Class 12 Cbse Physics Notes

Electric Charges and Fields Class 12 Notes Chapter 1

1. Electric Charge Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it
produces and experiences electric and magnetic effect.
2. Conductors and Insulators Those substances which readily allow the passage of
electricity through them are called conductors, e.g. metals, the earth and those
substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity are called
insulators, e.g. plastic rod and nylon.
3. Transference of electrons is the cause of frictional electricity.
4. Additivity of Charges Charges are scalars and they add up like real numbers. It
means if a system consists of n charges q1, q2, q3 , … ,qn, then total charge of the
system will be q1 +q2 + … +qn.
5. Conservation of Charge The total charge of an isolated system is always
conserved, i.e. initial and final charge of the system will be same.
6. Quantisation of Charge Charge exists in discrete amount rather than continuous
value and hence, quantised.
Mathematically, charge on an object, q=±ne
where, n is an integer and e is electronic charge. When any physical quantity exists in
discrete packets rather than in continuous amount, the quantity is said to be quantised.
Hence, charge is quantised.
7. Units of Charge
(i) SI unit coulomb (C)
(ii) CGS system
(a) electrostatic unit, esu of charge or stat-coulomb (stat-C)
(b) electromagnetic unit, emu of charge or ab-C (ab-coulomb)
1 ab-C = 10 C, 1 C = 3 x 109 stat-C
8. Coulomb’s Law It states that the electrostatic force of interaction or repulsion
acting between two stationary point charges is given by

9. Electrostatic forces (Coulombian forces) are conservative forces.

10. Principle of Superposition of Electrostatic Forces This principle states that the
net electric force experienced by a given charge particle q0 due to a system of charged
particles is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due to all the other
charged particles of the system.

11. Electrostatic Force due to Continuous Charge Distribution

The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to have continuous distribution
of charge. It is of three types given as below:

12. Electric Field Intensity The electric field intensity at any point due to source
charge is defined as the force experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that
point without disturbing the source charge. It is expressed as
13. Electric Field Intensity (EFI) due to a Point Charge

14. Electric Field due to a System of Charges

Same as the case of electrostatic force, here we will apply principle of superposition,
i.e.

15. Electric Field Lines Electric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the
electric field around a configuration of charge(s). These lines start on positive charge
and end on negative charge. The tangent on these lines at any point gives the direction
of field at that point.
16. Electric field lines due to positive and negative charge and their combinations
are shown as below:

17. Electric Dipole Two point charges of same magnitude and opposite nature
separated by a small distance altogether form an electric dipole.
18. Electric Dipole Moment The strength of an electric dipole is measured by a
vector quantity known as electric dipole moment (p) which is the product of the
charge (q) and separation between the charges (2l).

19. Electric Field due to a Dipole Electric field of an electric dipole is the space
around the dipole in which the electric effect of the dipole can be experienced.

21. Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field (E) is given by

24. Dipole is in stable equilibrium in uniform electric field when angle between p and
E is 0° and in unstable equilibrium when angle θ= 180°.
25. Net force on electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is zero.
26. There exists a net force and torque on electric dipole when placed in non-uniform
electric field.
27. Work done in rotating the electric dipole from θ1 to θ2 is W = pE (cos θ1 – cos
θ2)
28. Potential energy of electric dipole when it rotates from θ1 = 90° to θ2 =0
U = pE (cos 90° – cosθ) = -pE cos θ = – p .E
29. Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to
unstable equilibrium, i.e. when θ1 = 0° and θ2 = π.
W = 2 pE
30. Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to the
position in which dipole experiences maximum torque, i.e. when θ1 = 0° and θ2 =
90°.
W = pE

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Class 12 Notes Chapter 2

1. Electrostatic Potential The electrostatic potential at any point in an electric field is

equal to the amount of work done per unit positive test charge or in bringing the unit
positive test charge from infinite to that point, against the electrostatic force without
acceleration.

NOTE: Electrostatic potential is a state dependent function as electrostatic forces are

conservative forces.
2. Electrostatic Potential Difference The electrostatic potential difference between
two points in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit
positive test charge from one point to the other point against of electrostatic force
without any acceleration (i.e. the difference of electrostatic potentials of the two
points in the electric field).

where, is work done in taking charge q0 from A to B against of electrostatic force.

