Ocean Sci. J. (2020) 55(3):419−431 Available online at http://link.springer.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12601-020-0029-3

Article

pISSN 1738-5261
eISSN 2005-7172

Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques around

Saint Martin’s Island, Bay of Bengal
Md. Yousuf Gazi1*, Tahrim Jannat Mowsumi2, and Md. Kawser Ahmed2
1
Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
2
Department of Oceanography, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

Received 11 November 2019; Revised 13 July 2020; Accepted 4 August 2020

© KSO, KIOST and Springer 2020

Abstract - Saint Martin’s is a unique island located in the Bay of 1. Introduction

Bengal where coral species are abundant due to its favorable and
unique environmental conditions. Coral communities are in great Due to anthropogenic and natural factors, numerous coral
danger due to global climate change, direct commercial coral reefs have become degraded throughout the world (Bruno
extraction and unplanned tourism around the island. The present and Selig 2007; Obura et al. 2008). Most of the beautiful coral
study attempts to identify the coral zone and mapping of coral reefs
islands in the world are experiencing such anthropogenic
from the period of 1980 to 2018. The study utilized five sets of
multi-temporal Landsat satellite images to examine the changes of derived environmental stress. St. Martin’s Island is the only
coral reefs in Saint Martin’s Island during the study timeframe. small coral island in the Bay of Bengal which has become a
Geospatial and image processing software was used for spatial spectacular tourist attraction in Bangladesh. The island is
coral colony mapping and data analysis. Satellite images processed completely disconnected from the main landmass and its
to remove water depth impacts and supervised classification biodiversity is very unique in terms of different species of
technique using the maximum likelihood decision rule suggested
floral and faunal assemblages (Hasan 2009). For the last
the spatial change of coral colonies over time. The result of the
study indicates that coral colonies decreased steadily throughout twenty years, the unique bio-diversified setting of this Island
the study period. A total area of 0.9342 km2 of coral colonies has undergone remarkable catastrophic changes. Tourism
disappeared during the study period from 1980 to 2018. Field has grown rapidly around the island area in the past few
observations around Saint Martin’s Island indicates that destruction years and simultaneous tourism interrelated development
of coral reef habitat was basically caused by anthropogenic activities works pose a serious threat to the biodiversity of this unique
like tourism and extraction of coral by fisherman. Analysis of the
island of Bangladesh (Ali and Ahmed 2000; Hasan 2000;
historical data regarding tourism, population and households, and
Sea Surface Temperature (SST) along with field observations of Islam 2001; Haider 2008; Hasan 2009). Many environmental
these parameter during 2018, suggests that anthropogenic factors dangers have been exacerbated by tourism development in
are more significant than natural factors for causing coral reef Small Island (Briguglio and Briguglio 1996).
degradation. It is very crucial to raise consciousness not only in the The volume of environmentally dangerous products has
vicinity of Saint Martin’s Island but more widely regarding the increased around the island with the upsurge in tourism in
significance of the biodiversity of the Island.
this area. Tourist related activity along with global warming
Keywords − coral reefs, geospatial techniques, satellite images, and the over exploitation of resources reduces the number of
Saint Martin’s Island, Bay of Bengal coral colonies and is destroying the overall biodiversity of
the area. The coral reefs are threatened by many dangers and
most of them are human induced. Coral reefs are especially
vulnerable to human activities near shores where human
impacts are the greatest because most coral reefs form in
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] shallow waters (Glynn 1996). With the construction of hotels
420 Gazi, Y. et al.

