967; Yaffe, 2020). Cultural expectations thus mediate the parenting
strategies adopted, highlighting the need for a balanced approach to support holistic development
across socioemotional, moral, and cognitive domains.

Social Learning and Observational Influence

Albert Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes that children acquire behaviors,
attitudes, and skills through observation, imitation, and reinforcement, making child-rearing
practices pivotal in shaping socioemotional, moral, and cognitive development (Bandura, 1977).
In authoritative parenting, children observe empathetic communication, consistent boundaries,
and problem-solving, which foster moral reasoning, emotional resilience, and cognitive
flexibility. The cooperative and nurturing environment modeled by parents becomes a template
for children to emulate positive social behaviors (Kara & Sümer, 2022). Authoritarian parenting,
however, demonstrates rigid rule-following and obedience without empathetic explanation,
which limits a child’s ability to internalize moral values or develop independent cognitive skills,
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leaving them reliant on external authority (Yaffe, 2020). Permissive parenting, while encouraging
emotional openness, models inconsistency, leading to challenges in self-regulation and moral
clarity. Uninvolved parenting, characterized by a lack of engagement, provides limited modeling,
resulting in deficits in social learning, cognitive growth, and moral development (Puspita Sarya
& Turnipa, 2014).

Parent-Child Interactions and Developmental Impact

Parent-child interactions are foundational to a child's socioemotional, cognitive, and

psychological development, as they set the stage for learning behaviors, emotional regulation,
and problem-solving skills. Positive and warm interactions, such as those found in authoritative
parenting, foster emotional security, empathy, and social competence. These interactions
encourage open communication, moral reasoning, and independent thinking, resulting in
well-rounded socioemotional growth and cognitive flexibility (Baumrind, 1967). Conversely,
authoritarian parenting, characterized by rigid, rule-based interactions, promotes obedience but
may suppress emotional expression and critical thinking. This can limit a child's ability to
internalize moral values and adapt cognitively (Yaffe, 2020). Permissive parenting, while
affectionate, often lacks the structure necessary for consistent behavior modeling, which may
lead to difficulties in self-regulation and moral clarity (Bandura, 1977). Uninvolved parenting,
marked by minimal interaction, can result in emotional insecurity, social difficulties, and
cognitive underdevelopment, highlighting the critical role of nurturing and engaged parent-child
interactions in shaping holistic development (Sarya et al., 2015).

Attachment Theory and Developmental Outcomes

Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, highlights the importance of early

relationships between children and caregivers in shaping their emotional security, moral
reasoning, and cognitive development (Bowlby, 1988). Secure attachments, formed through
consistent warmth, responsiveness, and support, provide a foundation for trust, exploration, and
emotional resilience. Children with secure attachments are more likely to develop empathy,
effective emotional regulation, and a strong moral compass, alongside enhanced problem-solving
skills and cognitive flexibility (Baumrind, 1967).

In contrast, authoritarian parenting, characterized by rigidity and low emotional responsiveness,

can lead to anxious or avoidant attachment styles. This often stifles self-expression, restricts
emotional exploration, and impairs independent cognitive development (Yaffe, 2020). Permissive
parenting, while fostering warmth, may create dependency and weaken self-regulation and moral
awareness due to a lack of boundaries (Puspita Sarya & Turnipa, 2014). Uninvolved parenting,
marked by emotional neglect, can result in insecure attachments, undermining trust,
socioemotional stability, and cognitive growth. These attachment styles underline the critical role
of responsive caregiving in shaping holistic child development.
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Gender Roles and Development

Parenting expectations significantly shape children's understanding of gender roles,

influencing their psychological, socioemotional, and cognitive development. Traditional
parenting norms often reinforce rigid gender roles, encouraging girls to adopt nurturing
behaviors and boys to focus on assertiveness, potentially limiting their ability to explore diverse
skills and self-concepts. In contrast, gender-neutral parenting encourages children to transcend
stereotypes, fostering inclusive moral reasoning, emotional resilience, and cognitive adaptability
(Sarya et al., 2015).

Authoritative parenting aligns well with gender-neutral approaches, promoting flexibility in

gender roles. Through open communication and support, this style nurtures moral inclusivity,
cognitive diversity, and balanced socioemotional growth (Baumrind, 1967). Authoritarian
parenting, however, tends to reinforce traditional roles, which can suppress emotional
expression, hinder self-concept development, and restrict cognitive exploration (Yaffe, 2020).
Permissive parenting allows for gender experimentation but may lack the structure needed for
self-regulation (Bandura, 1977). Uninvolved parenting, characterized by neglect, often leads to
confusion and impaired identity formation, adversely affecting socio emotional stability (Sarya et
al., 2015). These parenting styles highlight the profound role expectations play in shaping
children’s gender identities and developmental trajectories.

Comparative perspectives on parenting

Cross-cultural comparisons are critical for understanding the nuanced ways in which
parenting styles influence child development across different societies. In Western contexts,
authoritative parenting—characterized by warmth, support, and appropriate levels of control—is
consistently linked with positive outcomes such as high academic achievement, low levels of
behavioral problems, and overall well-being (Calafat et al., 2014; Milevsky et al., 2007). This
style encourages autonomy and supports intrinsic motivation, which helps children develop
adaptive coping strategies and resilience (Bronstein et al., 2005; Gómez-Ortiz et al., 2016).

In contrast, Indian parenting practices, while showing some parallels to Western authoritative
models, are deeply rooted in cultural values of collectivism, hierarchy, and familial duty. Indian
parents often balance between authoritative and authoritarian styles, reflecting a strong emphasis
on respect for authority and family cohesion (Sahithya, Manohari, & Vijaya, 2019). Maternal
roles in India traditionally involve nurturing and providing emotional support, while paternal
roles are more likely to emphasize discipline and authority, in line with patriarchal norms
(Kashyap & Lewis, 2013). This differentiation is observed in the greater tendency of Indian
fathers to exert control and set strict boundaries, while Indian mothers are typically more
involved in emotional and social support (Sahithya et al., 2019).
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Despite these traditional roles, there is a noticeable shift among urban and educated Indian
parents towards adopting more authoritative practices. This shift is characterized by increased
emphasis on open communication and support for autonomy, aligning Indian parenting more
closely with Western ideals of authoritative parenting (Sahithya et al., 2019). However, Indian
parenting remains unique due to its emphasis on collectivism and respect for family hierarchies,
which can sometimes result in authoritarian practices that emphasize obedience and conformity
(Kakar & Kakar, 2018).

These cultural differences underscore the importance of contextualizing parenting practices

within their cultural settings. Interventions and policies aimed at improving child outcomes must
consider these cultural nuances to be effective. Understanding how Indian parenting styles
interact with cultural values provides valuable insights into how to support optimal child
development while respecting and integrating cultural practices (Kakar & Kakar, 2018; Kashyap
& Lewis, 2013).

Contemporary shifts in parenting roles

The shift from traditional to modern parenting roles in India is a multifaceted

phenomenon driven by urbanization, increased educational attainment, and economic changes.
Historically, Indian parenting practices were deeply intertwined with cultural traditions, which
emphasized a hierarchical family structure and distinct gender roles. Traditional Indian parenting
often involved a clear division of roles: mothers were primarily responsible for nurturing and
emotional support, while fathers were seen as the disciplinarians and providers (Sahithya et al.,
2019). This traditional framework reinforced patriarchal norms and maintained rigid boundaries
within family dynamics (Kakar & Kakar, 2018).

Urbanization has brought about significant changes in family structures and dynamics. As
families move from rural areas to urban centers, they encounter new social and economic
environments that challenge traditional practices. Urban settings often require more flexible and
adaptive parenting styles due to the fast-paced and diverse nature of city life. This has led to an
increased emphasis on collaboration between parents and a blending of traditional roles. Urban
parents are more likely to adopt a mix of authoritative practices, characterized by warmth and
support combined with appropriate levels of control, reflecting a shift towards more democratic
family interactions (Sahithya et al., 2019).

Educational attainment has also played a crucial role in transforming parenting roles. As more
parents achieve higher education levels, there is a growing awareness of child development
principles and parenting strategies that promote positive outcomes. Educated parents are
increasingly adopting practices that emphasize open communication, support for autonomy, and
balanced discipline. This shift aligns with global trends towards authoritative parenting, which is
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associated with better psychological and academic outcomes for children (Calafat et al., 2014).
The increased value placed on education has led to a greater focus on fostering a supportive and
nurturing environment that encourages academic and personal growth.

Economic changes have further influenced parenting roles by altering family dynamics and
expectations. With more women participating in the workforce, there is a redefinition of gender
roles within the family. Dual-income households necessitate a more collaborative approach to
parenting, with both parents sharing responsibilities for child-rearing and household duties. This
has led to a more egalitarian distribution of parenting tasks, with fathers increasingly taking on
nurturing roles and mothers participating more actively in financial and decision-making aspects
of family life (Kashyap & Lewis, 2013).

Overall, these shifts indicate a transition towards more modern parenting practices in India.
Urbanization, education, and economic changes are contributing to a blending of traditional and
contemporary approaches, resulting in more flexible and adaptive parenting styles. This
evolution reflects a broader societal transformation that values both the preservation of cultural
traditions and the adoption of practices that support children's well-being and development in a
rapidly changing world (Kakar & Kakar, 2018; Sahithya et al., 2019).

Challenges in indian parenting

The 21st century has brought significant transformations in parenting, reflecting broader
shifts in societal attitudes and practices. One of the most notable changes is the increased
emphasis on parental education and engagement. Parents are now more proactive in seeking out
information about effective parenting strategies, driven by a surge of media discussions and
research findings. Allessi (2000) explored how modern families navigate their developmental
stages, emphasizing evolving parenting roles. A review by Daneback et al. (2010) highlighted
the growing use of online resources for parenting advice, which underscores a trend toward
digital support and information-sharing among parents.

Today's parents are investing heavily in enhancing their children's quality of life, with a focus on
material comforts, education, and entertainment. Families often relocate to areas with better
amenities, sacrificing their own comfort for the benefit of their children. Holler (2004) noted that
contemporary parents are increasingly attuned to their children's emotional and cognitive needs,
adapting their parenting accordingly. This shift is evident in practices such as bringing children
to work, creating family-friendly workplaces, and opting for fast food over home-cooked meals.

