SRI CHAITANYA EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, INDIA.

IMPORTANT QUESTION BANK

2 MARKS QUESTIONS
01. Define water potential. What is the value of water potential of pure water?
A: 1) Water potential ( w): Water potential is the measure of movement of water from one part to the another
part within the plant. It involves diffusion, osmosis.
2) The value of water potential of pure water is taken as zero.
02.Compare imbibing capacities of pea and wheat seeds.
A. 1) Proteinaceous pea seeds imbibe more water and swell more than the starchy wheat seeds.
2) Because, the imbibing capacity of proteins is more when compared to carbohydrates.
03. What are apoplast and symplast?
Apoplast Symplast
1) Apoplast is the path of transport of water in a 1) Symplast is the path of transport of water in a
plant without crossing any membrane. plant by crossing some membranes.
2) It is a fast process. 2) It is a slow process

04. Where does the photolysis of H2O occur? What is its significance?
A: 1) Photolysis of H2O occurs in grana of chloroplast.
2) Significance: During photolysis oxygen is evolved. It is the main source of atmospheric oxygen.
05. Name two amino acids in which sulfur is present?
A) Methionine and cysteine are the two amino acids in which sulfur is present.
06. Explain the role of the pink colour pigment in the root nodule of legume plants. What is it called?
hemoglobin
2) Its role is to protect the dinitrogenase enzyme, which is highly sensitive to oxygen.
07) Who proposed lock and key hypothesis and induced fit hypothesis?
A) Lock and key hypothesis was proposed by Emil Fisher and induced fit hypothesis by Koshland.
08.What are pleomorphic bacteria? Give an example.
A:1) The bacteria which are capable of changing their shape depending on the environmental conditions, nutrition
are called pleomorphic bacteria.
2) Ex: Aceto bacter
09.What is a plasmid? What is its significance?
A: 1) Plasmid: The self-duplicating, naked, circular, double stranded DNA fragments is called plasmid.
2) Significance: They are used as vectors in genetic engineering technology.
10. What is conjugation? Who discovered it and in which organism?
A: 1) Conjugation: It is the transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells through direct contact.
2) It was discovered by Lederberg and Tatum in Escherichia coli.
11) What is transformation? Who discovered it and in which organism?
A)1) Transformation is the uptake of naked DNA fragments from the surrounding environment.
2) Frederick Griffith discovered it in streptococcus pneumonia.
12. What is transduction? Who discovered it and in which organism?
A: 1) Transduction: The transfer of genetic material from one bacteria to another, through bacterio phase is known
as Transduction.
2) It was discovered by Lederberg and Zinder in Salmonella typhimurium
13. Who proposed the Chromosome theory of Inheritance?
A: Sutton and Boveri.
14. Explain the terms phenotype and genotype.
A: 1) The physical appearance of a character is called Phenotype.
2) The genetic makeup of an individual is called Genotype.
15.What is point mutation? Give an example.
A: 1) Point mutation: It is the mutation that occurs in a single base pair of DNA fragment.
2) Ex: Sickle cell anemia.
16. What will be the phenotypic ratio in the offsprings obtained from the following crosses.
a) Aa*aa b)AA*aa c)Aa*Aa d)Aa*AA
A. a)1:1 b)1:0 c)3:1 d)1:0

17. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin. Which of the two is transcriptionally active?
Heterochromatin Euchromatin
The chromatin that is more densely packed and 1) The chromatin that is loosely packed and
stains dark is called Heterochromatin stains light is called Euchromatin.
2) It is transcriptionally inactive. 2)It is transcriptionally active.

