children

Article
Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship with
Emotional Well-Being and Academic Performance:
The Vision of High School Students
María Dolores Toscano-Hermoso 1 , Carlos Ruiz-Frutos 2,3 , Javier Fagundo-Rivera 4, * ,
Juan Gómez-Salgado 2,3, * , Juan Jesús García-Iglesias 2,† and Macarena Romero-Martín 1,†
1 Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain;
[email protected] (M.D.T.-H.); [email protected] (M.R.-M.)
2 Department of Sociology, Social Work and Public Health, Faculty of Labour Sciences, University of Huelva,
21007 Huelva, Spain; [email protected] (C.R.-F.); [email protected] (J.J.G.-I.)
3 Safety and Health Postgraduate Programme, Universidad Espíritu Santo, Guayaquil 091650, Ecuador
4 Andalusian Health Service, Health Sciences Doctorate School, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected] (J.F.-R.); [email protected] (J.G.-S.);
Tel.: +34-959218464 (J.F.-R.); +34-959219700 (J.G.-S.)
† These authors share the senior position.




Received: 21 October 2020; Accepted: 18 December 2020; Published: 20 December 2020


Abstract: Emotional intelligence skills in students may be related with physical and mental health,
within and outside the academic field. Strengthening these skills can lead to greater overall well-being,
lower use of substances, and improved academic performance, as well as reduced aggressive behaviours.
The objective of this study was to analyse the levels of emotional intelligence (differentiating between
the dimensions: emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair) among high school students and examine
its relationship with academic performance and emotional well-being, considering if there are
differences between boys and girls and between different grades. A cross-sectional descriptive study
was developed on a sample of 333 High School students using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS)
and KIDSCREEN-10 Index tools. Differences in emotional intelligence were observed between
boys and girls for the three dimensions, and a relationship between emotional intelligence and
student well-being was appreciated. No relationships were found between emotional intelligence
and academic performance, nor have any differences been observed between the different courses
analysed. It cannot be concluded that academic performance is related to emotional intelligence,
but a relationship between well-being and emotional intelligence is found.

Keywords: emotional intelligence; personal well-being; adolescence; academic performance;

high school; students

1. Introduction
Adolescence is a stage in which a series of developmental changes occur that may threaten
development and emotional well-being. This stage is especially characterised by certain instability,
where the search for and consolidation of identity and the achievement of autonomy on the part of the
adolescent is an important and necessary element of their lives [1]. On an emotional level, adolescents
tend to be reserved regarding their problems and to not express their emotions or, on the other hand,
to manifest them disproportionately. Thus, it becomes essential to encourage the development of
emotional intelligence and encourage adolescents to observe and examine the feelings and emotions
they experience [2].