However, these advancements also present challenges. The proliferation of digital devices has
led some parents to provide excessive stimulation through gadgets, which can detract from
meaningful parent-child interactions. Excessive screen time is associated with various behavioral
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problems, including aggression, anxiety, and social withdrawal. Studies reveal that a significant
percentage of children engage in extensive gaming and screen time, leading to detrimental
effects on their behavior and well-being (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Gentile et al., 2004).
Furthermore, children from all socio-economic backgrounds are increasingly enrolled in private
schools and kindergartens, often at the expense of their parents' financial stability. Despite these
efforts, some children exhibit behavioral issues related to the overuse of technology and
insufficient parental supervision (Linder et al., 2006).

In the Indian context, contemporary parenting faces unique challenges amidst changing social
and cultural landscapes. One major challenge is the balancing act between traditional values and
modern practices. Indian parents often grapple with integrating global parenting trends with
cultural expectations. The shift towards nuclear families and urban living has disrupted
traditional support systems, creating a vacuum in terms of extended family involvement in
child-rearing (Chaudhary & Sinha, 2011).

The pressure to provide a competitive edge in academics and extracurricular activities has
intensified, with parents investing heavily in private education and enrichment programs. This
competitive environment can lead to stress and unrealistic expectations for children, impacting
their mental health and well-being (Kumar, 2017). Additionally, the rise of digital technology has
introduced new dynamics in parenting, with concerns about excessive screen time and its impact
on children’s social skills and academic performance (Rathod et al., 2020).Indian parents also
face the challenge of navigating diverse educational and career opportunities for their children
while maintaining cultural traditions. The increasing exposure to global cultures and values
through media and technology can create conflicts between modern aspirations and traditional
norms. Moreover, the societal expectation for parents to be constantly involved and available can
lead to stress and burnout, affecting their ability to provide consistent and nurturing care (Nair &
Rao, 2020).

In conclusion, while contemporary parenting in India is influenced by global trends and

technological advancements, it is crucial for parents to remain mindful of cultural values and the
unique needs of their children. A balanced approach that combines modern practices with
traditional values, along with mindful and engaged parenting, is essential for fostering the
well-being and development of children in today's complex world.
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Literature review

Child-rearing practices in India are deeply rooted in cultural norms, traditions, and family
structures that have evolved over time. Historically, India’s collectivist orientation has meant that
child-rearing often takes place within joint family structures, where extended family members
contribute significantly to a child’s upbringing. Mukherji (2005) and Inman et al. (2007) found
that the collective nature of joint families in India promotes communal and community-oriented
values in children, with grandparents, aunts, and uncles actively involved in child-rearing
decisions. As India urbanizes and more families transition to nuclear structures, the previously
collective approach to parenting is gradually shifting towards a more individualized model
(Sekaran et al., 2021). This shift is particularly evident in urban families, where both mothers
and fathers increasingly share the responsibility of nurturing, disciplining, and guiding their
children.

The influence of parenting styles on child development outcomes in India has been explored in a
number of studies. Sukumaran et al. (2021) reported that authoritative parenting, characterized
by a balance of warmth and structure, is associated with better emotional and social outcomes in
Indian children, especially in urban environments. This aligns with studies by Parker and Benson
(2004) and Varma et al. (2010), which highlighted that children raised with an authoritative style,
as opposed to authoritarian or permissive approaches, tend to develop higher levels of
self-esteem, self-regulation, and resilience. These findings underscore that while maternal
nurturing is often emphasized in India, paternal contributions to structure and discipline are
increasingly recognized as essential components of balanced parenting.

Fathers’ roles in child-rearing have undergone significant changes as well. Traditionally, fathers
in India were viewed primarily as providers and disciplinarians, often with limited direct
involvement in their children’s emotional lives. However, Afroza et al. (2022) reviewed 85
studies on paternal roles in Indian families and found a shift toward more emotionally involved,
nurturing fatherhood, particularly in urban areas. Similar results were reported by Mathew et al.
(2023), who observed that modern Indian fathers are more active in caregiving roles, which were
historically the domain of mothers. This transition has been accompanied by increased
participation in educational and extracurricular activities, signaling a shift in societal attitudes
toward more egalitarian parenting.

Research by Sary and Turnip (2015) reveals that the evolving roles of mothers and fathers in
India are often influenced by the dynamics between the two. Mothers in India frequently act as
"gatekeepers" who mediate the father’s involvement in child-rearing. Sary and Turnip found that
fathers are often influenced by mothers’ feedback and attitudes toward their child-rearing
capabilities. In instances where mothers encourage fathers to be more involved, fathers tend to
take a more active role in caregiving. This finding supports the work of Allen and Daly (2007) in
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other cultural contexts, suggesting that fathers’ involvement often increases when mothers
actively support it.

The distinct contributions of mothers and fathers to child development in India are also reflected
in moral and cultural education. Rao and Verma (2002) conducted a mixed-methods study
examining moral education in Indian families, which emphasized communal responsibility,
respect for authority, and community well-being. Mothers, as primary caregivers, often play a
key role in instilling these values through daily interactions and family rituals. However, fathers’
involvement is equally significant, especially in setting examples of authority and respect,
thereby reinforcing moral teachings. This dual-parental influence supports the continuity of
cultural values, even as child-rearing practices adapt to modern urban settings (Sharma & Joshi,
2016; Desai et al., 2018).

Mothers’ and fathers’ distinct roles are also seen in their contributions to children’s physical,
social, and cognitive development. Carbera et al. (2017) demonstrated that fathers’ playful
interactions with their children support vocabulary and cognitive growth, while mothers’
playfulness aids emotional regulation. Lloyd et al. (2014) found that mothers are more involved
in monitoring diet and screen time, whereas fathers play a central role in promoting physical
activity and outdoor play, highlighting the complementary roles each parent plays in
child-rearing. These findings align with studies by Kumar and Maiti (2019), which showed that
mothers and fathers in Indian nuclear families provide a balanced approach to physical health,
emotional support, and intellectual development.

Globalization and modernization have had a significant impact on child-rearing in India,

especially in urban families. Chadda and Deb (2013) highlighted how exposure to global
parenting norms has encouraged a shift toward more egalitarian parenting approaches,
particularly among educated, urban parents. Parents in urban centers are increasingly adopting
practices that promote children’s autonomy, critical thinking, and independence, often blending
traditional Indian values with individualistic elements observed in Western parenting (Kaushal &
Manas, 2014; Narang et al., 2018). Studies by Shwalb et al. (2010) and Nanda (2019) also report
that while parents strive to preserve cultural values, they adapt their approaches to meet the
demands of an increasingly competitive and interconnected world.

An emerging area of research has focused on the differences in parenting among Indian mothers
and fathers who are employed in corporate versus government sectors. Studies by Agarwal et al.
(2018) and Bhattacharya et al. (2020) suggest that parents in corporate sectors often experience
more time constraints and work pressures, which can limit their time with children, compared to
those in government jobs, who typically benefit from more predictable hours and greater job
security. These occupational differences can shape parenting styles and involvement, as
corporate-employed parents may rely more on external caregivers or alternate schedules to
balance work and parenting. Research by Iyer and Menon (2021) found that while
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corporate-employed fathers may face challenges in maintaining work-life balance, they are more
likely to engage in weekend caregiving activities, whereas government-employed fathers
generally have more consistent daily involvement.

A comparative study by Sengupta and Malhotra (2022) highlighted that government-employed

mothers often have greater flexibility to manage child-rearing duties compared to their
counterparts in corporate roles, where higher workloads and longer hours prevail. Despite these
differences, both sets of parents report efforts to maximize quality time with their children. Rajan
and Sundaram (2023) argue that the presence of workplace policies supporting family leave and
flexible working hours is crucial in enabling both corporate and government-employed parents to
fulfill their caregiving responsibilities effectively, underscoring the role of workplace structures
in shaping contemporary child-rearing practices in India.

In summary, the roles of mothers and fathers in child-rearing within Indian families are
undergoing profound changes, influenced by both traditional values and modern societal shifts.
Studies indicate that the rise of nuclear families and increased urbanization have led to more
egalitarian parenting approaches, with fathers playing a more nurturing role than in the past.
Maternal influences remain central to emotional and moral development, while fathers contribute
significantly to educational and physical activities. Recent research has also illuminated
differences between working parents in corporate and government sectors, revealing that
occupational demands affect how parents balance work and caregiving. As Indian society
continues to evolve, it is likely that the comparative study of maternal and paternal roles in
child-rearing will continue to reflect the diverse, dynamic nature of modern Indian family life.
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Theoretical perspectives

Background

Child-rearing practices in India have historically been shaped by cultural traditions and
family structures, particularly the joint family system. In this system, not only parents but also
extended family members, such as grandparents and uncles, play a significant role in raising
children. Research by Mukherji (2005) and Inman et al. (2007) highlights that within the joint
family structure, values like respect, obedience, and communal responsibility are emphasized.
Fathers were traditionally viewed as primary providers and disciplinarians, while mothers
focused on caregiving and emotional nurturing.

However, as India urbanizes and shifts toward nuclear family structures, traditional roles are
evolving. Sekaran et al. (2021) found that both fathers and mothers are increasingly sharing
responsibilities in nurturing and disciplining their children. The shift toward smaller, nuclear
families has prompted fathers to become more involved in caregiving, moving beyond their
historical role as providers. Similarly, Afroza et al. (2022) observed that fathers are now taking
on nurturing roles once traditionally assigned to mothers, becoming emotionally present and
active in caregiving.

When it comes to parenting styles, authoritative parenting has been shown to produce positive
outcomes for children. Sukumaran et al. (2021) found that authoritative parenting – characterized
by warmth, communication, and structure – is linked to better social and emotional development
in Indian preschoolers, a finding that aligns with Parker and Benson’s (2004) research, which
found that authoritative parenting fosters higher self-esteem, self-reliance, and coping
mechanisms in children. Interestingly, the adoption of the authoritative style is becoming more
common among both mothers and fathers in contemporary India.Moreover, a study by Mathew
et al. (2023) on maternal and paternal child-rearing practices revealed that while mothers
historically focused on emotional nurturing and moral development, and fathers emphasized
discipline, these roles are becoming more fluid. Fathers are now taking on more caregiving
duties, and mothers are participating more in disciplinary aspects, suggesting that traditional
gender roles in child-rearing are becoming less rigid.