18. What is the difference between exons and introns?

A: 1) Exons: These are coding sequences. They appear in mature or processed RNA.
2)Introns: These are non-coding sequences. They do not appear in mature or processed RNA.
19. What is meant by capping and tailing?
A:1) Capping: Adding of an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate) to the 5'-end of hnRNA is called
Capping.
Tailing: Adding of adenylate residues (200-300) to the 3'-end in a template is called tailing.
20. What is the function of the codon-AUG.
A: AUG has two functions:
1) It acts as initiation codon of mRNA.
2) It codes for the amino acid methionine.
21. In a typical DNA molecule, the proportion of Thymine is 30% of the N bases. Find out the percentages of
other N bases.
A: Adenine 30%; Guanine 20%; Cytosine 20%
22. What is down-stream processing?
A. Separation and purification of products before they are ready for marketing is called down streaming processing.
23.Name any two artificially restructured plasmids?
A. 1) pBR 322 (after Boliver and Rodriguez) 2) pUC 19, 101 (after University of California).
24. How can you differentiate between exonucleases and endonucleases?
A.1) Exonucleases: Exonucleases cut DNA and remove nucleotides from the ends.
2) Endonucleases: Endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
25.Can a disease be detected before its symptoms appear? Explain the principle involved.
A:1) Earlier detection of diseases can be done using (i) PCR (ii) ELISA techniques.
2)The principle of PCR is gene amplification.
3)The principle of ELISA is antigen-antibody interaction.
26. What is GEAC and what are its objectives?
A:1)GEAC stands for Genetic Engineering Approval Committee.
2) Objectives: To make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM-
organisms for public services.
2)RNA interference (RNAi) is adopted to prevent the infestation.
27. What is green revolution? Who is regarded as Father of green revolution?
A.1)The creation and utilisation of high yielding varieties in the field of agriculture, substantial and dramatic
increase in agricultural production is called green revolution.
2) Norman Borlaug is regarded as Father of green revolution.
28. Give different types of cry gene and pest which are controlled by these genes.
A) The cry genes are cry IAC and cry IIAB is responsible for the control of the bollworms which attack the cotton
plant.
29. Why does 'Swiss cheese' have big holes. Name the bacteria responsible for it.
A: 1) Large holes in 'Swiss cheese' are due to the production of large amounts of CO2.
2) The Bacterium Propionibacterium is responsible for it.
30. Name a microbe used for statin production. How do statins lower blood cholesterol level?
1) Microbe used for statin production is Monascus purpureus yeast.
2) The statins lower blood cholesterol level by competitively inhibiting enzyme which is responsible for synthesis of
cholesterol.

4 MARKS
01. Define and explain water potential.
A: Water potential ( w): Water potential is the measure of movement of water from one part to the another part
within the plant. It involves diffusion, osmosis.
It is expressed in Pascals(Pa).
Water potential of Pure water is taken as zero at standard temperature and pressure, Water potential has two main
components (i) Solute potential and (ii) Pressure potential.
i) Solute potential ( s): When a solute is dissolved in pure water, the concentration of pure water decreases. Hence
its water potential also decreases. This decrease in water potential is called solute potential. It is always negative.
ii) Pressure potential ( p): When some water enters into a plant cell, the pressure against cell wall increases due
to diffusion. This makes the cell turgid(swollen). This increase in water potential is called pressure potential. It is
always positive. It is observed in the ascent of water through stem. Total water potential =Sum of solute & pressure
potential.

Total Water potential: w= s+ p

02.How does ascent of sap occur in tall trees?

A: 1) Ascent of sap: It is the upward movement of water through xylem against gravitational force.
2) Transpiration plays a significant role in the ascent of sap.
3) The transpiration driven ascent of xylem sap depends on the following 3 physical properties.
(a) Cohesion - mutual attraction between water molecules.
(b) Adhesion - attraction of water molecules to polar surfaces.
(c)Transpiration pull - driving force for upward movement of water.
4) These properties give water a high tensile strength and high capillarity.
5) The process of photosynthesis requires water.
6) The system of xylem vessels from the root to the leaf supplies the needed water.
03. "Transpiration is a necessary evil". Explain.
A: Transpiration has both advantages and disadvantages as well, to plants. So it is a 'necessary evil'.
I) Advantages of Transpiration:
1) It creates 'transpiration pull' for absorption and transportation of water in plants.
2) It supplies water for photosynthesis.
3) It transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant.
4) It cools leaf surfaces by evaporative cooling.
5) It maintains the shape and structure of plants by keeping cells turgid.
II) Disadvantages of Transpiration:
1) Excessive transpiration makes the cells flaccid.
2) This retards growth of the plants.
3) More amount of water is evaporated by transpiration.
4) Thus photosynthesis is limited by the availibility of water.

04. Explain the steps involved in the formation of root nodule.

A. Steps involved in the formation of root nodule:
1)The roots of host Legume release sugars and amino acids.
2 These sugars attract Rhizobia.
3) They multiply, colonise and get attached to the epiden las of root hair cells.
4) The root hairs curl and bacteria spread into the cortex of the root.
5) Then an infection thread is produced.
6) It carries the bacteria into the cortex.
7) The bacteria initiate nodule formation in the cortex of the root.
8) Then the bacteria present in the cortical cells, stimulate the host cells to divide.
9) This leads to the differentiation of specialised nitrogen fixing cells, which form root nodule. 10) The nodule thus
formed establishes a direct vascular connection with the host, for exchange of nutrients.
05. Write in brief how plants synthesize amino acids.
A: Amino acids in plants are synthesized in two ways:
1) Reductive Amination: In this process, ammonia reacts with a-ketoglutaric acid and forms an amino acid called
glutamic acid.