Children 2020, 7, 310; doi:10.3390/children7120310 www.mdpi.com/journal/children

Children 2020, 7, 310 2 of 12

The growing interest in the study of emotions over the past 30 years has led to numerous studies
on emotional competences and their impact in various contexts [3,4]. In the early 1990s, the importance
of emotional, personal and social aspects that could predict adaptation and success skills in life began
to be emphasised, claiming a more global intelligence perspective, that is, emotional intelligence,
defined as the ability to perceive, value, and express emotions accurately to access and/or generate
feelings that facilitate thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate
emotions by promoting emotional and intellectual growth.
Mayer and Salovey [5] designed one of the first instruments for measuring emotional intelligence,
based on the three fundamental processes: perception, understanding, and regulation of emotions
using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) [6,7].
From the concept of emotional intelligence, it can be extracted that it is closely linked to emotional
well-being [5,8,9]. It has also been shown that both emotional and social development are important in
academic performance to such an extent of finding statistically significant correlations between emotional
intelligence and academic performance [10] in primary education [11]; secondary education [12–16];
as well as among university students [17,18]. These findings are justified by stating that emotional
intelligence favours the deployment of essential socio-emotional skills for school learning and,
on the other hand, reduce the possibility of disruptive behaviours that hinder academic learning [19].
However, there are other research works that contradict these results, finding null or very limited
relationships between both variables [20,21]. The literature shows that gaps in emotional intelligence
skills affect students inside and outside the school context. Specifically, emotional intelligence is
related to physical and mental health [22–25], with greater well-being, lower substance use [26],
better academic performance [12], as well as less aggressive behaviour [22].
In this sense, there are relationships between the various benefits of emotional education in
the educational context such as: positive school coexistence; promotion of personal well-being;
decreased rates of violence and aggression, of depressive symptomatology, anxiety and stress;
improved school adaptation, self-esteem, and satisfactory personal relationships [27].
In Spain, according to the 2017 National Health Survey, 12.64% of the young population is at
risk of poor mental health, 3.99% of suffering mental illness, 1.22% have depression, 2.06% have
chronic anxiety, and 5.98% have had an appointment with the psychologist or psychotherapist in the
last 12 months [28]. Navarro-Mateu et al.’s study revealed that the young Spanish population has a
higher risk of suffering a mental health disorder, especially those related to anxiety [29]. Lapresa et al.
pointed to a social component in the mental health of Spanish children, identifying that those born into
less-favoured families have worse mental health [30]. According to Alonso-Fernández et al., the biggest
difficulty that children in Spain find in relation to mental health is hyperactivity or attention deficit [31].
Therefore, the objectives of this study were, to analyse the levels of emotional intelligence
(differentiating between the dimensions: emotional attention, clarity, and repair) among compulsory
secondary education students (Spain) to find out if there are differences between boys and girls and between
the grades and to examine their relationship with academic performance and emotional well-being.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants
A cross-sectional descriptive study was designed. The sample consisted of 333 students enrolled
in the first, second, third, and fourth grade of Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO, for its acronym
in Spanish) of the Colón Marist School, Huelva (Spain). Of the whole sample, 142 were girls (42.6%),
and 191 boys (57.4%). The mean age of the participants was 14.03 years with a SD of 1.28. To obtain the
study sample, non-probabilistic purposive sampling was used.
The Colón Marist School of Huelva is a private religious associated centre located near the
downtown area of Huelva, with most students belonging to the downtown and periphery area,
and compatible with medium-high and high socioeconomic levels. The family context coincides in an
Children 2020, 7, 310 3 of 12

experience of faith as a mechanism to provide moral values which are considered important for the
family and that are present throughout the educational process of students.

2.2. Instruments
The assessment of emotional intelligence was evaluated through the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS)
in its reduced version adapted to Spanish by Fernández-Berrocal et al. [7]. It is a self-administered
tool that measures the level of perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) from the individual’s own
meta-knowledge of the emotional states. It consists of 24 items based on the three dimensions stated
by Mayer and Salovey [5] theoretical model of emotional intelligence. These are: (a) emotional
attention is about to what extent individuals tend to observe and think about their feelings and
moods (e.g., I pay a lot of attention to how I feel and I don’t think it’s worth paying attention to your emotions
or moods); (b) emotional clarity refers to the understanding of one’s emotional states (e.g., I am usually
very clear about my feelings and I can’t make sense out of my feelings); and (c) emotional repair refers to
the individuals’ beliefs about their ability to regulate their feelings (e.g., Although I am sometimes sad,
I have a mostly optimistic outlook and When I become upset, I remind myself of all the pleasures in life).
Each dimension is evaluated by 8 items. The scale of responses ranges from: 1 = do not agree;
2 = moderately agree; 3 = quite agree; 4 = highly agree; and 5 = totally agree. The scores of the three
subscales are classified into three ranges (To improve, Adequate and Excellent) and vary according
to the gender of the participants [7]. As for the psychometric properties of the scale, the authors
report a high internal consistency for each dimension: Attention α = 0.90; Clarity α = 0.90; and Repair
α = 0.86 [7]. The internal consistency in this study, obtained through Cronbach’s alpha regarding the
different subscales, has been: Attention α = 0.81; Clarity α = 0.83; Repair α = 0.79.
It is necessary to note that an overall PEI score is not obtained, as this instrument has not been
designed for this purpose, so it is important to take this into account for the interpretation of the results.
On the other hand, the instrument does not measure the entire mastery of the PEI trait, but only part
of it, so some central dimensions of the PEI trait are left out of the information provided by this scale.
The authors of the scale provide values (Table 1) to calculate the subject’s final scores in each of the
three dimensions with different cut-off points for males and females, as there are differences in scores
for each of these groups [32]. These levels of interpretation have been used in previous studies such as
the one by Guerra-Bustamante et al. [33].

Table 1. Interpretation of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS)-24 scores.

