CLASS INSECTA AND DISEASE TRANSMISSION

 Definitive features of class insecta

Disease pathogens of humans have been shown to depend on insects to complete their
transmission cycles.
The pathogens transmitted to humans by insects fall into five main categories of
microorganisms:
i. nematodes or round-worms,
ii. protozoa,
iii. bacteria,
iv. rickettsiae, and
v. viruses.
Some are true parasites of humans (eg. W. bancrofti) but most are Zoonotic, with
other primary vertebrate hosts (reservoirs).
Humans in this case become an incidental host, and although they may contribute to
the transmission cycle on a temporary basis, they are not required for survival of
the pathogen in nature.

DISEASE TRANSMISSION.
An arthropod may transmit a disease agent from one person or animal to another in
one of two basic ways.
I) Mechanical Transmission. This consists of a simple transfer of the organism on
contaminated mouthparts or feet. No multiplication or developmental change of the
pathogen on or in the insect takes place during this type of transmission.
Examples include various enteroviruses, bacteria, and protozoa of humans that have
a direct fecal-oral transmission cycle. Insects, e.g., houseflies, may become
contaminated with these pathogens while feeding on feces and may transport them
directly to the food of humans.
ii)Biologic Transmission. The second and most important type of transmission by
insects is biologic. As the name implies, the pathogen must undergo some type of
development in the body of the insect vector in order to complete its life cycle.
There are three types of biologic transmission.
a)Propagative Transmission. This type occurs when the organism ingested
with the blood meal undergoes simple multiplication in the body of the insect.
Examples are the arbovi-ruses, which replicate extensively in the tissues of the
insect.
b)Cyclopropagative Transmission. In this type of transmission, the pathogen
undergoes a developmental cycle (changes from one stage to another) as well as
multiplication in the body of the insect. The best example of this type is
malaria, in which a single zygote may give rise to >200,000 sporozoites.
 c)Cyclodevelopmental Transmission. In this third type of biologic
transmission, the pathogen undergoes developmental changes from one stage to
another but does not multiply.
With the filariae, for example, a single microfilaria ingested by a mosquito may
result in only one infective larva. In most instances, however, the number of
infective larvae is significantly lower than the number of microfilariae ingested.

Extrinsic Incubation Period. In all types of biologic transmission, time is

required for development of the pathogen to the infective stage that can be
transmitted. With arboviruses, this means infection and replication in the
salivary glands; with the malaria parasite, it means invasion of the salivary
glands by the infectious sporozoites; and with filariae, it means development of
the juvenile worms to the active stage III larvae. This period, called the
extrinsic incubation period, generally lasts 7 to 14 days, depending on the
pathogen, the vector, and various environmental factors, including temperature.

Transovarial, vertical, (transstadial) and veneral transmission

 Transovarial Transmission. Some viral and rickettsial disease agents are
transmitted from the female parent arthropod through the eggs to the
offspring. If the pathogen actually infects the developing egg, this is
termed transovarial transmission.
 With some arboviruses, however, only the ovarial sheath and oviduct are
infected, and the egg is infected as it passes down the oviduct and is
inseminated. This type is distinguished from transovarial transmission and
is called vertical transmission. In either case, the newly hatched insect
larval stages are infected with the pathogen, which is then transmitted to
subsequent developmental stages of the arthropod (transstadial
transmission).
 Finally, veneral transmission of certain viruses has been documented. Thus,
male mosquitoes that become infected transovarially or vertically can
transfer the infective virus to uninfected female mosquitoes in the seminal
fluid during copulation. These latter types of transmission have obvious
epidemiologic importance in the ultimate infection of humans or other
animals and in the maintenance of the pathogen in nature.

Factors Influencing Transmission.