2) Transamination: In this process, transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to the keto group of a keto acid
takes place. Glutamic acid is the main amino acid from which the transfer of NH2 takes place. Thus another amino
acid is formed by transamination in the presence of Transanimase.

06.Write briefly about enzyme inhibitors.

A: Enzyme Inhibitors: These are the chemicals which2 stop the activity of the chemicals are called "inhibitors" and
the process is called inhibition. The inhibitors are three types. They are 1) Competitive inhibitors 2) Non-competitive
inhibitors 3) Feed back inhibitors.
1) Competitive inhibitors: The inhibitors that resemble the substrate molecules and prevents the activity of the
enzyme are called competitive inhibitors.
Ex:Malonic acid resembles the substrate succinate and it inhibits the succinic dehydrogenase.
2) Non-competitive inhibitors: The inhibitors having no structural similarity with the sub- strate and binding to an
enzyme of locations other than the active sites so that the globular structure of the enzyme is changed are called non-
competitive enzyme inhibitors.
Ex: Metal ions of Copper, Mercury.
3) Feed back inhibitors: Feed back inhibition is a cellular control mechanism in which an enzyme's activity is
inhibited by the enzyme's end product.
It is a part of homeostatic control metabolism.
07. Explain different types of cofactors.
A: The non-protein part of the holo enzyme is called co-factor.
The co-factors are three types: 1) Prosthetic groups 2) Co-enzymes 3) Metal ions.
1) Prosthetic groups: These are organic compounds which are tightly bound to the apoenzyme
Ex: Peroxidase is the enzyme which breaks hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Prosthetic group of peroxidase is Haem part.
2) Co-enzymes: These are organic compounds, which are loosely attached to the apoenzyme. These co-enzymes are
derived from water soluble vitamins.
Ex: Both co-enzymes NAD and NADP contain the vitamin niacin.
3) Metal ions: A number of enzymes require metal ions for their activity. They form coordination bonds with side
chains at the active site. Ex: Zinc is the co-factor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxy peptidase.
08. Draw a neat labelled diagram of Chloroplast

09. Tabulate any eight differences between C3 and C4 plants/ cycles.

C3 Cycle C4 Cycle
1) First stable product of carbon pathway is C3 1) First stable product of carbon pathway is C4
compound (PGA-Phospho glyceric acid) compound (OAA-Oxalo acetic acid)
2) This occurs mostly in Temperate plants. 2) This occurs only in Tropical plants.
3) Leaves donot show Kranz anatomy. 3) Leaves show Kranz anatomy.
4) Chloroplast dimorphism is not seen. 4) Chloroplast dimorphism is seen.
5) Photo respiration is very high. 5) Photo respiration is not detectable.
6) In C3 plants, transpiration is more. 6) In C4 plants, transpiration is less.
7) Less efficient in utilising atmospheric CO2. 7) More efficient in utilising atmospheric CO2.
8) Biomass is produced in less quantity. 8) Biomass is produced in high quantity.
9) Ex: Almost all dicot plants 9) Ex: Maize, Sugarcane, Sorghum

10. Define RQ. Write a short note on RQ.

A:1) Respiratory Quotient (RQ): The ratio between the volume of CO2 given out and taken in a given period of time
at standard temperature and pressure during respiration is called RQ.
RQ= A = Volume of CO2 evolved
B Volume of O2 consume
A-stands for volume of CO2 absorbed during respiration.
B-stands for volume of O2 liberated during respiration.
2) RQ for fats will always be less than one.
3)Ex: Triolein
4) If RQ is 1, the carbohydrates are used as respiratory substrate.
5) If RQ is less than 1; fats are used as respiratory substrate.
6) If RQ is more than 1, organic acids are used as respiratory substrate.
11.Write a note on agricultural/horticultural applications of auxins.
A:1) Auxins are powerful growth hormones produced in the stems and root tips of plants.
2) In stem cuttings, initiation of roots is noticed. This application is widely used for plant propagation in horticulture.
3) Auxins stimulate fruit growth in tomatoes.
4) Auxins prevent premature fruit drop.
5) Auxins control xylem differentiation and help in growth.
6) Auxins(2,4-D) are used to prepare lawns.
7) Removal of shoot tip results in the growth of lateral buds.
8) This phenomenon is applied in Tea plantation and hedge-making.