This transformation of parenting roles in India is a reflection of broader societal changes.

Urbanization, evolving family structures, and changing societal norms are reshaping traditional
child-rearing practices. The increasing involvement of fathers in emotional nurturing, as well as
the gradual shift toward more egalitarian parenting roles, marks a significant change in Indian
parenting dynamics. This research aims to explore and compare the child-rearing practices of
mothers and fathers in modern Indian society, focusing on how these evolving dynamics
influence the upbringing and development of children. Insights from this study will offer a
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deeper understanding of how cultural values and modern family configurations shape parenting,
contributing to more balanced and effective child-rearing strategies.

Research problem

While extensive research has been conducted on child-rearing practices, much of the
existing literature is predominantly Western in its focus, neglecting the unique cultural, social,
and familial dynamics present in non-Western societies like India. Western studies often
highlight general parenting approaches, but there is a limited understanding of how these
approaches are influenced by the collectivist traditions and evolving family structures within
Indian society. Specifically, while considerable attention has been paid to the role of mothers in
child-rearing, the distinct contributions and evolving roles of fathers remain under-researched in
the Indian context.

Few studies have thoroughly explored the differences and similarities between paternal and
maternal child-rearing practices in India, where societal transformations such as urbanization and
the transition from joint to nuclear family structures have reshaped traditional parenting roles.
Understanding these evolving dynamics is crucial, particularly as both fathers and mothers
increasingly share responsibilities in nurturing and disciplining children. The lack of a
comprehensive understanding of how fathers and mothers differ, or converge, in their parenting
styles, values, and approaches in India creates a significant research gap, limiting our ability to
develop culturally relevant parenting education programs and policies that cater to modern
Indian families.

Parenting styles

Diana Baumrind's theory on child-rearing styles, developed in the 1960s, identifies four
distinct parenting approaches: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved
(Baumrind, 1971). Each style is characterized by varying levels of parental acceptance and
involvement, behavioral control, and autonomy granted to children. The most effective,
according to Baumrind, is the authoritative style, where parents combine warmth, high
involvement, and firm but reasonable control. They also allow their children a degree of
independence, fostering an environment that encourages self-regulation, social competence, and
academic success (Baumrind & Black, 1967). Children raised by authoritative parents tend to
have high self-esteem, better emotional regulation, and superior social skills (Amato & Fowler,
2002).

In contrast, the authoritarian style is marked by low warmth and high control, with strict rules
and expectations. These parents tend to be demanding and less responsive to their children's
needs, often enforcing compliance through harsh discipline. Children raised in this environment
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are more likely to be anxious, have low self-esteem, and may exhibit higher levels of aggression
or defiance (Steinberg, Blatt-Eisengart, & Cauffman, 2006). The permissive style involves high
warmth but minimal control or discipline, leading to children who may lack self-discipline and
exhibit impulsive behavior. Such children often struggle academically and may develop an
over-reliance on adults for decision-making (Baumrind, 1971). The uninvolved style, on the
other hand, is characterized by emotional detachment, low involvement, and minimal behavioral
control. Children raised by uninvolved parents tend to have poor emotional regulation, lower
academic achievement, and an increased likelihood of engaging in antisocial behavior (Aunola,
Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000).

In the Indian context, traditional child-rearing practices often align with the authoritarian style,
where obedience, discipline, and respect for elders are emphasized. Parents, particularly fathers,
are seen as authority figures with limited emotional involvement. Research indicates that Indian
parents have historically prioritized hierarchical relationships within the family, leading to an
emphasis on discipline and obedience over autonomy (Rao & Verma, 2002). However, recent
studies suggest that as India modernizes, a shift toward authoritative parenting is becoming more
common, particularly in urban and educated families. This shift reflects growing awareness of
the benefits of balancing discipline with warmth and autonomy, as seen in the authoritative style
(Sharma, 2020). Fathers are increasingly becoming involved in caregiving roles, and parents are
recognizing the importance of fostering emotional connections and self-regulation in children
(Mathew et al., 2023; Mukherji, 2005). This cultural shift highlights the evolving nature of
parenting in India, blending traditional values with modern approaches.

Cultural context of parenting

A child's development is shaped by multiple, interconnected layers of their environment,

from immediate family to broader societal contexts. Bronfenbrenner’s theory shares one of the
perspectives that helps us understand how the culture and environment helps in child
development. Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory presents a comprehensive
framework for understanding the multiple layers of environmental influence on a child's
development. His bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006)
sees children as developing within nested systems of relationships, each affecting and interacting
with others. These systems are organized in a hierarchy: the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
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source : wordpress.com

The microsystem is the innermost layer, representing direct environments like family, school,
and peers. It’s in this system that the most immediate interactions occur, and where relationships,
particularly with family, have a profound influence. Parenting styles, parental involvement, and
family dynamics shape a child's social, emotional, and cognitive development. For example,
high-quality family interactions contribute to children’s emotional regulation and social
competence (Barnes et al., 2007). In the mesosystem, interconnections between microsystems,
such as the relationship between family and school, further impact child development. Positive
interactions, like strong communication between parents and teachers, foster children's academic
success and responsible social behavior (Kerestes & Youniss, 2003).

The exosystem refers to broader social settings that do not directly involve the child but still
affect their immediate environments, like parental workplaces, social networks, or local health
services. Parental stress from work or unemployment can negatively influence family dynamics
and, consequently, the child’s well-being (Coulton et al., 2007). For example, studies have shown
that children in low-stimulation homes and disorganized neighborhoods miss out on enriching
activities that are critical for development (Dearing et al., 2009).

At the broadest level, the macrosystem encompasses cultural values, customs, laws, and
resources. In the Indian context, cultural values such as respect for elders, collective
responsibility, and traditional gender roles significantly shape parenting practices. Indian parents
often emphasize obedience and academic success, which reflects the influence of collectivist
cultural norms (Rao & Verma, 2002). Furthermore, Indian traditions emphasize family
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interdependence, which affects how children are raised, with extended family members often
playing an active role in caregiving. However, urbanization and globalization are causing a shift
toward more authoritative parenting in Indian families, blending traditional values with modern
parenting approaches that encourage emotional expression and autonomy (Sharma, 2020).

Lastly, the chronosystem introduces the concept of time, showing how changes over time—like
the birth of a sibling or a family’s relocation—impact the child’s development. These changes
interact with the child's personal growth and evolving relationships within the environment.
Bronfenbrenner argues that children are active agents in their development, selecting and shaping
their environments as they mature.

Gender roles in parenting

Gender roles in parenting have historically been shaped by enduring stereotypes that
delineate specific responsibilities for mothers and fathers. Traditionally, men are viewed as
primary breadwinners and disciplinarians, while women are expected to assume nurturing and
caregiving roles (Lueptow, Garovich, & Lueptow, 2001; Williams & Best, 1990). These
stereotypes often lead to men being associated with assertiveness and rationality, whereas
women are linked with warmth and emotional sensitivity. Consequently, parenting practices
frequently reflect these roles, with fathers providing financial support and enforcing discipline,
and mothers focusing on emotional support and daily caregiving.

In the Indian context, these traditional gender roles are notably entrenched. Cultural norms
emphasize distinct roles for mothers and fathers, with mothers typically fulfilling the primary
caregiving role and fathers being seen as providers and authority figures (Sharma, 2020; Rao &
Verma, 2002). This division often limits the extent to which fathers engage in nurturing roles,
reinforcing stereotypical expectations. However, modernization is gradually influencing these
roles, with an increasing recognition of the benefits of involved fatherhood and shared parenting
responsibilities (Agarwal & Khan, 2023). Despite these changes, traditional expectations still
prevail, particularly in rural areas where gender roles are more rigid (Mukherji, 2005). Thus,
while there is progress towards more balanced parenting practices, cultural values continue to
shape and, at times, constrain parental roles in India.

Attachment and emotional bonding

Attachment theory, originally formulated by John Bowlby, is a framework that explains

the deep emotional bonds between children and their caregivers, emphasizing their crucial role in
healthy psychological development. According to Bowlby (1969), these early bonds are essential
for the child's survival and development, as they provide a foundation for emotional security and
relationship-building throughout life. He identified four phases of attachment development:
 16

Preattachment (Birth to 6 weeks): Newborns use innate behaviors like crying and smiling to
engage caregivers, recognizing familiar voices and faces but showing no specific preference yet.

Attachment-in-the-Making (6 weeks to 6-8 months): Infants begin to respond more positively to

familiar caregivers and develop a sense of trust, though they do not yet show distress when
separated from them.

Clear-Cut Attachment (6-8 months to 18-24 months): Infants form a clear attachment to their
primary caregivers, displaying separation anxiety and using the caregiver as a secure base for
exploration.

Formation of a Reciprocal Relationship (18-24 months and beyond): As children grow, they
understand the reasons for their caregiver’s movements and can negotiate their needs, reducing
separation anxiety and displaying more complex relational dynamics.

Bowlby’s theory highlights that these attachments are not solely about physical needs like
feeding but are crucial for emotional security and exploration. Ethological perspectives
influenced Bowlby, emphasizing that these attachment behaviors are evolved responses designed
to ensure safety and promote environmental exploration (Waters & Cummings, 2000).

Attachment theory is applicable to both fathers and mothers, though their roles in the attachment
process can differ. Historically, mothers have been the primary caregivers, largely due to societal
expectations and traditional gender roles (Lueptow, Garovich, & Lueptow, 2001). This central
role is reflected in the fact that infants often show strong attachment behaviors towards their
mothers during the early stages of development. However, contemporary research has
increasingly recognized the importance of paternal involvement. Fathers contribute to the
attachment process through unique interactions that can complement and enhance the
mother-child bond. For instance, fathers often engage in more stimulating and physically active
play, which supports the child’s social and emotional development in different ways than
mothers' typically more nurturing and calming interactions (Lamb, 2010; Pleck & Masciadrelli,
2004).