The ability of insects to transmit a disease agent is dependent on many complex
factors.
Successful mechanical transmission depends on
i. the degree of contact insects have with humans
ii. feeding behavior.
For example, the domestic housefly has been incriminated as a mechanical vector of
various intestinal pathogens, primarily because this insect breeds in large
numbers lives in intimate contact with humans, and has the bad habit of feeding on
both feces and food. Tabanid flies are efficient mechanical vectors of both
viruses and protozoa because of frequent interrupted blood feeding.

iii)geographic strains within a species.

Significant variation in susceptibility to become infected and subsequently to
transmit an etiologic agent has been demonstrated in a number of insect vectors.
Most work, however, has been done with mosquitoes, and variation in vector
competence has been documented with all of the major diseases they transmit (i.e.,
malaria, filariasis, and arbovirus infections). Thus, within a single mosquito
species, it is common to find geographic strains that are good vectors and other
strains of that same species that are poor vectors. Because this general
susceptibility to infection and growth of the pathogen in the tissues of the
insect are genetically controlled, it may be expected to change as a result of
selective pressure over time.
In addition to
I. innate susceptibility to infection,
Ii. the overall vectoral capacity of an insect is influenced by other biologic and
behavioral characteristics of the insect population.
iii. The degree of contact the species has with humans is influenced by the
iv. host preference,
v. intrinsic blood-feeding and resting behavior of the insect,
vi. population density of both insect and humans.
vii. Longevity, resting behavior, flight behavior, and oviposition (breeding)
behavior of the insect population are important intrinsic factors, which are
influenced by
Viii. extrinsic environmental factors, e.g., temperature, humidity, wind, and
rainfall.
Finally, other extrinsic factors may influence whether an individual insect
becomes infected with a pathogen. For example, it has been shown that mosquitoes
ingesting blood containing both microfilariae and Rift Valley fever virus have a
higher viral infection rate because disseminated virus infection is facilitated by
microfilariae escaping from the midgut into the hemocoel. Other factors may also
influence this
"leaky gut" phenomenon and thus susceptibility to infection.
In temperate regions, insect transmission of disease is usually seasonal and can
be correlated with temperature and day length. In the tropics, transmission
generally occurs year round, but increased seasonal transmission is most
frequently correlated with rainfall.
The order Diptera is by far the most important in terms of disease transmission,
primarily because of the family Culicidae (mosquitoes).

DISEASE TRANSMISSION BY INSECT GROUPS

FLEAS (ORDER SIPHONAPTERA)
Biology. Fleas make up the order Siphonaptera. The adults are small, wingless,
laterally flattened, obligate bloodsuckers that parasitize a wide variety of
vertebrate hosts. Most fleas are not strictly host specific and therefore attempt
to feed on almost any animal. Because adults can go without feeding for
considerable periods, they can search for new hosts after the nest has been
vacated or the host has died.

94% of species parasitize mammals, and the remainder parasitize birds. Only a
relatively few species are of importance in transmitting disease to humans
The developmental cycle of fleas from egg to adult normally takes place in the
nest of the host. Eggs are generally laid in the nest, where the normally free-
living, legless, eye-less, and wormlike larvae feed on organic material, e.g.,
scales, dried blood, and feces deposited by the adults. After 2 to 3 weeks, the
fully grown larvae spin a cocoon and pupate. The pupal stage may last 1 to 2
weeks, after which the adult emerges, often after the stimulus of movement or
vibration caused when a host enters the nest. The entire period of development may
last 3 to 4 weeks or longer, depending on temperature in the nest. The larvae
require high humidity.

Disease Transmission. Fleas are important natural vectors of two diseases of

humans—-
Plague:
 Caused by Yersinia pestis is a typical zoonosis of rodents and small
mammals
 Humans become involved accidentally when they invade the plague focus,
usually for hunting, trapping, or recreational purposes.
 Epidemics still occasionally occur after long periods of no disease. For
example, in Kenya, after an absence of plague for 10 years, 166 cases with
9 deaths were reported in 1978.