12. Write the physiological responses of gibberellins in plants.

A: 1) Gibberellins are growth hormones that stimulate fruit repining, stem elongation, termination,
flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction, Leaf & fruit senescence.
2) Gibberellins are denoted by GA1, GA2, GA3 and so on.
3) GA hastens the maturity period of conifers thus leading to early seed production.
4) GA3 is used to speed up the malting process in brewing industry.
5) Gibberellins increase the length of the axis, thus used to increase the length of grape's stalks.
6) Gibberellins cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve their shape.
7) They delay senescence.
8) Spraying GA on sugarcane stems, increases the length of stem thus increasing the yield by 20 tonnes per acre.
13. Write any four physiological effects of cytokinins in plants.
A: 1) Cytokinins are a class of plant growth hormones that promote cell divisions in roots & shoot tips.
2) They help to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves.
3) They help in lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation.
4) They promote nutrient metabolism which helps the delay of leaf senescence.
5) They help to overcome apical dominance. Thus they promote the growth of lateral branches and help in the bushy
growth of the tree.
6) Naturally Cytokinins are synthesised in places where rapid cell division occurs.
Ex: Root tips, shoot buds, young fruits.
14. How are bacteria classified on the basis of number and distribution of flagella?

A. On the basis of arrangement and the number of flagella, the bacteria can be classified into four groups. These
are Monotrichous , amphitrichous, Lopho trichous, and peritrichous.

A. Monotrichous: There is only one flagellum in Monotrichous.

B. Amphitrichous: There is only a single flagellum in amphitrichous bacteria but they are found at both ends.
C. Lopho trichous: In Lopho trichous, there are several flagella found as a tuft.
D. Peritrichous: In peritrichous, the flagella are distributed all over the cell, but they are not found on the pole.

15. What are the nutritional groups of bacteria based on their source of energy and carbon?
A. Based on source of energy and carbon bacteria are classified into:
(I) Photo autotrophs use light as an energy source and carbon dioxide as their primary carbon source. They include
photosynthetic bacteria (green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria, and cyanobacteria), algae, and green plants.
Photoautotrophs transform carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen gas through photosynthesis

(II) Photo heterotrophs utilise light as an energy source but cannot transform carbon dioxide into energy. They utilise
organic compounds as a carbon source. They comprise the green non sulfur bacteria and the purple non sulfur
bacteria.
(III) Chemo lautotrophs utilise inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, ammonia, nitrites, hydrogen
gas, or iron as an energy source and carbon dioxide as their primary carbon source.
(IV) Chemo heterotrophs utilise organic compounds as an energy source and a carbon source.
16. What is ICTV? How are viruses named?
A: 1) ICTV means International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses.
2) It explains the classification and nomenclature of viruses.
3) ICTV has three hierarchial levels namely family, genus and species.
4) The family names end with the suffix Viridae
5) The genus names end with virus.
6) The species names are common english expressions describing their nature.
7) Sometimes viruses are named after the disease they cause. Ex: Polio virus.
8) According to ICTV, the virus that causes AIDS in man is classified as follows:
Family: Retroviridae, Genes: Lentivirus, Species: Human Immuno deficiency virus (HIV)
17. Explain the structure of TMV.
A: 1) TMV stands for Tobacco mosaic virus.
2) TMV is a ssRNA virus that infects tobacco plants.
3) Tobacco Mosaic Virus is a rod shaped virus. It is about 300 nm long and 18 nm
in diameter, with a molecular weight of 39x106 Daltons.
4) Its capsid is made of 2,130 proteins sub units called capsomeres.
5) The capsomeres are arranged in a helical manner around a central hollow core of
4 nm.
6) Each protein sub unit is made of 158 amino acids.
7) Inside the capsid, there is single stranded spirally coiled RNA
with 6,500 nucleotides.

18. Explain the structure of T-even bacteriophages.

A: 1) The viruses which attack bacteria are called bacteriophages.
2) Bacteriophages are tadpole-shaped.
3) The head is hexagonal and is capped by hexagonal pyramid.
4) The tail is composed of a tail sheath, a base plate, pins and tail
fibres.
5) The tail helps injecting viral DNA into the host cell.
6) The head and tail are joined by collar.
7) At the tip of the tail, hexagonal tail plate is present with six tail pins and tail fibres.
8) With the help of tail fibres the virus attaches to the host cells.

19.Mention the advantages of selecting pea plant for experiment by Mendel.

