Chapter 5: Carrier Transport

Phenomena

School of Electrical Engineering

KAIST

1
 Contents

• Carrier transport
– Drift current
• Carrier scattering
– Conductivity
– Velocity saturation
– Diffusion current
– Hall effect

2
 Carrier transport phenomena

• Up to this point, we considered the semiconductor in equilibrium and

determined electron and hole concentration in the conduction and
valence bands

• The net flow of these electrons and holes in a semiconductor will

generate currents.
• The process by which these charged particles move is called transport

• We will consider the two basic transport mechanisms in a semiconductor

crystal
– Drift: the movement of charge due to electric fields
– Diffusion: the flow of charge due to density gradients + Random motion of
particles

3
 Carrier transport phenomena

• The process by which charged particles (electrons and holes) move is

called ‘transport’
• There are two main mechanisms: drift and diffusion

drift diffusion
(driven by electric field) (driven by concentration gradient)

4
 Drift current by external E-field

Average velocity is zero Average velocity is not zero: As a

If there are N electrons, the whole, electrons drift to the left
average velocity is %
1 𝑞𝐸!
$ 𝑣! = % 𝑣⃗&," + 𝑡 − 𝑡"
𝑁 ! 𝑚
1 "#$
𝑣⃗ = & 𝑣⃗%,! = 0
𝑁 𝑡 = current time
!"# 𝑡! = time that the last collision took place for i-th electron
𝑣⃗",! = 𝑣⃗$% = velocity (vector) of i-th electron at 𝑡 = 𝑡!
𝑣⃗",! & = 𝑥 component of 𝑣⃗",!
5 𝑞 = −𝑒
 Drift velocity, mobility
Average velocity is not zero: As a whole, electrons drift to the left
%
1 𝑞𝐸!
𝑣! = % 𝑣⃗&," + Δ𝑡"
𝑁 ! 𝑚
"#$
% % %
1 1 𝑞𝐸! 𝑞𝐸! 1
= % 𝑣⃗&," + % Δ𝑡" = % Δ𝑡"
𝑁 ! 𝑁 𝑚 𝑚 𝑁
"#$ "#$ "#$

= 0 (random motion) ≡𝜏
= mean free time
= average free flight time between
two successive collisions
𝑞𝜏
∴ 𝑣! = 𝐸!
𝑚 For electron 𝑒𝜏)
|2|3 𝑣() = −𝜇) 𝐸! 𝜇) = ∗
mobility 𝜇 = 𝑚+)
4

𝑣0 = 𝜇𝐸! For hole 𝑒𝜏*

𝑣(* = 𝜇* 𝐸! 𝜇* = ∗
drift velocity 𝑚+*
6
 Electron drift current

• Collectively, the electrons in the ‘electron gas’ drift with drift velocity 𝑣0 .

56
• Current = rate at which charge flows: 𝐼 =
57

• Current Density = Current per unit area

8 565!
𝐽= = = (volume charge density) x (velocity)
9 :57

Current density due to drift motion

𝐽'() = 𝜌𝑣' = −𝑒𝑛𝑣' = −𝑒𝑛(−𝜇𝐸* ) = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝐸*

𝜌 = volume charge density

= 𝑞×(number density)
𝑣' = drift velocity
unit of J = A/cm2
7
 Total drift current 𝑣0 = 𝜇𝐸!
𝐽'() = 𝐽+,'() + 𝐽,,'() = 𝑒 𝜇+ 𝑛 + 𝜇, 𝑝 E |2|3
mobility 𝜇 =
4

µn (cm2/V-s) µp (cm2/V-s)
Si 1350 480
GaAs 8500 400
Ge 3900 1900

Electron (or hole) collide with:

- Silicon atoms? (Yes and No) : lattice scattering (phonon scattering)

- Impurities (positive or negative ions) : ionized impurity scattering
- Collision with other electrons? : negligible
8
 Mechanism 1: Phonon (Lattice) Scattering
Lattice scattering (phonon scattering): 2D lattice example
T=0 T = 300 K

(no collision with Si atoms at lattice points) (collision with vibrating Si atoms)