Murine typhus:
 Murine or flea-borne typhus is a rodent zoonosis caused by Rickettsia typhi
(mooseri).
 Disease primarily of rats and mice and has a worldwide distribution, mainly
in the tropics
 The infection is maintained in nature by a rat-flea-rat cycle.
  The usual vertebrate reservoirs are Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus, and
the principal insect vector is the tropical rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis,
although other species of fleas can become infected
 Humans become infected incidentally by a flea that has strayed from its host.
Rickettsiae are ingested by fleas with a blood meal from an infected rat. The
organisms multiply within the gut and are passed in the feces of fleas.
The mechanism of transmission is by rubbing infected feces into skin abrasions or
by transfer to mucous membranes. Transmission may also occur by inhalation of dust
contaminated with infected flea feces.
.
Other diseases:
 Bartonella henselae, the agent of cat-scratch disease
 tularemia,
 pseudotuberculosis,
 erysipeloid,
 hemorrhagic nephrosonephritis,
 boutonneuse fever, and
 Q fever.

They are known intermediate hosts for at least two tapeworms

 Cestode Infections. In addition to serving as vectors, fleas also act as
intermediate hosts for at least two tapeworms that may infect humans,
Dipylidium caninum of dogs and Hymenolepis diminuta of rats.
 Eggs of both parasites are passed in the feces of their respective vertebrate
hosts and are ingested by larval fleas feeding on detritus/debris in the nest.
They hatch, and the cysticeroids develop in the body cavity of the immature
flea. The adult flea is thus infected at the time of emergence from the pupa,
and transmission occurs when the flea is ingested or crushed between the teeth
of a dog, rat, or person.
Dog and cat fleas, Ctenocephalides canis and C. felis, are the most important
intermediate hosts of D. caninum, whereas X. cheopis and Nosopsyllus fasciatus are
important intermediate hosts for H. diminuta.

The bacteria undergo multiplication in the stomach of the flea and frequently move
forward to the proventriculus, resulting in partial or complete blockage. Fleas
with a blocked proventriculus can take blood only with difficulty and frequently
regurgitate in an attempt to get blood past the blocked area. In the process,
plague bacilli are inoculated into the host. Because of the difficulty in getting
blood past the proventricular obstruction, infected fleas become starved and
biting frequency increases, making these fleas important in transmission. Factors
that influence proventricular blockage include strain of pathogen, species of
flea, temperature, and type of blood ingested.
Although it is a less important means of transmission, fleas have also been known
to transmit plague bacilli in their feces. In this case, the organism is rubbed
into the bite wound, other skin abrasions, or mucous membranes. Transmission has
also been reported when infected fleas crushed between the teeth. Finally,
pneumonic plague is transmitted from person to person in respiratory droplets.
Murine Typhus clinically,is similar to epidemic or louse-borne typhus but somewhat
milder.

Control
 Control is directed more against immature stages found in nests, burrows or
other resting places of the animal, preferably with dusts containing
residual insecticides.
 While killing the fleas, the dusts also contaminate the animal host, in
sufficient concentrations they may kill the animal.
 In plague and murine typhus control, it is important to kill the fleas
before the rats. Killing rats by rodenticides alone may cause disease-
carrying fleas to move from rodents to humans.
 Dusts commonly used are 2% concentrations of diazinon, fenitrothion, and
pirimiphos-methyl; 3% y HCH (hexachlorocyclohexane); 5% carbaryl,
malathion, and propoxur; and 10% DDT.
 They are directed against the resting places and runs of the animals.
 Resistance to the organochlorines is known in several species, including
three species of Xenopsylla.
 Fleas of domestic pets are a modern nuisance especially in homes with
central heating and fitted carpets
 Regular vacuum cleaning helps to reduce infestations, but application of
insecticides to the animal and to its kennel and bedding may be necessary.
 Care must be taken in applying insecticides to pets, however, especially
cats, which lick their fur, and young animals.
 Pyrethrum dust (0.2% pyrethrins + 2% synergist) is safer than the synthetic
residual insecticides for this purpose.
 Plastic collars impregnated with the volatile organophosphate dichlorvos or
pyrethroids have proved useful for both cats and dogs.