A: Mendel selected garden pea for his experiments due to following advantages:
1). It has many contrasting characters.
2) It can be grown and crossed easily.
3) It has bisexual flowers containing both female and male flowers
4) It can be self pollinated conveniently.
5) It has a short life cycle and produces large number of off springs.
6) It has less number of chromosomes
7) It may be conducted in simple laboratory conditions.
20. Define and design a test-cross.
A. 1) Test cross: Crossing between F, individuals with the recessive parent is called test cross.
2) It is used to test whether an individual is homozygous or heterozygous.
3) A monohybrid test cross gives a phenotype ratio of 1:1
4) A dihybrid test cross gives a ratio of 1:1:1:1

21. Explain the Incomplete dominance with example.

A. 1) Incomplete Dominance: It is the phenomenon in which neither
of the genes is completely dominant or completely recessive.
2) Ex: The inheritance of flower colour in the dog flower
(Snapdragon).
3) In a cross between homozygous red flowered (RR) and white
flowered plants (rr), the F1 (Rr) was Pink.
4) When the F, was self pollinated, the F2 resulted in 1 (RR) Red: 2
(Rr) Pink: 1 (rr) white.
5) Here genotypic ratios were exactly as in Mendelian monohybrid
cross, but phenotypic ratio had changed from 3:1 to 1:2:1..
6) It was because of the incomplete dominance of 'R' over 'r' and this
made it possible to distinguish Rr as Pink from RR (red) and rr
(white).
7) Thus the Phenotypic and genotypic ratios in F2 progeny are the same, that is 1:2:1.

22.How many types of RNA polymerases exist in cells? Write their names and functions.
A: Three types of RNA polymerases in the nucleus:
1) RNA Polymerase I: It transcribes rRNAs
2) RNA Polymerase II: It transcribes the precursor of mRNA, the heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
3) RNA Polymerase III: It is responsible for transcription of tRNA, 5srRNA and snRNAS
02. Draw the schematic/ diagrammatic presentation of the lac operon.

23. What are the differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
1) DNA stands for Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid. 1) RNA stands for Ribo Nucleic Acid.
2) DNA is double stranded Helix. 2) RNA is single stranded Helix.
3) DNA is stable under alkaline condition. 3) RNA is unstable under alkaline condition.
4) DNA contains the sugar Deoxyribose
5) DNA is made up of more than 4 million 4) RNA contains the sugar Ribose.
nucleotides 5) RNA is made up of 75-2000 nucleotides.
6) DNA undergoes self replication. 6) RNA does not undergo self replication.
7) DNA is genetic material. 7) RNA is non-genetic material.
8) DNA does not participate directly in protein 8) RNA participates directly in
synthesis. protein synthesis.
9) DNA is of one type (metabolically). 9) RNA is of three types(metabolically).

10) The base pairing is A-T and G=C 10) The base pairing is A-U and G=C

24. Write the important features of Genetic code?

A: The important features of genetic code:
1) Genetic code is a set of instructions that direct the translation of DNA into 20 amino acids.
2) Genetic code consists of 64 triplets of Nucleotides. Each triplet is called a codon.
3) 61 codons code for amino acids. 3 codons donot code for any amino acids, hence they are called stop codons.
4) One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence it is unambiguous and specific.
5) Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon, hence the code is degenerate.
6) The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion. There are no punctuations.
7) The code is nearly universal.
8) Ex: From bacteria to human, UUU would code for phenylalanine (phe).
25. List out the beneficial aspects of transgenic plants.
A: Beneficial aspects of transgenic plants:
1) Transgenic crop plants having resistance to pathogens and pests:
(i) Transgenic papaya is resistant to papaya ring spot virus.
(ii) Bt cotton is resistant to insects.
(iii) Transgenic tomato plants are resistant to the bacterial pathogen pseudomonas.
(iv) Transgenic potato plants are resistant to the fungus phytophthora.
2)Transgenic plants suitable for food processing technology:
Transgenic tomato "Flavr Savr" is bruise resistant i.e., suitable for storage and transport due to delayed ripening.
3) Transgenic plants with improved nutritional value:
Transgenic golden rice obtained from "Taipei" is rich in vitamin A and prevents blindness.
4) Transgenic plants used for hybrid seed production:
Male sterile plants of Brassica napus are produced. This will eliminate the problem of manual emasculation and
reduce the cost of hybrid seed production.
5) Transgenic plants tolerant to abiotic stresses caused by chemicals, cold, drought, salt, heat etc:
Basmati variety of rice was made resistant against biotic and abiotic stresses.
Round up ready soyabean is herbicide tolerant.
26. Give a brief account of Bt cotton.
A: 1) Bt cotton is a genetically modified organism (GMO) cotton variety, which produces an
insecticide bollworm.
2) Bt cotton is created by using some strains of a bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt in short form)
3) This bacterium produces proteins that kill certain insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco bud worm),
coleopterans(beetles) and dipterans (flys, mosquitoes)
4) Bt forms protein crystals during a particular phase of growth. These crystals contain a toxic
insecticidal protein.
5) Bt toxin protein exist as inactive protoxins; but once an insect ingests the inactive toxin, it is converted into
an active form of toxin due to alkaline pH of the gut which solublises the crystals.
6) The activated toxin binds to the surface of mid gut epithelial cells and create pores that cause cell swelling
and lysis leading to death of an insect.
7) Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and incorporated into several crop plants.
8) Most Bt toxins are insect group specific. Hence, the toxin is coded by a gene named 'Cry'. For example, the
protein encoded by the genes Cry I Ac and Cry II Ab control the cotton bollworms and Cry I Ab controls corn
borer.
27. Give a brief account of pest resistant plants.
A: 1) Pest resistant plants are developed by using biotechnology processes.
2) A nematode parasite called 'Meloidegyne incognitia' infects the roots of tobacco plant which reduces the
production of tobacco.
3) To prevent the infestation, a process called RNA interference (RNAi) was adopted. 4) RNAi is a method of
cellular defence, which prevents a specific mRNA to translate (silencing) 5) Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode
specific genes were introduced into the host (Tobacco)
plant.
6) Now this host plant is a transgenic plant.
7) With the introduction of DNA, both sense and anti sense RNAs were produced in the host cells.
8) These two RNAs are complementary to each other and formed a double stranded RNA
9) It initiated RNAi and silenced the specific m RNA to translate.
10) Under these circumstances the parasite could not survive in a transgenic plant.
11) Therefore the transgenic plant got protected from the parasite.