and other tourism facilities, numerous isolated beautiful al. 2001; Liu et al. 2006; Mohanty et al. 2013). The main
mangrove forests and ecologically crucial plant species objective of this study is to identify the coral zone using different
have lost in the island area. Over half the coral colonies have satellite images integrated with real-world field data collection
been disappeared as a result of tourist related commerce and for coral reef habitat mapping and detection of change in
property deals. If there are no significant changes made Saint Martin’s Island using multi-temporal Landsat images
immediately to preserve the wildlife and ecological resources (1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2018).
of St. Martin’s Island, the natural beauty and unique ecology
of the island will be lost (Thomson and Islam 2010). 2. Materials and Methods
Under the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act,
the National Conservation Society announced that the small Image Preprocessing
Saint Martin Island is an ecologically and environmentally Multi-temporal and multi-sensor remote sensing satellite
critical zone. Several domestic and international authors images i.e. Landsat TM, ETM+, OLI and TIRS were utilized
have studied the biodiversity status of coral growth and its in this study. Satellite images were downloaded from USGS
environmental degradation on the island (Khan 1985a; Ahmed online data archives (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Detailed
1995; Mollah 1997; Tomascik 1997). However, since no work information of the obtained datasets is provided in (Table 1).
has been conducted after 1997 concerning coral degradation Image processing is composed of two main steps including
in this area, a systematic study is needed. A monitoring system mask in ArcGis and image classification in Erdas Imagine
is essential to evaluate the ecological and environmental software. Before employing the classification, satellite images
circumstances of the coral colonies of this island. This have been corrected for atmosphere induced errors like
information is very important in determining what coastal haze, humidity and clouds. Standard time series approaches
management practices should be adopted in relation to Saint (SITS) were applied to the selected images for detecting the
Martin’s Island. Until now there exists no monitoring program spatial extent of coral colonies over time. The purpose of
in this area that utilizes geo-spatial information and remote image masking is to extract the area of interest from the
sensing techniques. regional image coverage.
Satellite remote sensing data can be effectively utilized to
assess land use and vegetation conditions of an island like Water column correction
other terrestrial regions (Gazi et al. 2020). Different types of Water column correction should be done for different
earth structures, landscapes and points of interest can be water-penetrating spectral bands of satellite imageries during
identified and mapped on the basis of their spectral signature the mapping of any underwater or benthic species like coral
through remote sensing software and technology (Jensen reef. The study utilized this correction to omit the radiance
2000; Lillisand and Kiefer 2000). At the present time, significant received by sensors derived from the atmospheric factors,
advancements have been made in the area of remote sensing surface water and water column to determine the actual
in different parts of the world. Islam et al. (1997) used Landsat radiance reflected from the corals around the Saint Martin’s
TM to display detection of variations in the Sundarbans mangrove Island. Water column correction is a clear measure to determine
forest, Bangladesh. Hossain et al. (2001) used satellite images the significant changes in the coral habitats during the study
for selecting suitable areas of shrimp farming development period and the classification accuracy. A number of equations
in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. The GIS technology for water column correction proposed by several researchers
combined with remote sensing data provide an improved
tool for the analysis of the distribution of island resources. Table 1. Data properties and acquisition info of the collected
Nowadays, geospatial techniques are very useful for detecting satellite images
spatial changes in coral communities along with other aspects Sensor platform Acquisition date Spatial resolution
that have been reported by several authors from around the Landsat 4 13th February, 1980 30 m
world. Some of these studies include coral reef monitoring Landsat 5 28th February, 1990 30 m
(Scopélitis et al. 2010), community composition of coral Landsat 7 28th February, 2000 30 m
reefs (Dustan et al. 2001), the physical environment of coral Landsat 5 15th February, 2010 30 m
reefs (Mumby et al. 2004) and coral bleaching (Carriquiry et Landsat 8 25th March, 2018 30 m
 Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques 421

generally used to delineate the sea bottom features distribution selecting training samples in this study to prepare the coral
remote sensing (Lyzenga 1978; Maritorena et al. 1994; Purkis colony distribution map (Fig. 1). The training samples were
and Pasterkamp 2004). Bierwirth et al. (1992) have been collected during fieldwork in the study area and image
developed into a model for this kind of study. This model is acquisition of the corals which are representative of the
functional in clear water environments like Saint Martin’s abundant coral species. The study used the most common
Island. Coral structure obtained from the bathymetric maps parametric rule “Maximum likelihood decision rule” for
is combined with model outputs and the satellite image with image classification. In this case, pixels were grouped to a
bottom reflectance. Real shallow island bottom reflectance class on the basis of its likelihood of fitting to a particular
was derived using the following equations (Bierwirth et al. class. The key component of this classification of rule is the
1992): Mean vector and covariance metrics that were retrieved
from the training data. Corals represent the pixels grouped in
I = E0·Tθ·cosθ + ED (1)
a class based on the Mean vector and covariance metrics
Where I = Total solar irradiance, E0 = Emitted and reflected other than the non-coral features. The accuracy assessment
energy, Tθ = Atmospheric transmission, θ = Nadir angle, and of remotely sensed classified image data was done by the
ED= Atmosphere radiance. method of error matrix also termed as confusion matrix.
This was done by comparing the classified image with real
LT = (RE + RWS + RW + RB)·TΦ·I (2)
world class derived from field observations (e.g. ground
Where LT= Total object radiance transmitted by the atmosphere, truth sampling points). However, water column correction
RE = effective radiance, RWS = radiance surface of the water, was employed before applying the supervised classification
RW = water column radiance, RB = Bottom radiance, TΦ = technique.
atmospheric transmission, and I = Total solar irradiance.
Field verification
LS = LP + LT (3)
We conducted a field investigation on 25th March, 2018 in
Where LS = Total sensor radiance, LP = Atmospheric Saint Martin’s Island at exactly the same time as the image
radiance, LT = Total radiance of objects transmitted by the acquisition to get more precise results with regard to image
atmosphere. classification techniques. Images of the coral colony were
captured by employing a digital underwater camera while
Image classification scuba diving. About 100 points (around 50 points from Uttar
A supervised classification technique was employed by para and 50 points from central and Dakshin para) were