Dimension Male Female

Attention To be improved: Little attention <21 To be improved: Little attention <24
Adequate attention from 22 to 32 Adequate attention from 25 to 35
To be improved: Too much attention >33 To be improved: Too much attention >36
Clarity To be improved <25 To be improved <23
Adequate from 26 to 35 Adequate from 24 to 34
Excellent >36 Excellent >35
Repair To be improved <23 To be improved <23
Adequate from 24 to 35 Adequate from 24 to 34
Excellent >36 Excellent >35

Emotional well-being was assessed through the KIDSCREEN-10 Index [34], a self-administered
tool consisting of 10 items derived from the KIDSCREEN-27 questionnaire version. For its development,
Rasch’s analysis of the extended version was applied, the results of which provided a one-dimensional
index of health-related quality of life, which has been widely used as a measure of emotional well-being.
Items are answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale based on the degree of agreement with the statement
presented (e.g., Have you felt fit and well? and Have you got on well at school? and Have you been
able to pay attention?). Total scores range from 10 to 50, and higher scores indicate higher levels of
emotional well-being. The instrument showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.82)
Children 2020, 7, 310 4 of 12

and good test-retest stability (r = 0.73; ICC = 0.72) [35]. The internal consistency obtained in this study
resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.783 (α = 0.783).
For the analysis of the academic performance variable, the grades obtained in the previous term
(2nd term) were requested for the four subjects common to the four courses included, namely the following:
(a) mathematics; (b) language; (c) social sciences/geography and history; and (d) biology/physics and
chemistry. The response options were 1—fail; 2—sufficient; 3—good; 4—very good; 5—excellent. Finally,
the academic performance variable was obtained by calculating the mean of these four subjects.

2.3. Procedure
First, a meeting was held with the centre’s management body to explain the objectives of the study,
show the questionnaires, and ensure the confidentiality of the study. Once cooperation standards
were agreed, a meeting took place with the coordinators of the cycles that included the selected courses
in order to explain the objective of the study, as well as to specify the dates and times of data collection.
During this meeting, the questionnaire to be completed by the students was shown to them and they
were urged to express any doubts.
Data collection took place at the beginning of the third term of the academic year 2018/2019 after
informing the participants on their participation in a study on adolescents’ well-being and ensuring
confidentiality and anonymity.

2.4. Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were presented as percentages and frequencies. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov
test was used to determine whether data followed a normal distribution.
Descriptive statistics were used for the whole sample, boys and girls and students of each course,
to describe the sample regarding emotional intelligence levels related with the emotional attention,
clarity, and repair dimensions.
In addition, for the comparison of emotional intelligence levels according to the sex of the
participants, the chi squared statistic test and its corresponding effect size test (Cramer’s V) were used.
For the comparison between courses, chi squared was used as a significance test and the Tau-c coefficient
as an effect size test. Comparison of column proportion was performed when the chi-squared test was
not significant.
To analyse the relationship of each dimension of emotional intelligence with academic performance,
tests of comparison of means were used, specifically one-factor ANOVAs. Cohen’s d was used as an
effect size test for each crossing of two response values, according to the following criteria: from 0 to 0.19,
negligible; 0.20 to 0.49, low effect size; 0.50 to 0.79, medium effect size; and, from 0.80, large effect size.
The study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and well-being was also carried out
through one-factor ANOVAs and Cohen’s d effect size test; a post-hoc analysis was presented for those
subcategories that had significant differences.
The statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS 25 programme, assuming a significance level
of p < 0.05.

2.5. Ethical Aspects

Subjects’ participation has been completely voluntary, guaranteeing anonymity at all times.
Additionally, the participants signed an informed consent for inclusion before they participated
in the study. The questionnaires explained the study subject matter in detail and included the
participant’s consent. Participants’ responses were recorded anonymously, and the information was
treated confidentially, following the regulations in force (Organic Law 3/2018, of 5 December, on the
Protection of Personal Data and guarantee of digital rights).
The study was conducted under the “Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Humans”
contained in the latest version of the Helsinki Declaration (Fortress Amendment, Brazil, October 2013).
Children 2020, 7, 310 5 of 12

This project has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Colon Marist School in Huelva on
25 May 2019.