8 MARKS
01.Explain briefly the various processes of recombinant DNA technology.
A. Processes of recombinant DNA technology:
1) Isolation of DNA:
(i) Nucleic acid is the genetic material of organisms in the form of DNA.
(ii) It is enclosed by membranes and surrounded by other cellular constituents.
(iii) By using enzymes like lysozyme, cellulose, the cell walls can be digested.
(iv) The membranes, RNA, proteins can be removed by using powered detergents, ribonuclease.
(v) By the addition of ethanol, the purified DNA is precipitated.
(vi) The fine threads of DNA are separated by Spooling.
2) Fragmentation of DNA: The purified DNA is cut into a number of fragments by restriction enzymes. This
process is called restriction enzyme digestion.
3) Isolation of desired DNA fragments: The fragments of DNA can be separated by agarose gel electrophoresis.
Since DNA are negatively charged, they accumulate towards the anode and are extracted from the gel piece through
elution technique. Fragments of DNA are isolated.
4) Amplification of the desired gene by using PCR: In polymerase chain reaction, multiple copies of desired DNA
fragments are synthesized in vitro. Here two sets of primers and the enzyme DNA polymerase are used. In this
process, 1 billion copies are made by using Taq polymerase in 30 cycles.
5) Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector: This requires a vector DNA and source DNA.
(i) These are cut with the same endonuclease to obtain sticky ends.
(ii) Both are then ligated by mixing vector DNA, gene of interest and enzyme DNA ligase to form recombinant
DNA.
6) Insertion of rDNA into the host cell: This can be done in several ways.
(i) In heat shock method, rDNA can be forced into host cells by incubating the cells with rDNA on ice. This enables
the bacteria to take up the rDNA.
(ii) In micro injection method, the rDNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell. (iii) In gene gun
method, cells are bombarded with high velocity microparticles of gold coated with DNA
7) Obtaining the foreign gene product: When alien DNA is inserted into a cloning vector, the alien DNA gets
multiplied. The rDNA expresses itself to form desired products.
8)-Downstream processing: After completion of the biosynthetic stage, the product has to be processed before it is
ready for marketing as a finished product. The processes include separation and purification.

DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

02.Give a brief account of the tools of recombinant DNA technology.