Fig. 1. Methodology workflow diagram showing the steps of works involved in this study
422 Gazi, Y. et al.

selected around Saint Martin’s Island and each coordinate species, coral-66 species and snail-5 species (Ahmed 1995).
point was recorded with the GPS, including the time of Depending on the tidal level, the surficial extent of the island
acquisition. Sampling and the photographs were taken when may vary but it is about 8 km2 on average. The study area has
the water was shallow and clear enough to identify the coral wide-ranging variability in terms of land-cover types, for
habitat from the boat. Interestingly, collected ground truth instance rocky shores, sandy shores, mangrove forests and
matched with classified images of 2018. agricultural land cultivating rice, water melon, maize, seasonal
vegetables, ground nuts, as well as coconuts, nuts and betel
Study area leaf.
Saint Martin’s Island is one of the most eye-catching The mean yearly maximum temperature recorded ranges
islands in the Bay of Bengal and is also referred to as Narikel from 30.3ºC to 33.0ºC and the minimum temperature ranges
Jinjira or Coconut Island by the local people of the island. It between 19.3–22.4ºC. However, as it is bounded by sea, St.
is located almost 9 km south of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf Martin’s Island should have higher minimum temperatures
peninsula in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 2). The island is blessed and lower maximum temperatures than the Cox’s Bazar
with plenty of resources and boasts an abundance of biological region (Tomascik 1997). Humidity levels on the island area
diversity i.e. fish-150 species, amphibian-5 species, mollusk- remain relatively high throughout the year with the average
300 species, turtle-5 species, bird-200 species, mammals-20 humidity being 79.7%. (Islam and Roshid 2017). According

Fig. 2. Map showing the study area “Saint Martin’s Island”. Background image is Sentinel-2 satellite image as false color composite of
red as band-4, green as band-3 and blue as band-2
 Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques 423

to Islam and Roshid (2017) the average annual rainfall for different coral families (Haider 1992). In some protected
Cox’s Bazar fluctuates between 2,867 mm and 4,684 mm. regions of the study area with favorable environments there
The coastal water salinity of St. Martin’s Island fluctuates is a high density of living corals and other coralline species.
between 26 and 35 ppt as measured for the period of dry Excessive tourist intrusion and overexploitation of coral by
season (Tomasick 1997). The tidal system of Saint Martin’s island habitants are destroying coral from different regions
Island is normal semidiurnal tides comprising two hind and of the island. Agricultural activities generally produce a
two low tides with the tidal period of 24 hours and 52 minutes huge amount of silt and turbidity that might be a cause for
(Banglapedia 2008). The tidal range of Saint Martin’s Island is coral degradation in the study area.
in and around 1.87 m, which is very close to the tidal range of Tomascik (1997) observed 65 species of 22 genera of
Shahpuri Island located about 9 km NE of Saint Martin’s
Island. Chera Dwip becomes inundated during high tide and
separates from the main Island.