As the temperature increases, the thermal vibrations

of atoms cause a disruption of the periodic potential vibrating atoms (with time)
function. This results in an interaction between carrier and the vibrating lattice.
So, the mobility due to lattice scattering should decrease as the temperature
increases.
9
 Mechanism 1: Phonon (Lattice) Scattering
3/2
æ1ö
µL µ ç ÷ • Lower μL at higher T
èT ø – More vibration
Mobility if only the lattice – More scattering
scattering existed

10
 Mechanism 2: Ionized Impurity Scattering
no doping doping
+

Coulomb interaction

As the number of dopants increase e +

there will be more scattering by the ions.
è The mobility should be inversely proportional to the doping density 𝑁8

𝜇8 ∝ 1/𝑁8
11
 Mechanism 2: Ionized Impurity Scattering
• Impurity atoms are often added to the semiconductor to control its
characteristics
• These impurities are ionized, and a coulomb interaction occurs between
the electrons (or holes) and the ionized impurities

T 3/2
µI µ +
N d + N a- Total ionized impurity concentration
Mobility if only the ionized
impurity scattering existed
– When temperature increases, the random thermal velocity of a carrier
increases, reducing the time the carrier spends in the vicinity of the
ionized impurity center à smaller scattering effects à higher mobility
– If the number of ionized impurity centers increases, more scattering can
occur à smaller mobility

12
 Mechanism 2: Ionized Impurity Scattering

Ge

Si

source: S.M. Sze, Physics of

GaAs Semiconductor Devices, John
Wiley & Sons, 1981.

13
 Multiple Scattering Mechanism

• How many collisions do we have if two collision

mechanisms are both present?

1
– Number of collisions during one unit time from mechanism 1:
tL
1
– Number of collisions during one unit time from mechanism 2:
tI
1 1 1
– Total number of collisions during one unit time: = +
t tL tI

• Since the mobility is proportional to the mean time between

collisions
1 1 1 1 1
= + =% (Matthiessen’s rule)
µ µL µI 𝜇 𝜇"
"

14
 Mobility vs Temperature

• Temperature dependence of scattering

– Phonon scattering increases with temperature
• Higher temperature à More lattice vibration
– Coulomb scattering decreases with temperature
• Higher temperature à Higher carrier thermal velocity à Less chance to be
affected by coulomb centers

At low T, coulomb At high T, phonon

scattering dominates scattering dominates

At high doping concentration, cooling

does not increase the speed much

15
 Mobility vs Temperature
• Silicon

• GaAs

16
 Conductivity

• The drift current can be written as

J drift = e ( nµn + pµ p ) E = s E
Conductivity (Siemens/cm)
• The resistivity is given by
1 1
r= =
(
s e n µn + p µ p )
• Ohm’s law

17
 Resistivity vs Impurity Concentration

For Nd = 1015 cm-3.

Complete ionization of
dopant atoms; n becomes
almost const.

Due to mobility
drop via phonon
scat.

Not linear because

of mobility effects

18
 Velocity saturation
• We have assumed that mobility is not a function of electric field vdp = µ p E
• Therefore, the drift velocity will increase linearly with applied electric field
• This statement is true when drift velocity is lower than the thermal velocity
(at low field)
• The behavior of the drift velocity at high electric fields deviates substantially
from the linear relationship because the carriers lose energy through
increased levels of interaction with the lattice, by emitting phonons
• For silicon, the drift velocity of electron saturates at ~107 cm/sec at ~105
V/cm

19
 Diffusion

• Diffusion occurs due to the random thermal motion of

particle
– For random motion in 1D system, half of the particles move to right, half
move to left
– Net particle flow toward the region with less concentration
– If the particles have charge, the net flow of charge would result in a
diffusion current

20
 Diffusion Current Density
l l

• Average mean free path: l

• Fn: Net rate of electron flow in the +x direction at x=0 x =0

– Fn is the sum of (electron flow in +x direction at x=-l) and (electron flow in –x

direction at x=+l)
– 1 1 1
Fn = n ( -l ) vth - n ( +l ) vth = vth éën ( -l ) - n ( +l )ùû
2 2 2
1 éæ dn ö æ dn ö ù
= vth êç n ( 0 ) - l ÷ - ç n ( 0 ) + l ÷ ú
2 ëè dx ø è dx ø û
dn
= -vth l
dx
• Electron diffusion current density Direction of net Direction of net
electron flow electron current
dn dn
J nx|dif = -eFn = evth l = eDn
dx dx
Diffusion coefficient