Also, the line integral of electric field from initial position A to final position B along
any path is termed as potential difference between two points in an electric field, i.e.

NOTE: As, work done on a test charge by the electrostatic field due to any given
charge configuration is independent of the path, hence potential difference is also
same for any path.
For the diagram given as below, potential difference between points A and B will be
same for any path.
3. Electrostatic potential due to a point charge q at any point P lying at a distance r
from it is given by

4. The potential at a point due to a positive charge is positive while due to negative
charge, it is negative.
5. When a positive charge is placed in an electric field, it experiences a force which
drives it from points of higher potential to the points of lower potential. On the other
hand, a negative charge experiences a force driving it from lower potential to higher.
6. Electrostatic potential due to an electric dipole at any point P whose position
vector is r w.r.t. mid-point of dipole is given by

7. The electrostatic potential on the perpendicular bisector due to an electric dipole

is zero.
8. Electrostatic potential at any point P due to a system of n point charges q1, q2,
……………, qn whose position vectors are r1,r2,…,rn respectively, is given by

where, r is the position vector of point P w.r.t. the origin.

9. Electrostatic potential due to a thin charged spherical shell carrying charge q and
radius R respectively, at any point P lying

10. Graphical representation of variation of electric potential due to a charged shell

at a distance r from centre of shell is given as below:
11 Equipotential Surface A surface which have same electrostatic potential at every
point on it, is known as equipotential surface.
The shape of equipotential surface due to
(i) line charge is cylindrical.
(ii) point charge is spherical as shown along side:
(a) Equipotential surfaces do not intersect each other as it gives two directions of
electric field E at intersecting point which is not possible.
(b) Equipotential surfaces are closely spaced in the region of strong electric field and
vice-versa.
(c) Electric field is always normal to equipotential surface at every point of it and
directed from one equipotential surface at higher potential to the equipotential surface
at lower potential.
(d) Work done in moving a test charge from one point of equipotential surface to
other is zero.

12. Relationship between electric field and potential gradient

where, negative sign indicates that the direction of electric field is from higher
potential to lower potential, i.e. in the direction of decreasing potential.
NOTE: (i) Electric field is in the direction of which the potential decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit
displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.
13. Electrostatic Potential Energy The work done against electrostatic force gets
stored as potential energy. This is called electrostatic potential energy.
∆U = UB-UA =WAB
14. The work done in moving a unit positive test charge over a closed path in an
electric field is zero. Thus, electrostatic forces are conservative in nature.
15. Electrostatic potential energy of a system of two point charges is given by

16. Electrostatic potential of a system of n point charges is given by

17. Potential Energy in an External Field

(i) Potential Energy of a single charge in external field Potential energy of a single
charge q at a point with position vector r, in an external field is qV(r),
where V(r) is the potential at the point due to external electric field E.
(ii) Potential Energy of a system of two charges in an external field

18. Potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field E is given by

Potential energy = -p .E
19. Electrostatic Shielding The process which involves the making of a region free
from any electric field is known as electrostatic shielding.

It happens due to the fact that no electric field exist inside a charged hollow
conductor. Potential inside a shell is constant. In this way we can also conclude that
the field inside the shell (hollow conductor) will be zero.

Current Electricity Class 12 Notes Chapter 3

1. The directed rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a

conductor is known as electric current.
If ∆Q charge flows in time ∆t, then current at any time t is

NOTE: Current is a scalar quantity.

I is in the direction of flow of positive charge and opposite to the direction of flow of
negative charge.
SI unit of current is ampere and is represented by A.

2. The current density at a point in a conductor is the ratio of the current at that point
in the conductor to the area of cross-section of the conductor at that point provided the
area is held normal to the direction of flow of current.

NOTE: Current density is a vector quantity.

3. Flow of Electric Charge in Metallic Conductors Among the solids, all metals are
good conductors of electricity. The cause of conductance is free electrons.
In Case of a Solid Conductor (i.e. Cu, Fe, Ag, etc) atoms are tightly bound to each
other. There are large number of free electrons in them.
In Case of a Liquid Conductor Like electrolytic solution, there are positive and
negative charged ions which can move on applying electric field.
4. Drift Velocity It is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons
move towards the positive end of a conductor under the influence of an external
electric field applied.