4. Results

In the southern part of the island, dead and fossil corals are
copious in the upper littoral zones. Living corals are observed
in the submerged rocky substratum that becomes flooded
during high tide. Muddy and sandy substratum don’t contain
any coral colonies. The eastern part of Galachipa, the stony
region of Siradia, the southern coast of Daskhinpara and the
southeast coast of Daskhinpara are densely populated with

Table 2. Most abundant coral species in Saint Martin’s Island

identified during snorkeling
Order Family Genus and species
Acroporidae Acropora hyacinthus
Merulinidae Platygyra sinensis
Lobophyllia hemprichi
Mussidae
Favia favus
Acrqora aculeus
Porites lobata
Porites solida
Montipora turtlensis
Poritidae Goniopora stokesi
Goniopora stutchburyi
Acropora glauca
Goniopora columna
Goniopora djiboutiensis
Seleratetinia
Leptastrea transversa
Cyphastrea chalcidicum
Favites abdita
Favites halicora
Faviidae
Gonioastrea aspera
Gonioastrea edwardsi
Platygyra daedalea
Diploastrea heliopora
Coscinaraea columna Fig. 3. Some photographs of the most abundant coral species in
Siderastreidae Psammocora profundacella Saint Martin’s Island. a) Acropora hyacinthus, b) Diploastrea
Psedosiderastrea tayami heliopora, c) Favia favus, d) Favites abdita, e) Leptastrea
Hydnophora exesa pruinosa, f) Lobophyllia hemprichi, g) Platygyra sinensis,
Merulinidae h) Goniastrea aspera
Hydnophora micoconos
424 Gazi, Y. et al.

corals from St. Martin’s Island. He identified 19 species of For better understanding of the final classified image
fossil (dead) corals and 36 species of reef-building coral output, basic statistics were calculated for the multi-band
families from the island. In this study, some of the most frequent images for 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2018 (Table 3). The
coral species were observed by snorkeling and photographs minimum, maximum, standard deviation and mean spectra
were taken for identification (Fig. 3). The identified species show that the data precision level is good enough to estimate
are tabulated in terms of their family, genus and species coral colony distribution in the study area (Fig. 5). Spectra
(Table 2). Photographs of healthy, degraded and dead coral for blue, green and red bands show more or less similar DN
were also documented to discern the status of the present value for the respective years in the study area.
coral colony in Saint Martin’s Island (Fig. 4). The present study sought to quantify coral degradation

Fig. 4. Showing the photographs of Healthy, Degraded and Dead corals around Saint Martin’s Island. (Healthy, DG: Degrading, D: Dead)

Table 3. Band-wise statistics (Min., Max., Mean, Standard Deviation) for each classified thematic map from 1980 to 2018
1980 1990 2000 2010 2018
Basic Statistics
B-1 B-2 B-3 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-1 B-2 B-3
Min 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Max 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255
Mean 12.7 11.1 115.2 14.8 16.9 121.0 15.7 16.4 125 125 125 237 16.5 15.9 128
Standard Deviation 55.6 39.3 126.5 59.7 54.7 126.2 61.4 56.1 126 127 124 62 62.7 55.8 126
 Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques 425

Fig. 5. Plots of DN value versus Blue, Green and Red bands in the classified image after processing and analysis from 1980 to 2018
(Band 1: Blue, Band 2: Green, Band: Red)

trends for different time periods in the study area. It was about 1.1197 km2, 0.8680 km2 and 0.6399 km2 respectively
observed from the study that coral colonies covered only (Table 4). Throughout the study period from 1980 to 2018, a
0.3942 km2 in 2018 (Fig. 6). Conspicuously, the area of coral total area of 0.9342 km2 coral colonies disappeared due to
decreased drastically from 1980 to 2018. In 1980, coral continuous anthropogenic activities.
families covered the island to the extent of about 1.3284 In this study, urban areas could not be identified due to the
km2, which is huge compared to area in 2018 (Fig. 6). In the low resolution of the utilized Landsat images. Urban areas
years of 1990, 2000 and 2010, coral colonies accounted for are generally scattered and sporadic covering homogenous

Table 4. Summary of important land cover changes throughout the study period (1980−2018) including coral reef degradation scenarios
Year Vegetation cover (km2) Breland coverage (km2) Areal coverage of corals in Saint Martin’s Island (km2)
1980 4.5463 2.8766 1.3284
1990 4.2345 2.6766 1.1197
2000 3.2345 2.4476 0.8680
2010 3.3549 2.2354 0.6399
2018 3.0978 2.0764 0.3942
Total 0.9342 km2 area of coral degraded throughout the study period
426 Gazi, Y. et al.