3. Results

3.1. Analysis of Emotional Intelligence Levels

It is observed that, of the total sample of 333 students, approximately half of them obtained
adequate levels of emotional attention, clarity, and repair. Table 2 identifies the levels of each of the PEI
dimensions. With regard to the category rated “To improve”, it is observed that there is a percentage
close to 45% in the attention dimension (resulting from the categories “Insufficient” and “Excessive”),
25% in the repair dimension, and almost 40% in the case of emotional clarity. Regarding comparisons
between boys and girls, the results showed statistically significant differences with a small effect size in
the three subscales studied: Attention (p = 0.018, V = 0.156); Clarity (p = 0.008, V = 0.170), and Repair
(p = 0.008, V = 0.171). The percentage of males with excessive attention was higher, as well as with
adequate levels in clarity and repair. However, the percentages of excellent clarity and repair were
higher among females. No differences were identified regarding sex between those who need to
improve in any of the three dimensions.

Table 2. Analysis results of the emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair dimensions for the whole
sample and according to sex.

Sex
Total Male Female
n = 333 n = 191 n = 142
f % (CI) f % (CI) f % (CI) χ2 p Cramer’s V
Attention 8.082 0.018 0.156
24.92% 20.9% 30.3%
Insufficient 83 40 43
(20.27–29.57) (15.2–26.68) (22.71–37.89)
55.25% 54.5% 56.3%
Adequate 184 104 80
(49.90–60.60) (47.42–61.58) (48.11–64.49)
19.81% 24.6% 13.4%
Excessive * 66 47 19
(15.52–24.10) (18.48–30.72) (7.78–19.02)
Clarity 9.591 0.008 0.170
39.9% 37.7% 43.0%
To improve 133 72 61
(34.64–45.16) (30.81–44.59) (34.83–51.17)
50.75% 56.5% 43.0%
Adequate * 169 108 61
(45.37–56.13) (49.45–63.55) (34.83–51.17)
9.39% 5.8% 14.1%
Excellent * 31 11 20
(6.25–12.53) (2.48–9.12) (8.36–19.84)
Repair 9.685 0.008 0.171
24.3% 20.4% 29.6%
To improve 81 39 42
(19.69–28.91) (14.67–26.13) (22.07–37.13)
64.9% 71.7% 55.6%
Adequate * 216 137 79
(59.77–70.03) (65.29–78.11) (47.40–63.80)
10.8% 7.9% 14.8%
Excellent * 36 15 21
(7.46–14.14) (4.06–11.74) (8.94–20.66)
* Percentages differences by sex.

Table 3 presents the results of the three emotional intelligence dimensions (Attention, Clarity,
and Repair) according to the academic year. In this case, the significance tests showed no significant
differences regarding the emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair dimensions among the students of
the different courses (see p values in Table 2). However, despite no significant differences in the Clarity
Children 2020, 7, 310 6 of 12

dimension, it was observed that the effect size (see Tau-c value in Table 2) could be classified as a small
effect size.

Table 3. Analysis results for the emotional Attention, Clarity, Repair dimensions according to the
course of the students.

Course
1st ESO * 2nd ESO * 3rd ESO * 4th ESO *
n = 86 n = 80 n = 86 n = 81
f % (IC) f % (IC) f % (IC) f % (IC) χ2 p Tau-c
Attention 4.633 0.592 0.015
Insufficient 24 27.9% 17 21.3% 24 27.9% 18 22.2%
(18.37–37.43) (12.27–30.33) (18.37–37.43) (13.09–31.31)
Adequate 45 52.3% 49 61.3% 41 47.7% 49 60.5%
(41.68–62.92) (50.56–72.04) (37.08–58.32) (49.79–71.21)
Excessive 17 19.8% 14 17.5% 21 24.4% 14 17.3%
(11.33–28.27) (9.12–25.88) (15.27–33.53) (9.01–25.59)
Clarity 7.723 0.259 −0.109
To improve 30 34.9% 25 31.3% 40 46.5% 38 46.9%
(24.77–45.03) (21.07–41.53) (35.90–57.10) (35.96–57.84)
Adequate 45 52.3% 47 58.8% 40 46.5% 37 45.7%
(41.68–62.92) (47.95–69.65) (35.90–57.10) (34.78–56.62)
Excellent 11 12.8% 8 10.0% 6 7.0% 6 7.4%
(5.70–19.90) (3.38–16.62) (1.58–12.42) (1.66–13.14)
Repair 9.646 0.140 −0.071
To improve 23 26.7% 15 18.8% 21 24.4% 22 27.2%
(17.30–36.10) (10.18–27.42) (15.27–33.53) (17.45–36.95)
Adequate 49 57.0% 54 67.5% 57 66.3% 56 69.1%
(46.48–67.52) (57.17–77.83) (56.25–76.35) (58.97–79.23)
Excellent 14 16.3% 11 13.8% 8 3.7% 3 3.7%
(8.45–24.15) (6.19–21.41) (0–7.71) (0–7.84)
* ESO: Compulsory Secondary Education.