21
 Diffusion Current Density
• For electrons
dn
J nx|dif = eDn
dx
• For holes
dp
J px|dif = -eD p
dx
• Diffusion coefficient, D
– Unit: cm2/s
– Positive

• Total diffusion current density

dn dp
J dif = eDn - eD p
dx dx
22
 Total Current Density
• Four possible independent current mechanisms
– Electron drift
– Electron diffusion
– Hole drift
– Hole diffusion
• The mobility and diffusion coefficient are NOT independent parameters
(Einstein relation, more details in next section)

• Total current density in 1D

dn dp
J x = enµn E x + ep µ p E x + eDn - eD p
dx dx
• Total current density in 3D
  
J = en µn E + ep µ p E + eDn Ñn - eD p Ñp

23
 Total Current Density

24
 What happens if a semiconductor is
non-uniformly doped?
• Assumption: Donor concentration decreases in +x-direction
– If the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium, the Fermi energy level is
constant through the crystal
Diffusion of electrons
Counter
electrons low from left side to right side
Force (ions)
diffuse doping
high Positively charged (ionized) donor
doping
+
+ Ions are left
+
+ +
+
++ + The separation of positive and
𝐸' should be constant negative charge induces an
(thermal equilibrium) electric field

𝐸!" = 𝐸!" (𝑥) E-field direction is opposite to the

diffusion process

Diffusion stops
25
 Induced Electric Field

• Electron potential energy by the charge –e:

_
• Electric field for the one-dimensional case:

• Assuming quasi-neutrality condition (electron concentration

≈ donor impurity concentration)

Taking log

Taking the derivative

26
 Thermal Equilibrium Current
• Let’s consider the electron current density first
dn (1)
• In one-dimensional case, J nx = en µn E x + eDn
dx
• If n~Nd(x),
dN d ( x ) (2)
J nx = eµn N d ( x ) E x + eDn
dx
From previous page é kT 1 dN d ( x ) ù dN d ( x )
= eµn N d ( x ) ê - ú + eDn (3)
ë e N d ( x ) dx û dx
é æ kT ö ù dN d ( x )
= e ê - µn ç ÷ + Dn ú
ë è e ø û dx
= 0 From Einstein relation
• Similarly, Jpx is also zero
27
 Einstein Relation
• In thermal equilibrium, the total current in non-uniformly doped
semiconductor is 0
– Current flow by electrons is 0
• (Electron diffusion current) matches with (electron drift current)
– Current flow by holes is 0
• (Hole diffusion current) matches with (hole drift current)

• The mobility and diffusion coefficients are not independent parameters

Dn Dp
kT
= =
µn µ p e

(Try to verify that these values are in good

agreement with the Einstein relation)
28
 Hall Effect
• n- or p-type, carrier concentration and mobility can be experimentally
measured using the Hall effect!
• Let’s simultaneously apply the electric field in x-direction and the
magnetic field in z-direction
– Lorentz force: F=qvxxBz
– Charges move in y-direction

29
 Hall Effect

• Holes accumulated at y = 0 𝐹⃗: = 𝑞 𝐸 + 𝑣×𝐵

⃗ =0 è 𝐸- = 𝑣! 𝐵. (Hall field)
• Hall voltage: 𝑉< = 𝐸< 𝑊 for p-type (holes), 𝑉< = −𝐸< 𝑊 for n-type (electrons)
• Hole density p :
8! 8! A" -B .C
𝑉< = 𝐸< 𝑊 = 𝑣! 𝐵= 𝑊 = 𝐵= 𝑊 = è 𝑝=
>?@0 >?0 /'0D
𝑣#$ = 𝐽$ /𝑒𝑝 = 𝐼$ /𝑒𝑝𝑊𝑑

-B /,2E 0B -B 3
• Hole mobility 𝜇? : 𝐽* = 𝑒𝑝𝜇, 𝐸 è = è 𝜇, =
1' 3 /,0B 1'
• Similar relationships for electrons (n-type) can be derived.
30