5. Electric current in terms of drift velocity

6. Current density at any point of conductor,

j = nevd
where, j is a vector quantity.
7. Mobility The ratio of drift velocity of electrons and the applied electric field is
known as mobility.

8. Ohm’s Law At constant temperature, the potential difference V across the ends of
a given metallic wire (conductor) in an circuit (electric) is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it.

The variation of current w.r.t. applied potential difference is shown with the help of
following graph.
V = IR
where, R = resistance of conductor
No effect of V and I on R because as V increase, I increase but R remains the same.
9. Resistance of a Conductor Mathematically, it is the ratio of potential difference
applied across the ends of conductor to the current flowing through it.
=> R = V/I
SI unit is ohm (Ω).
Resistance can also be written as,
R =ρ L/A
where, L = length of the conductor, A = area of cross-section and ρ = constant, known
as resistivity of the material. It depends upon nature of the material.
10. Relationship between resistivity and relaxation time

13. Conductivity It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor.

It is expressed as, σ = 1/ρ
SI unit is mho per metre (Ω-1/ m).
14. Superconductivity The resistivity of certain metal or alloy drops to zero when
they are cooled below a certain temperature is called superconductivity. It was
observed by Prof. Kamerlingh in 1911.
15. Relationship between current density (j), electric field (E)and conductivity (σ ) is
j=σE
16. Some Important Units

17. If a conductor is stretched or compresses to n times of original length, then

l’ = nl => R’ = n2R
where, R’ = new resistance and R = original resistance.
18. Colour Code of Resistance The colour code on carbon resistor remains in the
form of coaxial rings.
The first band represents the first significant figure, second band represents second
significant figure and third band represents multiplier (i.e. power of ten). The fourth
band represents tolerance.

19. Combinations of Resistance There are two types of resistance combinations.

(i) Series Combination In this combination, different resistances are connected end to
end.
Equivalent resistance can be obtained as the formula,

NOTE: The total resistance in the series combination is more than the greatest
resistance in the circuit.
(ii) Parallel Combination In this combination, first end of all the resistances are
connected to one point and last end of all the resistances are connected to other point.
Equivalent resistance can be obtained by the formula

NOTE: The total resistance in parallel combination is less than the least resistance of
the circuit.
20. If n identical resistors each of resistance r are connected in
(i) series combination, Req = nr
(ii) parallel combination, Req = r/n

Moving Charges and Magnetism Class 12 Notes Chapter 4

1. The space in the surroundings of a magnet or a current-carrying conductor in

which its magnetic influence can be experienced is called magnetic field. Its SI unit is
Tesla (T).
2. Oersted experimentally demonstrated that the current-carrying conductor
produces magnetic field around it.
When key K is closed, then deflection occurs in the compass needle and vice-versa,
3. Biot-Savart’s Law According to this law, the magnetic field due to small; current-
carrying element dl at any nearby point P is given by

4. The relationship between μ0, ε0 and c is

where, c is velocity of light, ε0 is permittivity of free space and μ0 is magnetic

permeability.
5. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current-carrying conductor/coil.

6. Magnetic field at the centre of semi-circular current-carrying conductor.

7. Magnetic field at the centre of an arc of circular current-carrying conductor which

subtends an angle 0 at the centre.
8. Magnetic field at any point lies on the axis of circular current-carrying conductor

9. Magnetic field due to straight current-carrying conductor at any point P at a

distance r from the wire is given by

10. The following figure shows the graphical representation of variation of B with
distance from straight conductor.

11. Ampere’s Circuital Law The line integral of the magnetic field B around any
closed loop is equal to μ0 times the total current I threading through the loop, i.e.

Magnitude of magnetic field of a straight wire using Ampere’s law

12. Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current.

13. Magnetic Field due to a Straight Solenoid
(i) At any point inside the solenoid,
B = μ0nI
where, n = number of turns per unit length.
(ii) At the ends of the solenoid,
B = 1/2 μ0nI

14. Magnetic Field due to Toroidal Solenoid

(i) Inside the toroidal solenoid,
B =μ0nI, here, n =N/2πr ,N= total number of turns
(ii) In the open space, interior or exterior of toroidal solenoid,
B= 0

Magnetism And Matter Class 12 Notes Chapter 5

1. The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is given by

M = m × 2I
where, m is pole strength and 2I is dipole length directed from S to N.
The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is A-m2 or J/T.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from South pole to North pole.
2. Coulomb’s Law in Magnetism
Magnitude of force acting between two magnetic poles is given by

where, m1 and m2 are magnetic strength of poles and k is magnetic force constant. Its
SI unit is A-m.
3. Magnetic Field Lines These are imaginary lines which give pictorial
representation for the magnetic field inside and around the magnet.
Their properties are given as below:
(i) These lines form continuous closed loops.
(ii) The tangent to the field line gives direction of the field at that point.
(iii) Larger the density of the lines, stronger will be the magnetic field.
(iv) These lines do not intersect one another.