Research also suggests that while mothers generally provide consistent emotional support and
caregiving, fathers can offer additional forms of emotional and psychological support,
particularly through play and exploration activities (Cabrera et al., 2018). The balance of these
roles helps to provide a well-rounded support system for the child, promoting secure attachment
and healthy emotional development across different caregiving contexts (Carlson et al., 2005).
Thus, both parents play crucial, albeit distinct, roles in fostering attachment, with their
contributions being complementary rather than interchangeable.
 17

Social learning theory in parenting

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, including moral and
social behaviors, is learned through observation and imitation of others, particularly role models
like parents. According to Bandura (1977), children do not learn these behaviors through direct
reinforcement alone but by watching others perform them. For instance, when a child observes a
parent demonstrating kindness and empathy, the child is likely to mimic these behaviors,
integrating them into their own repertoire.

In the context of Indian families, this theory reveals how traditional gender roles are perpetuated
through parental modeling. Research in India has demonstrated that children often model
behaviors based on the actions of their parents, reinforcing entrenched gender norms. For
instance, a study by Srinivasan and Kumar (2015) found that Indian children are influenced by
the gender-specific behaviors exhibited by their parents. Fathers typically model assertive and
authoritative behaviors, which are perceived as masculine traits, while mothers often display
nurturing and caregiving behaviors, reinforcing traditional feminine roles (Narayan, 2008;
Bhasin, 2010).

Moreover, these gendered behaviors are not only observed but also deeply internalized by
children, affecting their future behaviors and expectations. For example, Bandura's theory
suggests that when children see their fathers engaging in roles associated with authority and
decision-making, and their mothers in caregiving roles, they internalize these roles as appropriate
and expected behaviors for each gender. This modeling effect perpetuates traditional gender
norms and influences how children perceive and enact gender roles in their own lives
(Choudhury & Sharma, 2020).

In summary, Bandura’s social learning theory provides a framework for understanding how
children learn and replicate gendered behaviors based on the examples set by their parents. In the
Indian context, this theory helps explain the continuity of traditional gender roles, highlighting
the need for positive modeling by both parents to promote more equitable gender norms
(Srinivasan & Kumar, 2015).

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the fundamental role of social interactions in

the cognitive development of children. He believed that cognitive skills are acquired through
collaborative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society, such as
parents, teachers, and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Social interactions, particularly those involving
language, help children internalize new knowledge, transforming their basic mental capacities
 18

into higher cognitive functions, including problem-solving, abstract reasoning, and

self-regulation (Winsler, 2009). A key concept in Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which refers to the range of tasks that a child cannot accomplish
independently but can achieve with the guidance of a more knowledgeable individual (Vygotsky,
1935/1978). Through scaffolding—adjusting the level of support based on the child’s
abilities—adults and peers help children bridge the gap between what they know and what they
can learn, fostering cognitive growth.

Parental interactions play a critical role in Vygotsky’s theory, as parents often serve as the
primary scaffolds in a child’s early cognitive development. However, the nature of these
interactions can differ based on the parent’s role, often leading to distinct cognitive
developmental outcomes. Maternal and paternal roles in child-rearing are often influenced by
cultural norms and expectations. In many cultures, mothers are typically more involved in
day-to-day caregiving activities, which often involve nurturing and emotionally supportive
interactions. These interactions tend to promote cognitive skills related to language, emotional
regulation, and social understanding (Tamis-LeMonda, Shannon, Cabrera, & Lamb, 2004).
Mothers often engage in scaffolding through detailed verbal guidance, offering emotional
encouragement, and fostering intersubjectivity—shared understanding—during tasks, which
supports the child’s problem-solving and planning abilities (Berk & Spuhl, 1995).

Fathers, on the other hand, often contribute to cognitive development through different forms of
interaction, which may include more physical play, encouragement of independence, and
problem-solving through exploration and trial-and-error (Paquette, 2004). Research suggests that
fathers' interactions can promote risk-taking, initiative, and autonomy in children, which are
critical for cognitive flexibility and adaptive thinking (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley,
Hofferth, & Lamb, 2000). For example, while a mother may scaffold a puzzle-solving task by
offering verbal suggestions, a father might encourage the child to experiment with different
approaches, promoting divergent thinking and problem-solving skills. This difference in
scaffolding styles can provide complementary cognitive challenges, enriching the child’s
learning experiences.

The different roles of maternal and paternal interactions have a profound impact on a child's
cognitive development, offering a diverse range of learning experiences that foster both social
and cognitive skills. Mothers often nurture cognitive development through sustained,
emotionally supportive guidance, while fathers encourage cognitive resilience and
problem-solving through less structured, more exploratory interactions. Together, these
complementary roles provide a rich environment for a child's cognitive growth, underscoring
Vygotsky’s belief in the power of social interaction in shaping human cognition.
 19

Rationale

This study aims to provide a comparative analysis of paternal and maternal perspectives
on child-rearing practices within the Indian context, focusing on how distinct parental roles
shape the development of children in different spheres including social, emotional, moral, and
psychological development. In previous research, a little emphasis has been placed on how
different working sectors impact child-rearing practices within families. In line, this study will
examine how sector-specific factors such as income stability, work demands, and professional
environments influence parenting styles. Key areas of investigation will include individual
parental responsibilities, with mothers typically focusing on emotional and cultural development
and fathers emphasizing practical life skills and future preparedness. Additionally, this study will
explore discipline strategies, examining how both parents exercise authority and set boundaries.
The influence of traditional gender roles and expectations on parental involvement will be
assessed, particularly in the context of dual-income families. This study also aims to uncover the
role of culture in shaping parenting practices, analyzing how professional sectors either preserve
or evolve traditional values and customs within family dynamics which have been hardly
explored in previous research studies. By comparing corporate and government sector parents
(distinct paternal and maternal views), this research will offer insights into how different work
sectors contribute to variations in child-rearing practices, ultimately contributing to broader
discussions on promoting balanced, inclusive, and equitable parenting approaches in
contemporary India.
 20

Present study

Aim
The aim of this study is to explore and compare the child-rearing practices of fathers and
mothers in India, with a focus on understanding the differences and similarities in their parenting
styles, values, and approaches

Research approach

The qualitative research approach focuses on exploring and understanding people's

experiences, perspectives, and behaviors in a natural setting. It aims to gain deep insights into
how individuals make sense of their world. In this study, the qualitative approach was used to
investigate the paternal and maternal perspectives on child-rearing practices in India. By
conducting in-depth interviews, the study explored personal experiences, values, and the
influence of professional sectors (government and corporate) on parenting styles.

This approach values the richness of detailed, narrative data over statistical representation,
allowing for a deeper understanding of complex cultural and social factors influencing
child-rearing. Data collected through semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic
analysis, identifying patterns and themes related to parenting roles and values. The qualitative
design is particularly suited for exploring nuanced, context-specific issues like those presented in
this study.

Research plan

A semi-structured interview is a qualitative research method combining predefined

questions with flexibility for open-ended discussions. It typically involves an interviewer using a
guide with key topics or questions, allowing room to explore additional insights based on the
participant's responses. This format provides a balance between consistency across interviews
and adaptability to individual perspectives. Researchers use it to gather detailed, context-rich
data while ensuring coverage of core themes. Semi-structured interviews are particularly useful
in exploratory studies, where understanding participants' experiences, beliefs, and motivations is
essential. They enable a deeper, nuanced exploration compared to structured formats, fostering
meaningful dialogue and discovery.

This study employed a thematic analysis research design to explore and compare paternal and
maternal perspectives on child-rearing practices across different sectors in India. Data were
collected through semi-structured interviews with fathers and mothers working in the
government and corporate sectors. Thematic analysis involved transcribing and coding the
interview data to identify recurring themes related to parenting roles, values, and practices. This
approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of how professional environments and
 21

socio-cultural expectations influenced parenting, providing rich, qualitative insights into the
evolving dynamics of child-rearing in diverse work settings.

Sample size

The sample size for this study consists of 20 parents from all over India , equally divided
between the government and private sectors, ensuring a balanced representation. Each participant
is selected based on their parenting experience and sector affiliation to provide diverse insights
into parenting dynamics.

Sampling techniques

Purposive sampling was used in this study to select participants who had specific
characteristics relevant to the research question. Fathers and mothers employed in both
government and corporate sectors were deliberately chosen to explore how different work
environments influence child-rearing practices. This non-random sampling technique ensures
that participants possess the knowledge or experience needed to provide in-depth insights into
the study’s focus. By selecting a targeted sample, purposive sampling allows for a detailed
comparison of parenting styles across sectors, ensuring that the data collected is relevant and
aligned with the study's objectives.

Inclusion criteria

Parents having a child aged 4-10 years, both parents either working in the corporate
sector or government sector

Exclusion Criteria

Single working parent, one parent working in the corporate sector and one working in the
government sector, child below age 4 and above 10

Measures

Semi-structured interviews are a qualitative data collection method that combines the
structure of predetermined questions with the flexibility to explore new topics that emerge during
the conversation. This approach allows researchers to gather detailed and nuanced insights into
participants' experiences, attitudes, and perceptions (Kallio et al., 2016). A semi-structured
interview guide typically contains open-ended questions aligned with the research objectives, but
the interviewer can adapt the sequence or probe further based on the respondent's answers. This
flexibility fosters a conversational atmosphere, encouraging participants to share their thoughts
freely while ensuring the discussion remains focused on the study's goals. Semi-structured
interviews are particularly useful in exploratory research and when studying complex
phenomena, as they provide depth and context that standardized questionnaires cannot capture.
 22

Additionally, this method facilitates rapport-building and can accommodate diverse participant
perspectives, enhancing the richness of the data (Bryman, 2016). However, conducting
semi-structured interviews requires skilled interviewers to navigate the balance between
structured guidance and open-ended exploration

Data collection

Data was collected through a semi-structured interview schedule.