SUCKING LICE (ORDER ANOPLURA)

Biology.
 Sucking lice are small, wingless, obligate ectoparasites of mammals.
 The body is flattened, and the legs, in part, are adapted for clinging to
hairs and feathers.
 Most species are very host specific, and the entire life cycle is spent on
one host.
  There are about 225 species of Anoplura, but only 3 are parasites of
humans. These are the human body louse, Pediculus humanus corporis ; the
head louse, P. humanus capitis; and the crab or pubic louse, Phthirus
pubis.
 All have a worldwide distribution.
 The life cycle of all three species is incomplete, takes about 3 weeks, and
is completed on the human host.
 Head and crab lice glue their eggs to hairs, whereas body lice lay eggs in
the seams of clothing.

Disease Transmission.
Only the body louse is of known importance in the transmission of human disease.
This species lives in the clothing of humans, where it makes close contact with
the skin. Heavy infestations of up to 10,000 lice can build up on an individual
during cold months and times of poor hygiene.

 Epidemic (Louse-Borne) Typhus.

 Epidemic typhus is caused by Rickettsia prowazekit
 The disease has a wide distribution in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the
Western Hemi-sphere.
 Large epidemics are generally associated with cooler temperatures during
times of war, famine, and natural disasters, when people are crowded
together in conditions of poor sanitation and hygiene.
 Epidemic typhus has a human-louse-human cycle.
 A person is usually infectious during the febrile period, and lice become
infected when taking a blood meal at that time.
 The rickettsiae enter the epithelial cells of the louse midgut and multiply
to such an extent that the cells rupture in 3 to 5 days, releasing large
numbers of rickettsiae into the lumen of the intestine, from which they are
then passed in the feces of the louse.
 Humans become infected when infectious feces are rubbed into abrasions of
the skin caused by scratching or into mucous membranes. Less commonly,
infectious rickettsiae can be released from lice by crushing.
 Lice feces may dry in the clothing and can remain infectious for 60 to 90
days. As a result, the feces may become airborne, causing transmission by
inhalation. Transmission of R. prowazekii does not occur by the bite of
lice.
 Epidemic transmission of louse-borne typhus is facilitated by the fact that
lice are sensitive to changes in temperature.
 They immediately abandon hosts with high fevers and those who have died,
seeking out other hosts and thus transferring the infection with them.
Unlike many insect-borne diseases,
 R. prowazekii infection is also fatal to the lice, which eventually succumb
to the damage caused by ruptured midgut
 Humans are apparently the principal reservoir of R. prowazekii.
 Asymptomatic carriers of the agent may remain infective to lice for many
years and thus may provide sources of infection in areas where the
rickettsiae have been absent.
 Another characteristic of louse-borne typhus is that it has a tendency to
recrudesce, producing a disease known as Brill-Zinsser disease as long as
50 years after the initial infection.
 Evidence suggests that certain tree squirrels in Virginia may also be
reservoir hosts of R. prowezekii.

 Trench Fever.
 Trench fever is caused by Rickettsia quintana.
 It takes its name from the trenches of World War I, when it was first
described and was a major problem.
 It was reported again in Eastern Europe during World War II.
 Trench fever has been reported from Europe, Africa, Mexico, and Central and
South America but is an uncommon disease today
 Lice become infected with R. quintana when taking a blood meal from an
infected person.
 The rickettsiae do not enter the midgut epithelial cells but rather
multiply in the lumen of the louse intestine.
 As a result, this infection is not fatal to the lice.
 Like epidemic typhus, however, transmission to humans is via infected louse
feces, with the rickettsiae entering the body through abrasions in the skin
or mucous membranes or by inhalation.

 Epidemic (Louse-Borne) Relapsing Fever.