NOTE: The direction of magnetic field between the poles of the dipole is in the
direction opposite to the magnetic moment (South to North) while inside the current
loop it is in the same direction to that of magnetic moment.
5. Torque on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field is

where, θ is the angle between M and B. Its SI unit is joule per tesla (JT-1).
6. Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is given by
U = – MB cos θ = – M . B where, θ is the angle between M and B.
7. Work done in rotating the dipole in a uniform magnetic field from θ1 to θ2 is
given by
W = MB (cos θ1 – cos θ2)
8. Current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole whose dipole moment is given by
M=IA
The direction of dipole moment can be obtained by right hand thumb rule. Its. SI unit
is A-m2.
9. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron is given by

where, v is speed of electron on a circular path of radius r.

L is angular momentum and given as L – mvr.
10. Interaction between two magnetic dipoles is

11. Oscillation of a Freely Suspended Magnet The oscillations of a freely

suspended magnet (magnetic dipole) in a uniform magnetic field are SHM.

where, I = moment of inertia of the magnet, M = magnetic moment and B = magnetic

field intensity.
12. Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid The expression of magnetic field at
distance r from centre is given by

This expression is equivalent to that of bar magnet.

13. The Electrostatic Analog
The table given below summarises the analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles

14. Magnetism and Gauss’ Law

The net magnetic flux (ФB) through any closed surface is always zero.
Electromagnetic Induction Class 12 Notes Chapter 6

1. Magnetic Flux The magnetic flux linked with any surface is equal to total number
of magnetic lines of force passing normally through it. It is a scalar quantity.

2. The phenomenon of generation of current or emf by changing the magnetic flux is

known as Electromagnetic Induction EMI).
3. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law Whenever magnetic flux linked with the closed loop or circuit changes, an
emf induces in the loop or circuit which lasts so long as change in flux continuous.
Second Law The induced emf in a closed loop or circuit is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the closed loop or circuit

where, N = number of turns in loop.

Negative sign indicates the Lenz’s law.
4. Lenz’s Law The direction of induced emf or induced current is such that it always
opposes the cause that produce it.
NOTE: Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.
5. If N is the number of turns and R is the resistance of a coil. The magnetic flux
linked with its each turn changes by dФ in short time interval dt, then induced current
flowing through the coil is

6. If induced current is produced in a coil rotated in a uniform magnetic field, then

7. Motional Emf The potential difference induced in a conductor of length l moving

with velocity v, in a direction perpendicular to magnetic field B is given by

8. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule If the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of right
hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other such that the forefinger points
the direction of magnetic field, thumb points towards the direction of magnetic force,
then middle finger points towards the direction of induced current in the conductor.
9. The induced emf developed between two ends of conductor of length l rotating
about one end with angular velocity ω in a direction perpendicular to magnetic field is
given by,

10. The induced emf can be produced in a coil by

(i) putting the coil/loop/circuit in varying magnetic field.
(ii) changing the area A of the coil inside the magnetic field,
(iii) changing the angle 0 between B and A.

CBSE Class 12 Physics Notes Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetic Flux

magnetic flux in any area equals the total number of magnetic field lines of force
passing through that area. Net flux through an area A having, under the magnetic
influence of B, can be given as Magnetic flux = ɸ = B. dA = BAcosΘ Where, B =
magnetic flux through an area A = area under consideration = angle between area
vector and magnetic field vector.
 Case 1:
When the value of = 0 ɸ = BA
 Case 2:
When the value of = 90 ɸ = 0 Some important Properties as covered in our Class 12
Physics Chapter 6 Notes:
 Magnetic flux is denoted by ɸ.
 Flux is a scalar quantity.
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).
 The CGS unit of magnetic flux is maxwell or gauss.
 1 Wb = 108 gauss.
 The dimensional formula of flux is [ ɸ ] = [M L2 T-2 A-2].
Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is a process where a changing magnetic flux in a closed