Procedure

The procedure for this study involved a systematic process to gather and analyze data on
child-rearing practices. First, participants were recruited using purposive sampling, targeting
fathers and mothers employed in the same sector (either government or corporate) with children
under 10 years. Once participants were identified, informed consent was obtained, where they
were briefed on the study's purpose, confidentiality, and their right to voluntary participation.
Following consent, semi-structured interviews were conducted with each parent separately, using
open-ended questions to explore their child-rearing practices and the impact of their work sector.
Interviews were audio-recorded for accuracy. The collected data was transcribed and analyzed
using thematic analysis, allowing for the identification of key themes and patterns regarding
parenting styles and the influence of professional environments. This process ensured a rich,
detailed exploration of the research topic.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are vital in qualitative research due to its focus on participants'
personal experiences. Researchers must obtain informed consent, ensuring participants
understand the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks (Hammersley & Traianou, 2012).
Confidentiality and anonymity must be maintained, especially when sensitive topics are
involved. Participants should have the right to withdraw at any time without consequences.
Additionally, minimizing harm and being sensitive to participants' well-being is essential during
data collection (Orb et al., 2001). Ethical oversight through review boards ensures compliance
with guidelines, protecting both participants and the research process.

Result table
 23

Table 1: Government sector

Themes Subthemes Verbatims

1.Parenting styles and Mother's View: “Baccho ko strictness aur softness

balancing approaches dono zaroori hai lekin ek balance mein. Kabhi kabhi
main strict ho jaati hoon aur kabhi kabhi mere partner.”

“for me the most important aspect of parenting is that

we should help the child, making the child a morally
responsible, a morally confident child and that is
possible only when both the parents Give moral virtues
to the children by practicing many things in the daily
routine with their children.”

Father's View: “Meri wife waise emotionally support

deti hain aur main thoda practical rehta hoon. Yeh
natural balance hai aur ismein family overall stable
rehti hai.”

“Parenting approach mein bacho ki unique needs ko

samajhna sabse zaroori hai.”

2.Adaptability to Mother's View: "Zyada pareshan nhi hota hai kisi baat
child’s personality me... na zyada tension leta hai."

“I work in a University and I have the liberty to plan

my lectures…” “So I manage to start my day early and
Individual try to wrap up my routine within their school time…”
differences
Father's View: “Mera beta kaafi ziddi h aur woh apni
saare baatein manwa leta h lekin usko gussa kaafi kam
aata h.”

“The benefits I receive in my job such as reliable health

care have made a real difference in supporting the
family. But I won’t be there with my family the whole
year due to work still when with the family I used to
take equal responsibilities involving day-to-day
childcare and household tasks.”

3.Fostering life skills Mother's View: "We believe in setting clear

and emotional growth boundaries which we both enforce but also guiding to
help them understand 'why' behind the rules is
necessary."

“...we being educated parents understand that what the

 24

child needs, so we try to come down to a to a leveraged

way which helps the child and helps in the moral
development.”

Father's View: "Teaching the child life skills,

everything from basic problem-solving to
understanding their emotions, is very important role as
a parent."

“I try to prepare him for the challenges of life by

teaching him to be responsible and independent… But
at the same time, I’m careful not to let him feel alone or
unsupported”

1.Cultural values and Mother’s view:

tradition “ hum usko sab zyada se zyada se sikhane ki aur batane
ki koshish karte hai
taaki who seekhe sab .. kuchh cheezien woh nhi manta
hum bhi usko thodha
uske hisab se chalne dete hai … lekin apni taraf se
chahte hai ki who apne culture ko
humesha dhyan me rakhe”

“I perceive culture as following good moral values as

part of my sanatana behavior. Practicing my religion
thoroughly, inculcating the same values to my children,
follow certain basic…”

अगर हमने अपना कल्चर अपने बच्चों को नहीं दिया तो ये

मतलब हमारी जिंदगी से ही गायब हो जाएगा…” (If we
don’t teach our culture, it will disappear from our lives)
Cultural
influences Father’s view:
’’We want to teach him about our culture,
but sometimes he does cross questioning and doesn't
understand much but we
don't force him. I and my wife both believe that what
he will learn by seeing us
has and he will understand everything when he grows
Up.’’

“I want my child to grow up and understand that

culture is not just about their own culture but also
respecting and appreciating other cultures. I encourage
my child to be curious respectful and understanding
others.”

“Culture life ka base hai. Modern cheezein

toh ek tarah se decoration hain, lekin culture uska
 25

foundation hai. Hum baccho

ko hamesha batate aur sikhaate rehte hain ki ye hamari
society hai aur yahan
kaise rehna hai.”

2.Retaining cultural Mother’s View:

values contemporary “at times I find a little challenging, to … the reason for
setting that is these days many parents on their birthdays call
for hefty budget parties…” “But as a Sanatani person I
feel that to me birthday means a good get together with
your own family members along with friends and
celebrating together, rather than lots of expectations…”
“...in a way my child is not part of the group with
which you know the birthdays are being celebrated and
therefore the child may feel side out in the class” “I
instill in my child that you have to stand out, be with
them”

मैं ये नहीं कहती की मैं रे सिस्ट हूँ… लेकिन मझ

ु े अपने
सनातन को अपने बच्चों को समझाना है …” (I’m not
saying I’m racist, but I need to teach my children our
culture)

Father’s View:
“I encourage him to respect
other cultures and perspectives,
teaching him that while he should take pride in his
heritage, it’s equally important to appreciate and
understand others”

“Bacho ko humesha apna culture inherit karne ki

koshish karni hai, kyunki agar yeh sab values unmein
na ho toh wo apne roots
bhool jayenge.”

3.Profession and Father’s View:

culture “my job encourages me to
engage in various community
programs, and I often involve my son in activities like
local festivals or volunteer work. These activities...
expose him to different aspects of our culture and
traditions.”

Mother’s View:
“...because I work in a university in which you know,
students from all over India and outside India come and
study together. so it's like a mini culture that's being
celebrated…” “there are many events at my workplace
at which my family is also part of so there is a good
cultural exchange between my children…”
 26

1.Societal expectations Mother: “In Indian society, it is assumed that the major
load of household and parenting lies on the shoulders
of women.”

“In our family, there are certain parenting tasks that are
traditionally associated with me as the mother, like
handling school drop-offs, helping with homework, and
Gender roles and managing day-to-day household routines. I think this
expectations stems from societal expectations, where mothers are
often seen as the primary caregivers, even if both
parents work.”

Father: “I do feel societal pressure related to traditional

gender roles.”

2.Modern and Mother: “Hum uske saamne apni mother tongue me

traditional roles baat karte hain; who samajhta hai aur bolta bhi hai.”

“In our home, culture is reflected in everyday practices,

celebrations, language, and even in how we address
different life situations.”

Father: “I encourage my child to respect and appreciate

other cultures.”

“Hum dono believe karte hain ki woh hume dekh ke hi

cheeje seekhega aur jab bada hoga tab sab samjhega.”

3.Changing Mother:
Expectations “Main working mother hoon, but meri priority family
hai.”

Father:
“Bilkul, ab ke time mein dono parents ka equal role ho
gaya hai. Pehle jo expectations hoti thi ki maa hi ghar
dekhengi, wo change ho gaya hai.”

“The benefits I receive in my job such as reliable

health care have made a real difference in supporting
the family. When with the family, I used to take equal
responsibilities involving day-to-day childcare and
household tasks.”

Discipline and 1.Discipline Approach Mother's View:

authority and Parenting Roles "Me kaafi strict hoon
koshish karti hoon ki woh discipline rahe sab sahi se
kare."

"Meri aadat hai main daant’ti nahi hoon zyada, main

 27

sirf chupchaap shaant hojaati hoon, baat nahi karti. Fir

bacche khud hi samajh jaate hain apni galti."

Father's View: "Mera yeh belief h ki apne bache ke

liye sahi jagah strict rhu taaki usse disciplined rkhu.
Lekin kaafi jagah meri wife already strict rehti h toh m
uska friend banne ki bhi koshish krta hu."

"Discipline mein hum dono equally involved hain,

lekin mother ka approach zyada soft rehta hai aur father
ka thoda zyada harsh. Zyada discipline main hi karta
hoon.”

2.Conflict Resolution Mother's View: "At times it becomes tough when there
in Parenting is a clash on issues related to health or education…
eventually the only thing that works is sitting together
and working out a common solution."

"We sit out and talk on a particular clash, and come

down to a common consensus. Both me and my
husband set rules together for consistency."

Father's View: "Jahan bhi hum disagree karte hain,

hum discuss karne ki koshish karte hain aur ek beech
ka solution nikalne ki koshish karte hain."

"We discuss the rules together, so there’s a sense of

unity in what we expect from our child."

1.Parental support and Mother’s View: "My participation is not as

involvement much as tuition teacher... but sports or activities
mai to hum krte rhte hai. Mujhe lagta hai ki
bacho ko chino experience hote dena chahiye or
unhe ek moral education."

Fathers View: “I handle academics and

discipline, while my wife is better at the
emotional and social aspects. ”

Education 2. Career flexibility Mother: “I want him to have a strong academic

foundation, but more than that, I want him to pursue
something he’s genuinely interested in.”

"I encourage her to get into some of her desired

extracurricular activities when I notice she's been
cooped up inside for too long".

“If he wants to pursue a career in something like music

or sports, I’ll encourage him all the way.”
 28

“Father: We hope he will work hard and pursue a field

he’s passionate about.”
"We tell her: if you are pursuing four things as
extracurricular activities, you can reduce one to focus
only on two and focus on your study".

“If he is truly passionate about something… we’ll

encourage him to pursue it.”
“We encourage our kid to participate in creative
activities and sports.”

Table 2: Private sector

 29

Themes Subthemes Verbatims

1.Parenting approaches Mother’s View:

and child’s needs “For me, the main thing in parenting is building
resilience and empathy. Jab bacha choti choti baatein
share karta hai, it’s a chance to teach them how to
handle emotions.”

"I sometimes soften my stance because I’m a mother,

but I try to balance it with discipline."

Father’s View:
“Parenting approach mein bachon ki unique needs ko
samajhna sabse zaroori hai. Unhe emotional support
and guidance deni chahiye, par saath hi unhe
independence bhi deni chahiye, taaki wo apni identity
aur confidence develop kar saken.”