3.2. Emotional Intelligence and Academic Performance

An analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and student performance (assessed
according to their mean grades) shows no differences in any of the categorised subcomponents of
emotional intelligence, as can be seen in Table 4. ANOVA results showed no statistical significance
associated to any of the dimensions, thus allowing to reject normality, nor homoscedasticity, p > 0.05 in
all cases.

3.3. Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Well-Being

With regard to the relationship between the emotional intelligence dimensions and emotional
well-being, once assumed normality and homoscedasticity of the dimensions (p > 0.05 in all cases),
statistically significant differences are found regarding the Clarity and Repair dimensions (see Table 5).
A post-hoc analysis of the Clarity and Repair dimensions allowed to detect, based on Tukey’s range test,
significant differences between the category “To improve” and “Adequate” and “Excellent” (p < 0.001
in all cases). No significant differences were found for the clarity dimension between the “Excellent”
and “Adequate” categories (p = 0.508), but these were found for the repair dimension (p < 0.001).
When analysing the effect size of these differences, it is observed that, in the Clarity dimension,
a moderate effect is found between the categories “To improve” vs. “Adequate” (Cohen’s d = 0.56);
a small size effect between the categories “Adequate” vs. “Excellent” (Cohen’s d = 0.22); and moderate
but close to large effect size between the categories “To improve” vs. “Excellent” (Cohen’s d = 0.78).
As for the Repair dimension, a moderate effect size is found between the categories “To improve” vs.
Children 2020, 7, 310 7 of 12

“Adequate”, and between “Adequate” vs. “Excellent” (Cohen’s d = 0.61 and 0.62, respectively), and a
large effect size between “To improve” vs. “Excellent” (Cohen’s d = 1.11).

Table 4. Comparison of means in academic performance based on the emotional Attention, Clarity,
and Repair dimensions.

n M SD 95% CI F p
Attention 0.524 0.593
Insufficient 83 3.34 1.10 3.10–3.58
Adequate 184 3.20 1.06 3.05–3.36
Excessive 66 3.29 1.08 3.03–3.56
Clarity 0.026 0.975
To improve 133 3.24 1.12 3.05–3.44
Adequate 169 3.27 1.05 3.11–3.43
Excellent 31 3.24 1.02 2.86–3.61
Repair 0.956 0.385
To improve 81 3.16 1.10 2.92–3.41
Adequate 216 3.26 1.07 3.11–3.40
Excellent 36 3.46 1.05 3.14–3.37
TMMS: Scale: 1 (do not agree)–5 (totally agree). Academic performance: Scale: 1 (fail)–5 (excellent).

Table 5. Comparison of emotional well-being means based on the emotional Attention, Clarity,
and Repair dimensions.

n M SD 95% CI F p
Attention 0.020 0.980
Insufficient 83 36.78 5.52 35.57–37.98
Adequate 184 36.63 6.06 35.74–37.51
Excessive 66 36.68 5.45 35.34–38.02
Clarity 14.922 <0.001
To improve 133 34.67 5.78 33.68–35.66
Adequate 169 37.82 5.55 36.97–38.66
Excellent 31 39.03 4.65 37.32–40.74
Repair 21.068 <0.001
To improve 81 33.74 6.14 32.38–35.09
Adequate 216 37.14 5.34 36.43–37.86
Excellent 36 40.47 5.80 38.91–42.02
TMMS: Scale: 1 (do not agree)–5 (totally agree). KIDSCREEN-10: Scale: 1 (not at all/never)–5 (extremely/always),
total scores range from 10 to 50, and higher scores indicate higher levels of emotional well-being.