loop induces an electromotive force (emf). When a current flowing through a coil
changes, it alters the magnetic field around it, which in turn induces an emf in the coil
or in nearby conductors. This induced emf leads to the generation of an induced
current if the circuit is closed. The phenomenon is fundamental to many technologies,
including transformers, electric generators, and inductors.
Faraday’s Law of EMI:
There are two laws under Faraday’s Law of EMI.
 Law 1:
Law 1 states that whenever a change of magnetic flux is linked with any circuit, an
emf is induced, which lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
 Law 2:
According to the Second Law, the magnitude of emf induced is directly proportional
to the rate of change of magnetic flux. ∝ dɸ / dt Therefore, induced emf = e = N (dɸ /
dt) Where N = number of turns pf coil Induced Current: Induced current = i = e/R =
N/R (dɸ / dt) Induced Charge: Induced charge = dq = i dt = N/R (dɸ) Induced charge
is independent of time Induced power = P = e2/R = N2/R (dɸ / dt)2

How to produce induced EMF: EMF or electromotive force is induced in any circuit
whenever there is a change in magnetic flux. But, this emf can be induced in many
ways. As magnetic flux = ɸ = BAcosΘ Hence, flux ɸ can be changed when any B, A
or is altered. Therefore, the following ways can be used to induce EMF:
 By changing/ adjusting magnetic field B.
 By changing the area under consideration, A.
The area can be altered by stretching, shrinking or modifying the coil’s shape.
 By changing the angle .
This can be done by modifying the surface’s area and the magnetic field’s relative
orientation.

Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced emf or current in a circuit always
opposes the change in magnetic flux that caused it This law is rooted in the principle
of conservation of energy. For a better understanding, let's consider how the magnetic
field and force change depending on the position of the magnet relative to the coil:
Position of Direction of Induced Behavior of Coil’s Type of Magnetic Magnetic Field L
Magnet Current Face Force with Coil
Towards the
Anticlockwise North pole Repulsive force Increases
coil
Away from the
Clockwise South pole Attractive force Decreases
coil
Towards the
Clockwise South pole Repulsive force Increases
coil
Away from the
Anticlockwise North pole Attractive force Decreases
coil

Induced Charge Flow

When a changing magnetic flux induces a current in a circuit, a charge flows through
the circuit as a result. The total charge that flows through the circuit, due to this
induced current, can be calculated by integrating the current over the time interval
during which the flux is changing. This net charge Q flowing through the circuit can
be expressed as: q = i dt = 1/R dɸ/dt dt = 1/R dɸ q = Δɸ / R and q = N Δɸ / R where
N = number of turns

Induced Electric Field

it is explained that the induced electric field is non-

conservative and non-electrostatic. Unlike electrostatic fields, the electric field
generated by a changing magnetic field does not have a potential function and cannot
be described simply by a gradient of a scalar potential. Instead, the field lines form
concentric circles and create closed loops around the region where the magnetic flux
is changing.

Motional EMF in a Loop by Generated Area

When a conducting rod moves through a magnetic field, it generates an electromotive

force (EMF) in a loop formed by the rod and two parallel conducting rails. This
phenomenon is utilized to understand how motional EMF is induced due to the
movement of a conductor in a magnetic field. Here’s how it works:
 Setup: Imagine a setup with two parallel conducting rails and a conducting rod
that slides along these rails. The rails are connected to form a closed loop with
the rod.
 Movement: As the rod moves through the magnetic field, it sweeps out an area
between the rails. This area changes as the rod moves, causing a change in the
magnetic flux through the loop.

Periodic EMI

When a rectangular coil with N turns rotates in a uniform magnetic field, an

electromotive force (EMF) is periodically induced in the coil due to the changing
magnetic flux. Here’s a breakdown of the process: Having ⍵ its angular speed, v =
frequency of coil’s rotation, R = resistance of the coil Hence, a flux is linked to the
coil due to uniform rotational motion, which is given as, ɸ = NBA cosΘ = NBA
cos⍵t ɸ = ɸocos⍵t where ɸo = NBA = maximum flux.