Individual “I focus on discipline and structure, like setting

differences routines, but my wife handles a lot of the emotional
guidance. For example, if our child’s upset about
something at school, she’s better at talking it through
with them.”

"He needs to earn rewards through actions like

achieving a target, rather than just getting things on
demand."
 30

2.Balancing academic, Mother’s view:

extracurricular and "We ensure he gets enough rest and has time to play,
social activities even during exams."

"Wo hobbies mein interest lete hain, par time aur

transportation ka bhi limitation hai."

“I place a lot of importance on her academics. I want

her to have a strong foundation in studies, but I also
listen to her interests.”

Father’s View:
"We always make sure he follows a strict timetable to
prepare for exams, but I don’t force him to study all
the time. He also needs to play and rest."

"We balance it by setting checkpoints, and he monitors

his academic progress."

"Main koshish karta hoon ki wo academics ke saath

saath kuch practical skills bhi seekhain jo unke future
ke liye helpful ho sakte hain."

3. Teaching respect and Mother’s View:

moral values “He learns well. He knows at certain times, he has to
look presentable like in Poojas, and touch the feet of
his elders which he now has learnt.”
“Our child knows how to greet his elders. He has
learnt to greet his dadu by saying ‘Hare Krishna’ and
at the same time he treats my office colleagues with a
simple ‘hello’.

Father’s View:
"If you are meeting anybody elder to you, you have to
give them respect,”

“Hum chahte hain ki bachcha hamari roots ko samjhe,

like celebrating festivals together.”

Cultural influences 1. Culture and values Mother’s Views: “We try to make culture a part of
daily life. Whether it’s through language or family
gatherings, hum yeh ensure karte hain ki bachche ko
apni heritage ki value samajh aaye.”

"Our child knows how to greet his elders. He has

learnt to greet his Dadu by saying ‘Hare Krishna’ and
at the same time treats my office colleagues with a
simple ‘hello.’"

Father’s Views: “Culture is very important to us.

 31

Hum chahte hain ki bachcha hamari roots ko samjhe,

like celebrating festivals together. During Diwali, for
example, we explain the stories behind the rituals.”

“We have always tried to correct him. I have clearly

told him that until you’re 18, you’ll have to obey us
and give respect to your elders.”

2.Cultural adaptability Mother’s Views:

across generations “Family believes mothers should give everything to
children, fathers don’t seem to have as many
laid-down roles. Culture conditioning is the reason our
parents did it.”

“Our language is Urdu, but since we shifted to Pune, I

wish they could speak it as efficiently as us.”

Father’s views:
“I have a certain culture, and my wife has a different
one, but our son adapts to both naturally.”

“When we were kids, we just listened and obeyed our

parents. But now, we need to be more mindful and
explain things to our children.”

3.Integrating tradition Mother’s Views: “It’s about balancing cultural values

and modernity with the world they’re growing up in. Humara
approach hai ki bacha apni roots ko bhi samjhe aur
nayi duniya ke liye bhi ready ho.”

“I know they are going to venture in situations where

things like alcohol are present, while I can’t force
them or make them understand that they should never
drink, I would have conversations and give them
freedom”

Father’s views: “I would like to have at least some

retention there especially language, food is not that
important but the way they behave and carry
themselves is important. Kurta is my attire, they are
free to do what they like, not pushing them just giving
them an option”

“I encourage our child to appreciate both traditional

and new ideas. We want them to be proud of their
heritage but also open-minded. For example, I’ll share
stories about our culture, but also encourage them to
explore new hobbies.”
 32

Gender role and Role Division and Father’s view: “In our family, there are no strict
expectation Sharing mother or father roles. For instance, I’ll help with
homework, and my wife sometimes manages
discipline. Hum ek team ki tarah kaam karte hain.”

"Main unka support system ban ke role share karta

hoon."

Mother’s View: “We’ve always agreed that parenting

is a shared responsibility. It’s a flexible approach
where we both do what needs to be done, depending
on the day or who’s available.”

“yes, feeding, giving a bath, education is my role, his

role is giving them a good time,bonding , playtime”

2.Societal expectation Mother’s View:

"Kahi na kahi yeh socha jaata hai ki maa ka nurturing
role hona chahiye, par mere husband bhi help karte
hain."

Father’s View:
“There’s still a bit of pressure that fathers should be
the main earners, but I try to stay involved
emotionally as well. Like when our child is upset, I
make it a point to sit with them and listen.”
” Family does not put any expectations.Learning from
our own mistakes, trial and error method.”

Father:
3.Collaboration in "Main zyada financial aur discipline wale areas ko
parenting tasks handle karta hoon, jabki maa unke daily routine aur
emotional care mein zyada involved hai."

“I usually pick my child up from school around

2pm… get his homework done, take care of his school
and tuition fees and practice tennis with him…in our
absence, his dadu stays at our home, ensuring he’s not
left alone, otherwise, we also have CCTV cameras at
home to monitor home security.”

Discipline and 1.Establishing and Mothers’s View: “Hum gentle methods use karte
authority Enforcing Roles hain, jaise privileges temporarily revoke karna to help
our child understand the impact of their actions.”

“I mainly emphasize on achieving a balance between

strictness and leniency in parenting…both academics
and screen time are important…but, I also ensure that
whatever he sees on my phone is age appropriate.”
 33

Father’s View: “Main strict hoon rules ke maamle

mein, par saath hi main unko samjhane ki koshish
karta hoon ki ye unke bhalai ke liye hai.”

“The mother enforces rules and discipline generally

we play the good cop bad cop thing”

2.Balancing Discipline Mother’s View: “I know she’s learning from me, so

and Care I’m working on balancing strictness with patience. I
don’t want her to feel that anger is the solution to
problems. Instead, I want her to understand why
things are a certain way.”

“Hum gentle methods use karte hain, jaise privileges

temporarily revoke karna to help our child understand
the impact of their actions.”

Father’s View: "Bachchon ko strict guidelines dena

zaroori hai."

"Discipline important hai, lekin main unki age ke

Setting Boundaries mutabiq bhi approach ko adjust
karta hoon."

3.Teamwork and Mother’s View: “Whenever there’s a different

Parenting opinion, hum calmly baith ke discuss karte hain, so
our child feels both parents are aligned.”

“I let her be expressive, but I step in if I think a

behavior needs correcting.

Father’s View: “We sit together to discuss rules so

there’s a consistent message. Agar kuch disagreement
hota hai, we make sure to sort it out privately before
talking to our child.”

“Main unko kuch rules aur boundaries ke saath bada

karna chahta hoon taaki wo future mein discipline
samajh saken.”

1.Involvement and Mother’s View:“Both of us help with homework,

Engagement of Parents depending on our schedules. Kabhi husband math
in Learning mein help karte hain aur kabhi main usko reading
mein guide karti hoon.”

“I place a lot of importance on her academics. I want

her to have a strong foundation in studies, but I also
Education listen to her interests.”
 34

“I act in ways that I want them to and assure them that

I am there for them.”

Father’s View: “I attend

parent-teacher meetings and try to help with
homework whenever possible, especially in subjects I
know well. We want our child to feel supported in
their studies.”

“We recently visited Goa, and we explored different

types of museums and forts..So, academically, I use
creative ways where he can enjoy learning new
things…I would ask, “which part of India is Goa
located in?”etc…”

2.Skill Development Mother’s View: “From an early age, we encouraged

her to recognize colors, animals, and basic things
around her. These small learning moments are
important, and I believe they set the stage for her to
keep learning."

“Apart from books we try to teach him about practical

things and we have noticed that he takes more interest
in learnings this way”
Father’s View: “Main koshish karta hoon ki wo
academics ke saath-saath kuch practical skills bhi
seekhein jo unke future ke liye helpful ho sakte hain.”
 35

Discussion

The aim of the study is to compare the paternal and maternal perspective on child rearing
practice across different sectors (private , government )in Indian context. This study uses
inductive thematic analysis to capture different themes to compare paternal and maternal views
in government and private sector in the Indian context.

Individual differences

From table 1 and table 2,The first theme "Individual Differences" highlights the need for
parents to adjust their approaches based on their child's unique personality and developmental
needs. In the government sector, this theme is represented by three subthemes: Parenting Styles
and Balancing Approaches, where parents emphasize a balance of strictness and softness;
Adaptability to Child’s Personality, where parents tailor their schedules to meet the child’s needs
and Fostering Life Skills and Emotional Growth, focusing on moral and emotional development.
In the private sector, the sub themes include Parenting Approaches and Child’s Needs, which
balances emotional support with fostering independence ; Balancing Academic, Extracurricular,
and Social Activities, where parents ensure time for academics and personal growth ; and
Teaching Respect and Moral Values, stressing the importance of cultural traditions . Both sectors
emphasize the importance of understanding individual differences in effective parenting.

In the Government sector, the father's view emphasizes a balanced approach, where he focuses
on practical aspects while his wife provides emotional support (e.g., “Meri wife waise
emotionally support deti hain aur main thoda practical rehta hoon.”). This highlights an
important dynamic where the father maintains stability by sharing equal parenting
responsibilities and adjusting to the unique needs of the child. In contrast, the Private sector
father's view emphasizes discipline and structure (e.g., “I focus on discipline and structure, like
setting routines, but my wife handles a lot of the emotional guidance.”), balancing emotional
guidance with clear boundaries and expectations. This distinction shows a stronger emphasis on
creating routines and boundaries in the Private sector, with emotional guidance delegated to the
mother.

The Government sector mother’s view stresses the importance of balancing strictness and
softness (e.g., “Baccho ko strictness aur softness dono zaroori hai lekin ek balance mein.”). This
shows an approach that prioritizes emotional understanding and moral development in a
balanced manner. On the other hand, the Private sector mother focuses on resilience and empathy
(e.g., “For me, the main thing in parenting is building resilience and empathy.”), highlighting the
importance of emotional maturity alongside discipline.