Fig. 5. Changing Patterns of Coral Communities throughout the study period (1980–2018)

areas of less than 30m which is below the detection limit of be correlated with the results of the present study and show
the Landsat sensor resolution. It is important to note that that a significant decrease of coral reef spatial distribution
most of the urban structures are shadowed by canopy cover has occurred. Ahammed et al. (2016) predicted that number
in the study area that is classified as belonging to the class of of coral species will be reduced to 24 by the year of 2030 and
vegetation. However, training samples and field verification will completely disappear by 2045. Coral species occupy
confirms the higher density of urban structure in the northern only 2−10% of the rocky substrate in Saint Martin’s Island
part of the study area locally known as “Uttar Para” compared (DoZ 1997). Tomascik (1997) conducted a quadrant transect
to the southern part of the study area known as “Dakhin Para”. survey to measure the density of coral colonies in some
selected areas, and found about 1.3 colony/m2 in those areas.
5. Discussion Change detection techniques used in this study reveal a
significant decrease of coral colonies over the study timeframe
The present study is a qualitative geospatial approach for and provide evidence of coral bleaching with time. This research
mapping coral resources over the study area that establishes also addressed the causes of this massive destruction of reef
that severe degradation of coral colonies around the island environment in the study area.
has taken place. Several studies conducted at different times However, corals are threatened by several anthropogenic
using different methods have also reported the same findings. activities along with natural causes. Mollah (1997) listed some
Ahammed et al. (2016) identified only 41 coral species in anthropogenic causes that deserve mentioning. Anthropogenic
2016. In the year of 1980, 1990 and 1997, there existed 141, factors include coastal erosion, turbidity and sedimentation,
127 and 65 coral species, respectively, in Saint Martin’s coral collection, shell extraction, boulder removal from intertidal
Island (English et al. 1997; Tomascik 1997; Mollah 1997). It zones, aggressive fishing methods and overfishing, unplanned
is very evident from the above studies that about 100 coral tourism development, local pollution, agricultural pollution,
species disappeared between the years of 1980 to 2016 in oil seepage from boats, boat anchoring and navigation and
Saint Martin’s Island. Findings from these studies can highly boat construction. Natural causes also lead to coral reef
 Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques 427

Table 5. Generalized data on Sea Surface Temperature (SST), number of population and households, number tourists visiting Saint
Martin’s Island and number hotels
Population and household status Tourists density Sea surface temperature Hotel for tourists
Year Population Households Visited year Number of tourists Year (SST in °C) Year Number of hotels
1996 3700 535 1996–1 997 150−200 1997 28–29 2008 17
2000 4766 791 2002–2003 62520 2008 27.5–29.5 2012 42
2005 5726 818 2003–2004 103488 2016 22–29 2018 48
2012 6000 1100 2005–2006 156736 2018 27.5–34 - -
2016 8170 - - - - - - -
28.5−34.5
2018 - - - - -
(recorded in field)
*Only available data for the mentioned year are tabulated (Tomascik 1997; Islam 2001; Poush 2006; Sultana et al.2008; BBS 2011; Alam et al. 2015;
Ahammed et al. 2016)