 Epidemic, or louse-borne, relapsing fever is caused by a spirochete
recurrentis
 Various other species of Borrelia are associated with certain species of
soft ticks that cause endemic, or tick-borne, relapsing fever.
 It is likely that B. recurrentis originated from one of the tick-borne
strains of Borrelia, because some of these can also infect and be
transmitted by lice
 Relapsing fever has been known clinically since the days Of Hippocrates,
who called it ardent fever.
 It has a worldwide distribution in its various forms, but B. recurrentis,
once wide-spread, now appears to be limited primarily to East Africa.
 Transmission of epidemic relapsing fever is strictly by a human-louse-human
cycle. Lice become infected by taking a blood meal from an infected person.
  The spirochetes enter the hemocoele of the louse and multiply there instead
of in the intestine.
 Transmission occurs only when an infected louse is crushed, releasing
infective spirochetes, which may then enter the human host via skin
abrasions or mucous membranes. In some areas, lice are frequently crushed
with the teeth, resulting in transmission.
 B. recurrentis can be transmitted only by crushing infected lice, large
louse populations are required before epidemic transmission can occur.
 There has been considerable discussion in the popular press about insect
transmission of HIV, including speculation about lice.
 Although no field or experimental work has implicated lice in transmission,
lice have biologic and behavioral characteristics that would allow
transmission either mechanically or biologically.

Control
 Regular laundering with hot water and detergent and changing of clothing
minimize the likelihood of body lice infestations, which are usually
associated with poverty or with mass congregations and migrations of people
such as during wars, famines, and other disasters.
 The old methods of clothing decontamination by heat or fumigants have been
replaced by the use of dusts containing residual insecticides.
 These can be distributed by plunger-type dust guns with long nozzles for
insertion, beneath clothes without the need for undressing.
 During World War II, 10% DDT in talc was used in this way to combat typhus
epidemics. Alternatively, sifter-top cans can be issued for individual use.
 A 1% lindane (y HCH) powder may be used where DDT resistance is evident,
although a second application of lindane within 7 to 10 days of the first
may be necessary. Where resistance to both DDT and lindane has arisen, 1%
malathion, 2% temephos, 1% propoxur, or 5% carbaryl dusts can be used.
 Resistance to malathion is now evident in Burundi, Ethiopia, and Egypt.
 Head Lice. These are best controlled with insecticide lotions rubbed into
the hair. Those containing malathion (0.5%) or carbaryl (0.5%) kill eggs as
well as nymphs and adults.
 If 1% lindane shampoo (Kwell) is used, a weekly treatment for 3 weeks is
recommended. Although resistance to the organochlorines is known in head
lice, no resistance to organophos-phates or carbamates has yet been
recorded.
 Treatment with 0.2% synergized pyrethrins is also effective.
 Education emphasizing frequent bathing and hair washing can help avoid
reinfestation.
  Crab Lice. These are controlled in the same way as head lice. Although
usually confined to the pubic region, they can extend to other parts of the
body, such as the axillae, chest hair, and even beards and eyelashes.
 Manual removal from eyelashes is preferable to insecticidal treatment . No
resistance has yet been found in this species

BUGS (ORDER HEMIPTERA).

 Members of the order Hemiptera are the true bugs and are recognized by the
characteristic forewing, the basal half of which is membranous.
 The mouthparts are of the piercing-sucking type and are segmented.
 The proboscis is attached anteriorly and is kept folded back between the
coxae of the first pair of legs.
 The life cycle is simple, with all instars requiring a meal of blood,
hemolymph, or plant juices, depending on whether the species is
hematophagous, predaceous on other insects, or phytophagous.
 Medically important bugs belong to two families in the order Hemiptera.
These are the families
i. Cimicidae (bedbugs) and
ii. Reduviidae (triatome bugs).