Paternal and maternal views on parenting often differ in emphasis, reflecting their distinct roles
in child development. Fathers in both sectors tend to focus on discipline and structure. For
instance, a Government sector father shares, “Meri wife waise emotionally support deti hain aur
main thoda practical rehta hoon,” indicating that while he handles the practical and disciplinary
aspects, the mother ensures emotional support. This balanced approach highlights the father’s
role in creating stability, while the mother focuses on emotional security. Sengupta and Malhotra
(2022) support this, noting that government-employed parents benefit from consistent daily
involvement, allowing both to share responsibilities effectively.In contrast, Private sector fathers
 36

emphasize creating routines and clear boundaries, often leaving emotional guidance to mothers.
One father explains, “I focus on discipline and structure, like setting routines, but my wife
handles a lot of the emotional guidance.” Iyer and Menon (2021) observe that
corporate-employed fathers are more likely to promote structured independence due to time
constraints, while mothers take on the emotional caregiving role.

Mothers’ approaches, however, differ. Government sector mothers focus on balancing strictness
with softness, as one mother states, “Baccho ko strictness aur softness dono zaroori hai lekin ek
balance mein.” This approach nurtures emotional understanding and moral development,
aligning with Rao and Verma’s (2002) research on instilling communal values. In contrast,
Private sector mothers prioritize resilience and empathy, with one noting, “For me, the main
thing in parenting is building resilience and empathy.” This reflects Chadda and Deb’s (2013)
findings on urban parents blending traditional and modern styles to foster emotional maturity.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory suggests that both fathers and mothers contribute to
developing autonomy, competence, and emotional security, with fathers providing structure and
mothers fostering emotional resilience. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory emphasizes that both
parents aim for secure attachments, ensuring a balanced developmental approach.

Cultural influence

From table 1 and table 2 The second theme of Cultural Influences encompasses the
transmission and adaptation of traditions and values across generations. In the Government
sector, the sub themes include cultural values and traditions, focusing on preserving heritage and
moral values, and cultural adaptability across generations, which highlights flexibility in cultural
practices to meet modern challenges. Additionally, integrating tradition and modernity
emphasizes balancing traditional values with contemporary lifestyles. In the Private sector,
similar sub themes emerge: culture and values, stressing the everyday integration of heritage,
cultural adaptability across generations, addressing evolving cultural roles, and retaining cultural
values in a contemporary setting, focusing on maintaining traditions amid modern influences.

The government father emphasizes the foundational role of culture, describing it as "the base of
life," with modern aspects as secondary. He believes children learn best through observation and
incorporates daily practices that highlight cultural and moral values. While encouraging respect
for one’s heritage, he also advocates understanding other cultures without imposing rigid
adherence. In contrast, the private father adopts a balanced approach, blending cultural pride
with openness to diversity. He integrates traditions like celebrating festivals and explaining
rituals while encouraging children to explore modern ideas and respect different perspectives.

Similarly, the government sector mother prioritizes instilling cultural awareness in children. She
adopts a flexible approach, blending tradition with the child’s individuality, aiming to pass on
values while allowing room for adaptation. The private mother, however, emphasizes integrating
culture into daily life through language, family interactions, and diverse experiences from her
professional environment. She balances traditional values with modern challenges, preparing
children to navigate evolving societal norms. Government parents emphasize preserving cultural
roots, focusing on moral values and traditions as a foundation for identity. In contrast, private
sector parents adopt an integrative approach, blending tradition with modernity, encouraging
 37

cultural pride alongside adaptability. Both reflect their environments, balancing cultural
continuity with the demands of contemporary society.

The maternal and paternal views on cultural influences in parenting reflect complementary but
distinct approaches, rooted in their roles and priorities. Fathers often emphasize foundational
values and cultural continuity, while mothers integrate tradition with daily practices and modern
adaptability.Government sector fathers highlight the foundational role of culture as a moral
anchor. One father describes culture as "the base of life," emphasizing learning through
observation: “What he learns by seeing us will stay with him.” This approach underscores the
importance of preserving cultural roots as a guide for identity and moral development. Similarly,
Government mothers focus on blending cultural traditions with flexibility, aiming to preserve
heritage while allowing children’s individuality to shape their experience. As one mother
explains, “Hum apne culture ko uske hisaab se chalne dete hai, lekin yeh zaroori hai ki woh
apne roots ko na bhoole.” This reflects a nurturing yet adaptable role in cultural transmission.

Private sector fathers adopt a more integrative approach, balancing cultural pride with openness
to diversity. For instance, one father explains, “We explain rituals during festivals but also
encourage curiosity about other cultures,” signaling a focus on adaptability and global
awareness. Meanwhile, Private sector mothers incorporate cultural practices into daily life
through language, family traditions, and modern exposure. As one mother states, “We try to
make culture a part of life, whether it’s through family interactions or professional exposure,”
showcasing an effort to weave tradition seamlessly with evolving societal norms.

These perspectives align with Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, which emphasizes that cultural
learning occurs through social interactions and guided participation (Rogoff, 2003). Fathers
scaffold foundational values, while mothers foster active cultural engagement, promoting
adaptability. Research by Hofstede (2001) supports this balance, noting that blending traditional
values with modern influences enhances children’s cultural identity and prepares them for global
challenges. Both parental approaches are vital for fostering cultural continuity and adaptability.

Gender roles and expectations

From table 1 and table 2,The third theme of Gender roles and expectations in parenting are
shaped by societal norms and evolving family dynamics, reflecting differences across
government and private sectors. In the government sector, societal expectations emphasize
traditional caregiving roles for mothers, often placing a heavier responsibility on them for daily
parenting tasks, even as fathers contribute in complementary ways. The subtheme of changing
expectations highlights a gradual shift toward equitable parenting, as both parents increasingly
share responsibilities in response to modern demands. In the private sector, role division and
sharing is characterized by a flexible and collaborative approach, with tasks distributed based on
practicality rather than rigid gender norms. Societal expectations in this context appear to be less
traditional, encouraging shared responsibilities and reducing stereotypical roles. Finally,
collaboration in parenting tasks underscores teamwork, where both parents manage household
and child-rearing duties based on availability, reflecting a progressive move toward equality in
parenting roles.
 38

In the government sector, fathers often experience societal pressure to adhere to traditional roles
as financial providers, while attempting to balance emotional involvement. They may focus on
areas like discipline and financial security while supporting cultural and modern parenting
approaches. In contrast, private sector fathers tend to exhibit a more flexible role-sharing
dynamic, participating actively in daily parenting tasks like school routines and emotional
bonding, facilitated by less rigid societal expectations.

Government sector mothers face expectations to prioritize caregiving, often managing the
majority of daily parenting responsibilities alongside professional roles. They strive to balance
traditional nurturing roles with modern work-life dynamics, reflecting the persistence of
traditional norms. Private sector mothers, however, emphasize collaborative parenting, with a
shared responsibility for caregiving, education, and emotional needs, aligning with progressive
societal attitudes and flexible workplace structures.

Maternal and paternal roles in parenting reveal complementary yet distinct dynamics shaped by
societal expectations and workplace environments. In the government sector, fathers often
embody traditional roles as financial providers and disciplinarians, with one father stating,
“Main zyada focus karta hoon discipline aur financial security pe, lekin meri wife emotional aur
daily needs sambhalti hain.” Mothers, on the other hand, manage daily caregiving and nurturing,
as reflected in one mother’s words: “Bacchon ki chhoti-badi zaruratein meri responsibility hain,
kyunki yeh toh maa ka farz hota hai.” In contrast, private sector fathers adopt more flexible and
egalitarian approaches, actively participating in caregiving and emotional bonding, with one
father sharing, “I help with homework, drop them to school, and try to be involved emotionally
despite work.” Private sector mothers complement this by emphasizing collaboration, as one
remarked, “Parenting is teamwork—we both share responsibilities for their studies and
emotional growth equally.” This divergence aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
Theory, which highlights the influence of societal norms (macrosystem) and workplace policies
(exosystem) on family dynamics. Literature supports that evolving workplace structures and
increased societal awareness enable more equitable parenting roles in the private sector, while
traditional expectations persist in the government sector (Bianchi et al., 2006; Lamb, 2010).
These dialogues highlight the interplay between traditional and progressive parenting
approaches.

Discipline and authority

From table 1 and table 2,The fourth theme Discipline and authority illustrates how parents
guide their children through structured parenting approaches. In the private sector, parents
emphasize establishing and enforcing rules by using strategies like privilege revocation and
maintaining age-appropriate boundaries. This ensures that children understand the rationale
behind rules while fostering accountability. The second subtheme, balancing discipline and care,
highlights an empathetic approach where parents mix strictness with patience, teaching children
to address issues calmly without resorting to aggression. Additionally, teamwork in parenting
underscores collaboration between parents, where disagreements are resolved privately to
present a consistent message to the child. In the government sector, the subtheme discipline
approach and parenting roles reflects structured parenting, where one parent may adopt a stricter
role while the other provides emotional support, creating a balanced dynamic. Conflict resolution
in parenting, the second subtheme, involves parents working through disagreements calmly to
 39

align on consistent rules. Both sectors highlight the importance of teaching discipline as a shared
parental responsibility while considering the child’s emotional well-being. These subthemes
collectively demonstrate diverse yet complementary approaches to fostering discipline and
authority in children.

The government sector father's view emphasizes strictness while fostering respect and
responsibility. As he states, "Mera yeh belief h ki apne bache ke liye sahi jagah strict rhu taaki
usse disciplined rkhu. Lekin kaafi jagah meri wife already strict rehti h toh main uska friend
banne ki bhi koshish krta hu." He balances this with emotional connection by allowing his wife
to take a softer approach when necessary. The private sector father, on the other hand, focuses on
teamwork and flexibility, saying, "Main strict hoon rules ke maamle mein, par saath hi main
unko samjhane ki koshish karta hoon ki ye unke bhalai ke liye hai." His collaborative strategy
includes discussing rules with his wife to ensure consistency, reflecting modern shared parenting
roles.