A: Tools of recombinant DNA technology:
1) Restriction enzymes 2) Polymerase enzymes 3) Ligases 4) Vectors 5) Host organism
1) Restriction enzymes: Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called
nucleases. These are two kinds:
i)Exonucleases: Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA
ii)Endonucleases: Endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA. Each restriction endonuclease
15ecognizes a specific palindromic sequence in the DNA. The palindrome in DNA is a sequence of base pairs, that
reads the same on the two strands
Ex: EcoRI 15
2) Polymerase enzymes:
(i) In polymerase chain reaction multiple copies of gene of interest are synthesized by using primers and DNA
polymerase.
(ii) In this process the replication of DNA is repeated many times and 1 billion copies can be produced.
(iii)Such amplification is achieved by Taq polymerase which remain active at high temperatures.
(iv) The amplified fragment, if desired, can now be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.
3) Ligases: The enzyme DNA ligase, joins the ends of plasmid DNA with that of desired gene by covalent bonding.
It regenerates a circular hybrid called rDNA.
4) Vectors: The DNA used as a carrier, for transferring a fragment of foreign DNA, into a suitable host called
vector.
(i) Vectors used for multiplying the foreign DNA sequences are called cloning vectors. (ii) Commonly used cloning
vectors are plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids, BAC, YAC.
Properties of cloning vectors:
(5) They must have low molecular weight
(ii) They must have unique cleavage site for the activity of restriction sites. (iii) They must be able to replicate inside
the host
non transformants.
5) Host organisms: Competent host for transformation with r-DNA is made
by treating host with Ca+2 ions.
03.You are a Botanist working in the area of plant breeding. Describe the various steps
that you will undertake to release a new variety .
A: Various steps to release new genetic variety of crop are as follows:
1) Collection of variability.
2) Evaluation and selection of parents.
3) Cross hybridisation among the selected parents.
4) Selection and testing of superior recombinants.
5) Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivars.
1) Collection of Variability:
(i) Genetic variability is very important for any breeding programme.
(ii) Pre-existing genetic variability is available from wild relatives of crop plants. (iii) Collection and preservation of
all wild varieties, species is a pre-requisite for the effective exploitation of natural genes, available in the population.
(iv)The entire collection of plants or seeds having all diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called germ
plasm collection.
2) Evaluation and selection of parents:
(i) Evaluation of germplasm is carried out, to identify plants with desirable characters.
(ii) The selected plants are multiplied and used in hybridisation.
(iii) Pure lines are created by self pollination.
3) Cross Hybridisation among the selected parents:
(i) All the desired genetic characters are combined to form different parents.
(ii) But cross Hybridisation is a time consuming and slow process.
(iii)Also, it is not sure that all hybrids give desirable characters.
(iv)Usually only one in a few hundred crosses, show desirable combination.
4) Selection and testing of superior recombinants:
(i) Plants having desirable character combination are to be selected from the hybrids.
(ii) This step yields off springs that are superior to both the parents.
(iii) Continuous self pollination can achieve homozygosity.
(iv) So that characters will not segregate in the progeny.
5) Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivars:
(i) The newly selected lines are evaluated for their yield and disease resistance.
(ii) This evaluation is done by growing these plants in research fields.
(iii) After evaluation, testing of hybrid line is done in farmer's field.
(iv)The tested material is evaluated in comparison to the best available local crop cultivar. (v) The release of tested
material is done after selection and certification.
04. Describe the tissue culture technique and what are the advantages of tissue culture over conventional
method of plant breeding in crop improvement programmes?
A: I) Tissue Culture: The technique of growing, culturing and maintaining cells, tissues and organs in vitro is
known as tissue culture. It is based on the cellular totipotency..
Plant tissue culture techniques:
1)Preparation of nutrient culture medium 2) Sterilization of the culture medium.
3) Preparation of explant. 4) Inoculation of explant
5) Incubation for growth 6) Acclimatization of plantlets and transfer to pots.
1) Preparation of nutrient culture medium: The nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose
and also inorganic salts, vitamins, aminoacids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
2) Sterilization of the culture medium: The culture medium is rich in nutrients and therefore attracts micro
organisms. So the medium should be sterilised. Sterilisation is carried out in an autoclave for 15 min, at 121°C and
15 lb pressure.
3) Preparation of explant: Any living part of the plant such as root, stem etc which is used as inoculum is called
explant,
4) Inoculation of explants: The transfer of explants onto the sterile medium is called inoculation. It is carried out in
the laminar air-flow chamber.
5) Incubation for growth:
(i) The cultures are incubated for 3 to 4 weeks. During this period the cells of the explant absorb nutrients, grow and
undergo repeated mitotic divisions. They produce an undifferentiated mass of cells known as callus.
(ii) Auxins and Cytokinins are added to the culture media, so that the callus is induced to produce organs like roots
and shoots. This phenomenon is called
organogenesis.
(iii) The explant develops an embryonic callus
through embryogenesis, from which embryoids
are produced.
(iv)Since, these embryoids develop from somatic
tissues they are referred to as somatic embryos.
6) Acclimatization of plantlets and transfer to
pots: The plants generated through organogenesis
need to be acclimatized before they are
transferred to pots.
II) Advantages of Tissue Culture:
(i) More number of plants can be produced in a
short time.
(ii) Virus diseases can be prevented by producing
virus free plants from shoot-tip cultures.
(iii) Seedless plants can be multiplied
(iv) Female plants are selectively produced
through tissue culture.
(v) Somatic hybrids can be raised by tissue
culture, where sexual hybridisation is not
possible.
(vi) Tissue culture of medicinal plants produce
high value products
of industrial and medicinal importance.