Family Cimicidae (Bedbugs) -

Biology.
 Wingless but there are vestigial elytra
 Dorso-ventrally flattened to enable them creep into cracks and crevices
 Colour depends on meal- pale yellow/brown before feeding,dark brown/
mahogany after blood meal
 Head- short with prominent compound eyes
 Have a pair of four segmented antennae
 Have a slander proboscis which is ventrally located
 They are gregarious and often occur in large numbers in their hiding place
 They have distinct oduor
 They are obligate ectoparasites primarily of birds, poultry, and bats, only
two are parasites of humans. These are Cimex lectularius, the common
bedbug, and C. hemipterus, the tropical bedbug
 The former has a cosmopolitan distribution but is more common in temperate
regions, whereas the latter has a wide distribution in the tropics
 Life cycle is incomplete (egg nymph adult)
Disease Transmission.
 Bedbugs meet all the criteria for human disease transmission:
 They are obligate bloodsucking parasites that have close and frequent
contact with humans.
  They are most commonly found in beds in hotels and lounge chairs in public
places, e.g., transportation terminals, where they have contact with many
different hosts. Experimentally, they become infected with various
pathogens, but to date, they have not been incriminated in transmission of
any human disease.
 Work has shown that the swallow bug, Oeciacus vicarius, is a vector of Fort
Morgan virus in swallows in the western United States.
 Mechanical transmission of hepatitis B virus by C. lectularius has been
demonstrated experimentally.
 Considering the epidemiology of hepatitis B in the tropics, the stability
of the virus outside the host, the high viremia levels associated with this
infection in humans, and the biting habits of bedbugs, it is possible that
bedbugs have a role as mechanical vectors of this virus.
 The bedbug has been considered as a possible vector of HIV. Experimental
studies, however, have shown that HIV does not replicate in bedbug tissues
and that mechanical transmission is unlikely.
 Moreover, HIV has not been detected in the feces of bedbugs, making it
unlikely that transmission could occur by scratching fecal material into
the bite wound.
 They are a nuisance
 Young children <1 year can develop anaemia

Control
 Strictly nocturnal, these bloodsucking insects spend their daylight hours
in cracks and crevices in walls, floors, and roofs, behind pictures, and in
bed springs, slats, mattresses, and furniture.
 Sprays of residual insecticides directed at these daytime resting places
constitute the best method of control and will give good control for
several weeks.
 The addition of 0.1 or 0.2% pyrethrins or synthetic pyrethroids (e.g.,
bioresmethrin) flushes the bugs from their hiding places, causing them to
come into contact with the residuals.
 Resistance to the original residual 0.5% DDT emulsion or solution, has
forced a change to 0.5% lindane or, where resistance to both groups of
organochlorines is evident, to 2% malathion, 1% pirimiphosmethyl,
fenchlorphos, carbaryl, or propoxur, or 0.5% diazinon.
 Some Cimex lectularius have developed organophosphate resistance, but
control is still satisfactory with the carbamates carbaryl and propoxur.
 Infants beds and bedding should not be treated with residual insecticides.
Care must be taken in applying these chemicals to adults bedding.
  When spray treatments are not desirable, infestations may be eliminated by
fumigation with hydrogen cyanide (using 280 g of sodium or calcium cyanide
per 28 m3 of space.
 While traveling, it is advisable to carry a small bottle of pyrethrum
powder to be sprinkled over the bed under the sheets if bedbugs are
suspected or found in the room. This treatment usually gives protection
from bites for the night.