The government sector mother uses subtle methods of discipline, relying on silence to
communicate displeasure and allow the child to introspect: "Meri aadat hai main daant’ti nahi
hoon zyada, main sirf chupchaap shaant hojaati hoon, fir bacche khud hi samajh jaate hain apni
galti." She also emphasizes resolving conflicts through mutual discussions with her spouse. In
contrast, the private sector mother actively negotiates discipline with care, saying, "Hum gentle
methods use karte hain, jaise privileges temporarily revoke karna to help our child understand
the impact of their actions." She balances strictness and leniency to foster understanding while
maintaining authority.

Maternal and paternal perspectives on discipline and authority reflect complementary yet distinct
approaches shaped by parenting roles and strategies. Fathers often emphasize structure and rule
enforcement, with a focus on maintaining authority while fostering accountability. For instance,
a government sector father shared, “Mera yeh belief hai ki main sahi jagah strict rahoon aur
discipline banake rakhoon, par agar meri wife strict hai toh main unka dost banne ki koshish
karta hoon.” This reflects Baumrind's (1966) authoritative parenting style, where firm discipline
is balanced with emotional understanding. In contrast, private sector fathers adopt a more
collaborative and flexible approach, combining strictness with open communication, as one
noted, “Main rules ke liye strict hoon, par unhe samjhane ki koshish karta hoon ki ye unke
bhalai ke liye hai.” This aligns with findings by Bornstein (2019), emphasizing how shared
parenting responsibilities foster consistency and accountability.

Mothers, however, tend to focus on emotional regulation and subtle methods of discipline. A
government sector mother emphasized the use of silence for introspection, saying, “Main
daant’ti nahi, sirf shaant ho jaati hoon, aur bacche khud galti samajhte hain.” This approach
mirrors findings by Kochanska et al. (2001), which suggest that gentle discipline enhances
children’s internalization of values and self-regulation. On the other hand, private sector mothers
favor negotiation and empathetic strategies, such as revoking privileges temporarily to teach
consequences, as one explained, “Hum gentle methods use karte hain, jaise privileges revoke
karna, taaki bacchon ko apne actions ka impact samajh aaye.” This approach aligns with
Baumrind’s balanced parenting model, promoting open communication alongside structured
discipline.
 40

Together, these roles underscore how fathers emphasize authority and consistency while mothers
focus on emotional connection and adaptability. This complementary dynamic, grounded in
Baumrind’s authoritative style, highlights the importance of balancing strictness with empathy to
nurture well-rounded children.

Education

From table 1 and table 2,The last theme of Education focuses on the active role parents play in
shaping their children's academic and personal development. In both the government and private
sectors, education is seen as a collaborative effort between parents and children, where
involvement extends beyond just academics to include extracurricular activities and skill
development.In the government sector, the main theme is Parental Support and Career
Flexibility. Subthemes include parents’ involvement in academic and extracurricular activities,
balancing discipline with emotional support, and encouraging career flexibility. Parents support
both academics and moral education, emphasizing the pursuit of a child's passion alongside a
solid academic foundation.

In the private sector, the primary theme is Involvement and Engagement in Learning. Subthemes
highlight active participation in homework and school activities, emphasizing both academic and
skill development. Parents focus on fostering practical skills, offering creative learning
opportunities, and supporting their child’s diverse interests and passions for future success.

The government adopts a structured approach to education, focusing on academics and

discipline. He balances this by supporting his child's career interests, as seen in his statement,
“We hope he will work hard and pursue a field he’s passionate about.” While emphasizing
discipline, he encourages his child to explore extracurricular activities and creative pursuits,
saying, “If he is truly passionate about something… we’ll encourage him to pursue it.” In
contrast, the private father engages more interactively with his child’s learning, integrating
creativity into academics. For example, he shares, “We recently visited Goa, and we explored
different types of museums and forts... I would ask, ‘Which part of India is Goa located in?’” He
actively participates in homework and uses practical experiences to enrich academic
understanding.

The government mother prioritizes moral education and balanced development, as reflected in
her view: “Mujhe lagta hai ki bacho ko chino experience hote dena chahiye aur unhe ek moral
education.” She supports extracurricular activities to ensure her child gains diverse experiences.
Meanwhile, the private mother adopts a nurturing and participative approach, saying, “Both of us
help with homework, depending on our schedules. Kabhi husband math mein help karte hain aur
kabhi main usko reading mein guide karti hoon.” She focuses on everyday learning moments,
adding, “From an early age, we encouraged her to recognize colors, animals, and basic things
around her.”

Maternal and paternal approaches to education reflect complementary yet distinct strategies,
emphasizing diverse dimensions of a child’s academic and personal growth. Fathers often focus
on structure and active engagement in learning. For instance, a government sector father
emphasizes academic discipline while supporting career flexibility, stating, “We hope he will
work hard and pursue a field he’s passionate about.” He also encourages exploration of
 41

extracurricular activities to balance discipline with creativity, reflecting Baumrind’s (1966)

authoritative parenting style, which combines high expectations with responsiveness. Similarly,
private sector fathers integrate creativity and practical learning into education, as one remarked,
“We recently visited Goa, and I would ask, ‘Which part of India is Goa located in?’” This
interactive approach aligns with Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, highlighting the role of shared
experiences and guided participation in cognitive development (Rogoff, 2003).

Mothers, however, often prioritize moral development and nurturing strategies. A government
mother underscores the importance of moral education alongside diverse experiences, stating,
“Mujhe lagta hai ki bacho ko alag-alag experiences dene chahiye aur unhe ek moral education
bhi milni chahiye.” This aligns with Kochanska et al.’s (2001) findings that early moral guidance
fosters internalization of values and prosocial behavior. Private mothers adopt a participative
approach, focusing on creative learning opportunities and everyday teaching moments, as one
explained, “We encouraged her to recognize colors, animals, and basic things from an early
age.” This strategy supports Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, where parental
involvement in the microsystem enhances learning and emotional resilience (Bronfenbrenner,
1979).

Together, fathers emphasize structure and active participation, while mothers focus on emotional
connection and nurturing creativity. Both roles, supported by research (Bornstein et al., 2019),
contribute to a holistic educational framework, promoting both academic success and adaptive
skills essential for modern challenges.

The data reveals distinct differences in maternal and paternal views on child development,
shaped by their unique roles and perspectives. Fathers often adopt a practical, discipline-oriented
approach, focusing on structured routines, accountability, and fostering independence. Their
methods emphasize logical problem-solving and career flexibility, supporting children in
building resilience and adaptability. Fathers also integrate creative teaching techniques, like
interactive learning through real-world experiences, blending modern educational strategies with
traditional values.In contrast, mothers prioritize emotional support, moral education, and
balanced development. Their nurturing approach often combines empathy with gentle discipline,
encouraging introspection and adaptability. Mothers focus on instilling resilience, fostering
creativity, and ensuring that children grow with a strong sense of moral and cultural values. They
tend to emphasize collaborative parenting and integrate daily learning opportunities into routine
activities, promoting a holistic development framework.

These contrasting views underscore a complementary dynamic where fathers contribute structure
and independence, while mothers provide emotional grounding and moral guidance. Together,
they create a balanced parenting ecosystem, addressing both the academic and emotional needs
of children. This distinction aligns with Baumrind’s Parenting Styles and Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Theory, highlighting the importance of diverse parental influences in nurturing
well-rounded individuals equipped for modern societal demands.

Limitations

This study has several limitations that may impact its findings and generalizability. First, the
sample size is limited to 20 participants (10 sets of parents), which may not adequately represent
 42

the diversity of parenting practices across India. As such, the results may not be generalizable to
broader populations, particularly families outside the dual-income demographic. Second, the
study excludes single working parents and families with mixed-sector employment, thereby
omitting insights into diverse family structures that may influence parenting styles. Additionally,
focusing on children aged 4–10 years restricts the scope to a narrow developmental stage,
potentially overlooking variations in parenting practices for younger or older children.

Parents of children with physical or mental disabilities are excluded, leaving a gap in
understanding how these factors shape child-rearing approaches. The study also does not
consider the number of children in a family or their birth order, which can significantly influence
parenting dynamics. While the gender of the child is taken into account, the study may not fully
explore how this factor interacts with sector-specific parenting practices. Lastly, variations within
sectors, such as differences in work-life balance among high-stress versus low-stress corporate or
government jobs, are not examined, potentially oversimplifying sectoral impacts.

Conclusion

This research examines the impact of corporate and government sectors on paternal and maternal
perspectives in child-rearing practices among dual-income Indian families. The findings
highlight distinct parental roles: mothers emphasize emotional development, moral education,
and cultural preservation, while fathers focus on practical life skills, problem-solving, and
discipline. Sector-specific dynamics, such as job stability, work demands, and professional
culture, significantly shape these parenting approaches. Government sector parents tend toward
structured, tradition-oriented methods, while corporate sector parents adopt flexible,
collaborative practices. The study also reveals a gradual shift in traditional gender roles, with
both parents increasingly sharing responsibilities in response to modern demands. Moreover, the
balance between cultural preservation and adaptation to contemporary values varies across
sectors. By shedding light on these differences, this research underscores the importance of
tailoring parenting strategies to sectoral influences, promoting holistic child development while
fostering equitable and inclusive family dynamics in the evolving Indian context.

Implication of study

The findings of this study have significant implications for parenting interventions, workplace
policies, and societal norms. By highlighting sector-specific differences, it underscores the need
for customized support systems that align with the unique challenges faced by corporate and
government-employed parents. Policies promoting flexible work schedules and parental leave
can enhance shared responsibilities and equitable parenting. The research also emphasizes the
importance of fostering cultural awareness and balancing traditional values with modern
parenting demands. Additionally, it encourages awareness of evolving gender roles, promoting
collaborative parenting to support holistic child development, emotional resilience, and adaptive
skills in dual-income families.

Suggestions for future study

Future studies could expand the scope of this research by including diverse family structures,
such as single-parent households or blended families, to explore variations in child-rearing
 43

practices. Additionally, examining families with children of varying age groups or those with
physical or mental disabilities could provide broader insights. A longitudinal approach would
help track the evolving influence of professional sectors on parenting styles over time. Future
research could also explore the intersectionality of socio-economic factors, regional diversity,
and cultural differences in shaping parenting practices. Including perspectives of children could
offer a comprehensive understanding of the impact of parenting approaches on their
development.
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