05. Write a brief essay on microbes as biocontrol agents. (or)

Write a brief essay on microbes in sewage treatments.
A: Large quantities of waste-water are generated everyday in cities and towns. Municipal waste water is also called
sewage. Before disposal into rivers and streams, the sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) to make it
less polluting. This treatment is carried out in two stages.
1) Primary Treatment:
It involves physical removal of large and small particles through filtration and sedimentation. Initially floating debris
is removed by sequential filtration.
Then the grit (soil and small pebbles) is removed by sedimentation.
The solids that settle form the primary sludge forms the effluent.
The effluent from the primary setting tank is taken for secondary treatment.
2) Secondary treatment or Biological treatment:
The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks where it is constantly agitated mechanically and air is
pumped into it.
This allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs (masses of bacteria associated with fungal
filaments to form mesh like structures.)
While growing, these microbes consume the major part of the organic matter in the effluent and reduces the BOD.
Dos rodydie SAH
The effluent is then passed into a settling tank, where the bacterial flocks are allowed to sedement.
This sedement is called activated sludge.
A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as the inoculum.
The remaining part of the sludge is pumped into anaerobic sludge digesters.
Here other kinds of bacteria grow anaerobically, digest the bacteria and fungi in the sludge. During this digestion,
bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogensulphide and carbondioxide.
These gases form biogas which can be used as a source of energy as it is inflammable. The effluent from the
secondary treatment plant is generally released into the natural water bodies like rivers and streams.

06. Give an account of glycolysis. Where does it occur? What are the end products? Trace the fate of these
products in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. [or] Describe the process of various biochemical reactions
that occur during Glycolysis.
A: 1) Glycolysis: Glycolysis is the first step of respiration in all living organisms. It takes place in cytoplasm of
cells. During Glycolysis, Glucose molecules break down to release energy. Glycolysis is the partial oxidation of
one glucose molecule to form two molecules of pyruvic acid. The end products of Glycolysis are pyruvic acid (PA),
ATP, NADPH +H+
2) Fate of Pyruvic acid: In aerobic respiration, where oxygen is available, pyruvic acid will be completely oxidised
into CO2 and H2O by Krebs cycle.
In anaerobic respiration, where oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid will be converted into Ethylalcohol or Lactic
acid by Fermentation.
Glycolysis involves a chain of '10-step catalysed reactions' by various enzymes.
3) Glycolysis Process:
Step-1 (Phosphorylation):

Glucose + ATP Glucose-6 phosphate + ADP

Step-2 (Isomerisation):
Glucose-6-phosphate Fructose-6-
phosphate.
Step-3 (Phosphorylation):

Fructose-6-phosphate + ATP Fructose 1,6-

biphosphate + ADP
Step-4 (Cleavage):

Fructose 1,6-biphosphate Glyceraldehyde-3-

phosphate+DHAP
Step-5 (Isomerisation):

DHAP G-3P

Step 6 (Oxidation):

G-3P+ H2PO4 + NAD+ 1,3-biphospho

glyceric acid +NADH + H+
Step-7 (Dephosphorylation):

1,3biphospho glyceric acid+ADP+ iP 3-

phospho glyceric acid +ATP
Step-8 (Intramolecular shift):

3-PGA 2-PGA
Step-9 (Dehydration):

2- PGA Phospho enol pyruvic acid(PEP) +

H2O
Step-10 (Dephosphorylation):

PEP+ADP Pyruvic acid + ATP.

07.Explain the reactions of Krebs cycle.

1) Krebs Cycle: Krebs cycle is a cyclic process which occurs in all aerobic organisms to
generate energy. It takes place in mitochondria.
2) In Krebs cycle, Acetyl coenzyme (COA) is oxidised to form CO2 and H2O.
Also, ADP is converted into 'energy-rich' ATP.
3) Krebs Cycle- Reaction Steps:
Step 1 (Condensation):

Acetyl CoA + Oxalo acetic acid +Water Citric acid + Coenzyme A

Step 2 (Dehydration):

Citric acid Cis-aconitic acid + H2O

Step 3 (Hydration):
Cis-aconitic acid Isocitric acid
Step 4(Oxidation 1):

Isocitric acid + NAD+ Oxalosuccinic acid + NADH +H±

Step 5 (Decarboxylation):

Oxalosuccinic acid a-Ketoglutaric acid + CO2

Step 6(Oxidation II):

a-Ketoglutaricacid+NAD++CoA Succinyl CoA+NADH+H++CO2

Step 7(Cleavage ):

Succinyl CoA+ADP+ Pi Succinic acid + ATP + COA

Step 8(Oxidation III):
Succinic acid + FAD Fumaric acid + FADH2
Step 9(Hydration):
Fumaric acid + H2O Malic acid
Step 10(Oxidation IV):

Malic acid + NAD+ Oxaloacetic acid + NADH +H+