Family Reduviidae (Triatomine Bugs)

Biology.
 The family Reduvidae consists of a large number of species that are
primarily entomophagous and thus feed on other insects (assassin bugs).
 One predominantly American subfamily, Triatominae, feeds only on the blood
of various vertebrate animals, including humans.
 Triatomine bugs are relatively large (1 to 4 cm) and can be recognized by
the elongate, cylindric, or cone-shaped head bearing a pair of long four-
segment antennae situated apically and bulging compound eyes situated
laterally.
 The proboscis, consisting of three segment mouth-parts, is carried flexed
beneath the head, projecting posteriorly when at rest but projecting
forward when feeding.
 Most species of triatome bugs are sylvatic and live in close association
with various wild animals such as armadillos, opossums, mice, rats, bats,
and squirrels.
 Others live in close association with humans and their domestic animals.
 The bugs usually lay their eggs in or near the habitation of the host.
 The eggs hatch in 10 to 30 days, depending on the temperature and species.
 The life cycle is incomplete (egg nymph adult), with five nymphal
instars, each requiring a blood meal before molting occurs.
 There is usually only one generation per year. Overwintering can occur in
any stage, depending on the species.
 The adults can fly considerable distances in search of new hosts. The
nymphs cannot fly.

DISEASE TRANSMISSION
CHAGAS DISEASE (AMERICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS)
 The etiologic agent of Chagas disease is the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi.
 This is a disease only of the American tropics and subtropics, with a wide
distribution in South and Central America.
 It occurs sporadically in the southwestern United States
 The bugs become infected with T. cruzi when they take a blood meal from a
person or from a reservoir host with parasitemia.
  They may also become infected by cannibalism.
 The trypanosomes remain in the gut of the bugs and develop into infective
metacyclic forms in 7 to 14 days. The infective trypanosomes are located in
the hindgut and are passed in the feces.
 Transmission is usually associated with the bite of the bug, which often
takes 10 to 20 minutes to engorge and frequently defecates during or
shortly after the feeding process.
 Infection of the new host is usually accomplished by scratching the
infective trypanosomes passed in the feces into the bite wound or into
other skin abrasions or, most commonly, by transferring the agents on
fingers to the highly receptive conjunctiva of the eye or to the mucosa of
the mouth or nose.
 Many species of Triatomine bugs are susceptible to infection by T. cruzi
and more than half of these species from the Americas have been found
naturally infected. However, relatively few species are associated with
humans and other domestic animals, an essential condition for efficient
transmission of this parasite.
 Factors that influence the evolution of domesticity on the part of triatome
bugs include physiologic and ecologic adaptability of the insects,
availability of alternate hosts (domestic animals), climate, and location
and type of construction of houses.
 The last is important, because the bugs are nocturnal and seek out cracks
and crevices for hiding in during the day.
 The triatomes that are most highly domesticated are associated with poorly
constructed houses that provide daytime resting places.
Trypanosoma rangeli infection:
 It is another parasite of humans and other mammals transmitted by triatome
bugs. Because it is often found in the same areas as T. cruzi and has a
similar morphology in both human and insect stages, it may cause some
confusion. However, it is apparently nonpathogenic to humans
 Rhodnius prolixus is the most important vector of T. rangeli, but unlike
the case with T. cruzi, development in the insect occurs in the hemolymph
after a period in the gut. The infective trypomastigotes eventually invade
the salivary glands, and transmission occurs through the bite of the
triatome.

Control

 The main genera concerned in the transmission of the disease to humans are
Triatoma, Panstrongylus, and Rhodnius. Numerous animal species such as
armadillos, opossums, domestic and wild rodents, birds, dogs, and squirrels
act as reservoirs of the disease.
 These bugs dwell in cracks and crevices in human habitations and in animal
haunts and bird nests.
 House spraying with residual insecticides with special attention to cracks
and crevices (pyrethroids may be added to flush them out) is the usual
method of control.
 This is often combined with treatment of peridomestic sites of infestation
(e.g., chicken houses, pigeon lofts, and piggeries).
 HCH and permethrin at doses used for malaria control, have been used rather
than DDT.
 Dieldrin is no longer recommended for domestic use, and resistance to it
and to HCH has been recorded in Venezuela.
 Organophosphates, carbamates, and residual pyrethroids all are possible
alternatives.
 Plastering wall cracks and elimination of thatch roofs are encouraged.
 The scelionid parasitic wasp. Telenomus fariai, is an effective natural
enemy.