4. Discussion
The objective of this study was to analyse the levels of emotional intelligence and their relationship
with academic performance and emotional well-being among students of compulsory secondary
education of an associated educational centre.
First, it is noted that the most participating students are placed above the adequate levels in
the emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair dimensions, although it is true that the percentages
associated with the category rated “To improve” are high in absolute terms (44.71%, 39.9% and 24.3% for
Children 2020, 7, 310 8 of 12

attention, clarity and repair, respectively). The obtained results resemble previous research conducted
by Guerra-Bustamante et al. [33] on a sample of 646 Spanish students in the same educational stage.
This study obtained percentages of students in the “To improve” category in the three dimensions of
the TMMS-24, in particular 41.0%, 39.39%, and 29.4% for attention, clarity, and repair, respectively.
Second, it is concluded that there are statistically significant differences regarding emotional
intelligence levels between sample boys and girls for all three dimensions. There are similarities with
the findings of Serrano and Andreu [26] and Trigoso [36], who found higher scores for girls in the
Attention component, while boys scored higher in Repair. Likewise, a study performed on Chilean
young population also identified significantly higher levels among girls for the attention to the feelings
dimension [37]. In our study, these findings are not confirmed for the Attention dimension, since despite
the fact that approximately half of both groups (boys and girls) are in the “Adequate” category, there is
a greater presence of boys in the “Excessive” category and girls in the “Insufficient” category. However,
as regards the Repair dimension, there are similarities with the findings of Serrano and Andreu [26]
and Trigoso [36], as the percentage of boys reporting Adequate and Excellent scores on this component
is higher than that of girls. Regarding the results of these studies, Pérez-Bonet and Velado-Guillén [38]
stated that there are two tendencies: on the one hand, greater self-attention is paid to women’s feelings
compared to men and, on the other hand, men have an advantage in the emotional repair variable,
although they consider these trends unsteady and contradictory today, as it can be partially seen in the
present study. Another research conducted on samples of adolescents found no significant differences
between boys and girls regarding the Clarity and Repair dimensions [39]. This discrepancy with the
results of our study could be explained by the imbalance in the distribution of our sample with respect
to gender, with boys being more frequent.
In relation to course comparisons, no differences were found between students of different
courses for any of the emotional intelligence dimensions studied, as it also occurs in some other
studies [26]. The study by Alhabi on emotional intelligence in Saudi school-age children did not
either find significant differences regarding courses [40]. However, these findings contrast with those
stated by other authors who found that emotional intelligence is lower in 2nd course of ESO than
in the other educational levels and, in particular, significantly lower than in 4th course of ESO [16].
However, it should be noted that the instrument for measuring emotional intelligence used in this
study (Emotional Quotient—Youth Version) was different from the one used in our study, so the
assessment of the phenomenon could differ.
Considering the study of the relationship between the dimensions of emotional intelligence and
academic performance, our findings do not support the existence of a relationship between them.
These results differ from those observed by other researchers who did find statistically significant
positive correlations between emotional intelligence and academic performance, although with different
effects as compared to the results found in this study [13,14,41]. While this is true, these authors
used different instruments for the measurement, in this case, MSCEIT [42] for the first two [14,41],
and TEIQue-ASF [43] in the third one [13]. Suleman et al. studied the association between emotional
intelligence and academic success in young Pakistanis. The results revealed that students with a
higher level of emotional intelligence achieved better academic results. In addition, academic success
was strongly associated with the managing relations, integrity, and self-development dimensions,
and moderately associated with self-awareness, empathy, self-motivation, emotional stability,
value orientation, commitment, and altruistic behaviour [44]. McCann et al.’s meta-analysis concluded
that emotional intelligence is a predictive factor for academic success, especially in humanities-related
areas of knowledge. These authors identified three elements that underpin the link between emotional
intelligence and academic success: (a) regulating academic emotions; (b) building social relationships at
school; and (c) academic content overlap with emotional intelligence [45]. Our results may differ by the
fact that academic performance considered as a categorical variable rather than continuous. In any case,
the authors of the meta-analysis recommend conducting longitudinal studies that consolidate the role
of these three mechanisms in the relationship between IE and academic performance.
Children 2020, 7, 310 9 of 12