Induced EMF
The electromotive force (EMF) induced in a coil or conductor changes in response to
variations in magnetic flux. This change can occur in different patterns depending on
the nature of the magnetic field and the movement of the coil or conductor. When the
EMF changes in a repeating or cyclical pattern, it is referred to as Periodic EMF.

This typically happens when the conductor or coil is exposed to a magnetic field that
varies periodically with time, such as in the case of a rotating coil in a uniform
magnetic field. Periodic EMF occurs due to the continuous change in the magnetic
flux linked with the coil, which is a result of its rotational motion or the changing
magnetic field.

This results in a sinusoidal variation of the induced EMF over time, which can be
mathematically described using Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The
EMF varies in a regular, predictable pattern, making it periodic. Induced emf is given
as, e = dɸ/dt = NBA⍵ sin⍵t E = eo sin⍵t where eo = maximum emf = NBA⍵ =
ɸo⍵

Induced current

At any time t, the induced current i is given as, i = e/R = eo/R sin⍵t = io sin⍵t Where
io = maximum current or current amplitude

Inductance

Inductance is a fundamental property of electrical circuits that opposes changes in

current. When the current through a coil changes, it alters the magnetic flux around
the coil. According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, this changing
flux induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the coil that opposes the change in
current. This process is known as self-induction, and the induced EMF is often
referred to as back-EMF. Inductance measures how much a coil or circuit resists
changes in current.

A higher inductance means greater opposition to current changes. For a straight wire
carrying current without any iron core, the inductance is relatively low compared to a
coil with an iron core, which significantly enhances the inductance.

Self-inductance Self-
inductance is a phenomenon where an emf is induced by changing the current in the
coil. Some important Properties:
 L deNotes the inductance of self-inductance.
 The SI unit of inductance is Henry and denoted by H.
 The dimensional formula of inductance is [ M L2 T-2 A-2 ].
 Coefficient of self induction = L = Nɸ /i.
Where N = number of turns of the coil ɸ = magnetic flux And i = current flowing
through the coil. Self-inductance for conductors:
 Self inductance for circular coil is = L = µoN2A /2R.
Where r = radius of circular coil, N = number of turns, A = area of circular coil =
πR2.
 Self-inductance of a solenoid = L = µoN2A /l.
Where l= length of solenoid, N = number of turns.
 Self-inductance for a square coil is L = 2√2 µoN2a / π.
 Energy stored in an inductor = 12LI².
Dependency of inductance:
 Self-inductance or L does not depend on the current flowing through the
coil/conductor.
 Instead, L depends on the number of turns or N, area of cross-section A, and
permeability of medium µ.
 Moreover, self-inductance or L only begins to show whenever there is a change
in current.

CBSE Class 12 Physics Revision Notes Chapter 10 Wave Optics

 Wavefront: It is the continuous locus of all such particles of the medium
which are vibrating in the same phase of oscillation at any instant.
Depending upon the shape of the source of light, wavefront are of different
shapes.
(i) Plane wavefront
(ii) Spherical wavefront
 (iii) Cylindrical wavefront

 Rays: Rays are the arrows perpendicular to the wavefront in the direction of
propagation of a wave.
 Time Taken: The time taken for light to travel from one wavefront to another
is called time taken by a ray.
 Huygens’ Principle:
1. According to Huygens’ Each point on the given wave front (called primary
wave front) acts as a fresh source of new disturbance, called secondary
wavelet, which travels in all directions with the velocity of light in the given
medium.
2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the forward
direction at any instant gives the new wavefront at that instant. This is called
secondary wavelets.
 Principle of Huygens’ Construction:
1. It is based on the principle that every point on a wavefront is a source of
secondary wavefront.
2. The envelope of these wavefronts i.e., the surface tangent to all the secondary
wavefront gives the new wavefront.
 Snell’s law of refraction:

 Reflection of Plane Waves Using Huygens’ Principle: The law of reflection

(i = r) can be derived using the wave theory.

Refraction of Plane Waves Using Huygens’ Principle: the Snell’s law of

refraction
can be
derived using the wave theory. (Here v1 and v2 are the speed of light in media
 1 and 2 with refractive index and respectively).

 Relation between Frequency and Speed: The frequency remains the same as
light travels from one medium to another. The speed v of a wave is given
by
Where is the wavelength of the wave and is the period of
oscillation.