degradation in the study area. Cyclonic storms, sediment

influx causing turbidity, discharge of freshwater and earthquakes
are the major factors responsible for coral reef bleaching in
the study area (Mollah 1997; Rajasuriya et al. 2002). Due to
its extreme geographic location, disasters like cyclonic storms
frequently hit the island. Massive cyclones destroy the coral
colonies around the island. With regard to tourism, presently
around 150000 tourists visit and stay overnight and the number
of tourists is increasing day by day (Table 5). Among the
total produced waste in Saint Martin’s Island, around 50%
comes from consumption by tourists and other activities
directly related to tourism (Alam et al. 2015).
About 60% of household heads are directly involved in
fishing whereas 40% are involved in agriculture and trading.
The artisanal fishing region encompasses an area of up to
500–1000 m from the shoreline (Hossain et al. 2007). Around
the intertidal zone, the artisanal fishing ground totally covers
about 1069 ha around the island (Fig. 7) (Hossain et al.
2007). As fishing is the prime and leading income source of
the islanders, during October and April, temporary whole
sale markets produce a huge amount of waste from fishing
related activities thus directly and indirectly pose a threat to
coral colonies. Around 1650 million tons of fish are generally
caught annually in Saint Martin’s Island (Hossain and Islam
Fig. 7. Artisanal fishing zone surrounding Saint Martin’s Island
2006). Between 2010 and 2018, the number of hotels almost along with the position of gill nets, current nets, and long
doubled and were particularly concentrated in the southern line fishing operations (modified after, Hossain et al. 2007)
part of Saint Martin’s Island. The density of hotels and resorts
is higher in the southern part of the island compared with that incorporates regular Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
northern and central areas. Tourism and fishing were the prime measurement, coral bleaching Hot Spot (HS) analysis, calculation
causes for the drastic reduction of coral colonies in the southern of Degree of Heating Week (DHW) and assessment of
part of the island between 2010 and 2018. Thermal Stress Levels (TSL). These recommendations with
Accordingly, it is vital to adopt some emergency measures detailed methodology and techniques were also suggested
to preserve the coral resource and conserve coral growth in by (Rahaman and Hossain 2015). A coral resource inventory
the island. A coral monitoring system should be employed must be prepared with detailed maps of the island to depict
428 Gazi, Y. et al.

Fig. 8. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) (monthly average, March) of the Bay of Bengal region for the year of a) 2013, b) 2011, c) 2008,
d) 2005, e) 2003, and f) 2002 (modified after NCOM). Circular sign on the eastern bay denoting the position of Saint Martin’s
Island

and identify the changes with time due to natural and man- area as pointed out by a circle. Between 2002 and 2003,
made causes. average SST was near 25°C. From that time, SST has slightly
It is very clear from the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) increased to about 26°C (Fig. 8). However, the highest SST
data from 2002 to 2013 that SST is increasing gradually. The was observed in 2011 and 2013 and was recorded as about
most obvious change also happened in and around the study 27 to 27.5°C respectively. So, the presented data clearly
 Detection of Coral Reefs Degradation Using Geospatial Techniques 429

suggests that SST is increasing in the Eastern Bay of Bengal from agricultural activities, building construction and probably
and this is leading to climatic change and ultimately impedes climate change, all of which were noticed during field
coral growth around the island. observations of the shallow water of Saint Martin’s Island.
Anthropogenic activities like marine pollution, overfishing Here, high-resolution images would be better to compare the
and unplanned tourism harm both warm and cold-water results more precisely. This is the first remote sensing and
coral reef ecosystems globally (Hall-Spencer et al. 2002; GIS based approach applied in Saint Martin’s Island of
Burke et al. 2011; Hughes et al. 2011). During the last twenty Bangladesh to detect coral reef degradation. Hence, this
years, ocean warming and higher sea surface temperature study will guide researchers when conducting further detailed
(SST), changes in ocean chemistry and higher concentrations investigations on coral reef degradation. The present study
of atmospheric CO2 have been responsible for mass coral also successfully mapped the coral colonies with time series
bleaching and, in the near future, this increase in temperature data. Finally, it is strongly recommended to restrict or ban
will result in the rapid intensification in the severity of coral the entrance of tourists to the island for a certain period of
bleaching (Kleypas et al. 1999b; Donner et al. 2005; Hoegh- time in order that the past status of biodiversity of this coral
Guldberg 2014). Over the past two centuries, overexploited island can be restored.
resources and polluted coastal waters as a result of human
activities have been the prime causes for the rapid decline Acknowledgements
and degradation of coral reef growth (Jackson et al. 2001;
Pandolfi et al. 2003). Authors want to acknowledge the oceanic scuba diving
During the past 30–50 years at least 50% warm-water team due to their assistance during the fieldwork. Special
coral reefs have decayed in most of the world's humid areas thanks to S.M. Atiqur Rahman and Sharif Sarwar for their
(Bruno and Selig 2007; Graham et al. 2015). Obliteration of great coordination during fieldwork and also their generosity
cold-water reefs are caused by hydrocarbon exploration and to collect underwater photographs of coral for this research.
production, offshore mining and pollution, waste dumping, We are also grateful to the department of Oceanography and
coral exploitation, and destructive scientific sampling (Hall- department of Geology, University of Dhaka for giving us
Spencer et al. 2002; Gattuso et al. 2014; Roberts and Cairns laboratory and software facilities.
2014). In addition, increases in sea temperature are responsible
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