When focusing on the work used by the TMMS-24, Jiménez-Morales and López-Zafra [46], in a
study on ESO students, they found a correlation between the attention and repair subscale and academic
performance, though not for the Clarity dimension. Buenrostro-Guerrero et al. [47], in a study on a
sample of first-year high school students, observed a positive and significant correlation with academic
performance only for the TMMS-24 Repair dimension. In this same research, another emotional
intelligence assessment tool was used, based on the Bar-On theoretical model [48], finding correlations
between academic performance and most of the subscales. Instead, results have been found matching
those from our study regarding students from last course, where no significant association was
observed between emotional intelligence, evaluated through TMMS-24, and the academic variables
mean grade and number of fails [4,26]. This dichotomy can be explained by the difficulty in
conceptually defining emotional intelligence [49]. Baudry et al review of trait emotional intelligence,
as measured with TMMS, revealed a greater association with better mental health than with physical
and overall health. In addition, intrapersonal dimensions, and especially the regulation of emotions,
have stronger health effects than interpersonal dimensions [50].
Finally, after examining the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional well-being
of high school students, the results indicated statistically significant differences in emotional well-being
based on students’ outcomes in Clarity and Repair, finding bigger effect sizes (Cohen’s d) among
the categories rated “To improve” and “Excellent”. These results were consistent with most of the
revised literature. Other authors also obtained significant correlations between personal well-being
and the Clarity and Repair dimensions [51], but not in the emotional attention component, on a sample
of students aged 11–12 [4]. Serrano and Andreu [26] found that the emotional attention dimension
of adolescents was negatively associated with subjective well-being, and positively related with
perceived stress, while with clarity and emotional repair the opposite happened, as they positively
correlated with subjective well-being, and negatively with perceived stress. Gascó et al. [52] found that
the emotional Clarity and Repair subscales were positively related to vital satisfaction of adolescents,
and negatively associated with perceived stress and somatic complaints, though emotional attention
showed the opposite pattern. More recently, Guerra-Bustamante et al. [33], on a sample of students
from the four high school courses, found that the Clarity and Repair components positively correlated
with happiness/personal well-being, finding no relationship with the attention component, which are
very similar results to those of the present research.
Some limitations should be considered in the interpretation of the results of this study. First,
the cross-sectional design used does not allow identifying causal relationships between the studied
variables, so it would be interesting to carry out future longitudinal studies. Nevertheless, other studies
like Palomera et al. [53] show that the ability to perceive emotions is a stable predictor of less clinical
and emotional mismatch and greater personal adjustment. Another limitation may be the incidental
nature of the sample used, limited to particular socio-economic characteristics and whose size limits
the generalisation of the results. The limited approach to the phenomenon should also be mentioned,
as it does not include the perspective of parents and teachers of emotional intelligence. If the peer
measure of emotional intelligence is also considered it would give a larger picture of the phenomena.

5. Conclusions
A significant percentage of the students have been detected with aspects to improve in the field
of emotional intelligence. Specifically, 45% of students were found to be at inadequate levels in the
Attention dimension (25% for “Insufficient” and almost 20% “Excessive”), 40% in the Clarity dimension,
and 25% in the Repair dimension.
Similarly, there seems to be a clear and positive relationship between the Clarity and Repair
dimensions and well-being, whereas the role of Attention does not tend to be significant or even
has negative effects. In this sense, the results suggest a greater need for support from girls in the
Attention below the level) and Repair dimension; and boys in the attention (over the level) and Clarity
dimensions, for all courses.
Children 2020, 7, 310 10 of 12

This study did not support the previous findings which revealed a relationship between emotional
intelligence and academic performance. The complexity of the phenomenon itself, its multiple
definitions and interpretations favor the disparity in the results of the studies. However, a relationship
between well-being and emotional intelligence is seen. Specifically, it is confirmed that understanding
one’s emotions (emotional clarity) allows one to face vital events more openly and positively,
increasing the emotional well-being. Similarly, adequately regulating emotions (emotional repair)
minimises unpleasant emotions, allowing the person to experience pleasant emotional states most of
the time.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.D.T.-H., C.R.-F., J.F.-R., J.G.-S., J.J.G.-I. and M.R.-M.; data curation,
M.D.T.-H., J.J.G.-I. and M.R.-M.; formal analysis, M.D.T.-H., J.G.-S., J.J.G.-I. and M.R.-M.; investigation,
M.D.T.-H., C.R.-F., J.G.-S., J.J.G.-I. and M.R.-M.; methodology, M.D.T.-H., C.R.-F., J.F.-R., J.G.-S. and M.R.-M.;
project administration, M.D.T.-H. and M.R.-M.; resources, C.R.-F., J.F.-R. and J.G.-S.; software, J.F.-R. and J.J.G.-I.;
supervision, C.R.-F. and J.G.-S.; validation, J.J.G.-I., M.R.-M. and J.F.-R.; visualization, M.D.T.-H., J.F.-R., J.G.-S.
and M.R.-M.; writing —original draft, M.D.T.-H., J.J.G.-I. and M.R.-M.; writing—review and editing, C.R.-F., J.F.-R.
and J.G.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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