 Doppler Effect: Whenever there is a relative motion between the source and
observer then the apparent frequency of ligt received by the observer is
different from the actual frequency emitted by the source of light. This effect is
called Doppler’s effect in light. The effect can be used to measure the speed of
an approaching or receding object.
 Change in Frequency: For the source moving away from the observer ,
and for the source moving towards the observer , . The change in
frequency is
So, finally,

 Coherent and Incoherent Addition of Waves:

Coherent sources:- Two sources of light which continously emit light waves
of same frequency (or wavelength) with a zero or constant phase difference
between them, are called coherent sources.
Incoherent sources:- Two sources of light which do not emit light waves with
a constant phase difference are called incoherent sources.
The total intensity I is not just the sum of individual intensities I1 and I2 due to
the two sources but includes an interference term-

The interference term averaged over many cycles is zero if

1. The sources have different frequencies or

2. The sources have the same frequency but no stable phase difference.
3. For such coherent sources-
4. According to the superposition principle when two or more wave motions
traveling through a medium superimpose one another, a new wave is formed in
which resultant displacements due to the individual waves at that instant
5. The average of the total intensity will beWhere is the inherent phase
difference between the two superimposing waves.
6. The significance is that the intensity due to two sources of light is not equal to
the sum of intensities due to each of them.
7. The resultant intensity depends on the relative location of the point from the
two sources, since changing it changes the path difference as we go from one
point to another.
8. As a result, the resulting intensity will vary between maximum and minimum
values, determined by the maximum and minimum values of the cosine
function.

 Young’s Experiment
Two parallel and very close slits S1 and S2 (illuminated by another narrow slit)
behave like two coherent sources and produce a pattern of dark and bright
bands on a screen known as interference fringes.



For a point P on the screen, the path difference
Where d is the separation between two slits, D is the distance between the slits
and the screen and x is the distance of the point of P from the central fringe.
For constructive interference (bright band), the path difference must be an
integer multiple of , i.e.-The separation between adjacent
bright (or dark) fringes is, using which
can be measured.
 Young’s Double Slit Interference Experiment: Fringe
width,
where D is the distance between the slits & the screen d is the distance between
the two slits
 Constructive Interference:
1. Phase difference : where n is an integer
2. Path difference: where n is an integer
 Destructive interference:
1. Phase difference : , where n is an integer
2. Path difference: , where n is an integer

 Intensity distribution curve for interference:

 Interference fringes with white light:- When the slits are illuminated with
white light, the interference pattern consist of a central white fringe having on
 both sides a few coloured fringes and then a general illumination.
Conditions for sustained interference:-
(i) Two sources of light must be coherent.
(ii) The frequencies (or wavelength) of the two waves should be equal.
(iii) The light must be monochromatic.
(iv) The amplitudes of the interfering waves must be equal or nearly equal.
(v) The two sources must be narrow.
 Diffraction:
 The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle is called
the diffraction of light.

 Diffraction due to Single Slit:

 The single-slit diffraction pattern shows the central

 Different Parts of the WaveFront at the Slit act as Secondary Sources:
1. Diffraction pattern is the result of interference of waves from these sources.
2. The intensity plot looks as follows, with there being a bright central maximum,
followed by smaller intensity secondary maxima, with there being points of
zero intensity in between, whenever
3. Width of central maximum is directly proportional to wavelength of light and
inversely proportional to the width of the slit.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Class 12 Notes Chapter 11

1. Photoelectric Effect The phenomenon of emission of photoelectron from the
surface of metal, when a light beam of suitable frequency is incident on it, is called
photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the current so
produced is called photoelectric current.
Hertz’ Observation The phenomenon of photo electric emission was discovered in
1887 by Heinrich Hertz during his electromagnetic wave experiment. In his
experimental investigation on the production of electromagnetic waves by means of
spark across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated
by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp.
Lenard’s Observation Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation were allowed
to fall on emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes, current
flows. As soon as, the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flows also
stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the
emitter plate, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive
plate by the electric field.
2. Terms Related to Photoelectric Effects
There are many terms related to photoelectric effects which are of follow:
(i) Free Electrons In metals, the electrons in the outer shells (valence electrons) are
loosely bound to the atoms, hence they are free to move easily within the metal
surface but cannot leave the metal surface. Such electrons are called free electrons.
(ii) Electron Emission The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of
a metal is called electron emission.
(iii) Photoelectric Emission It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the
surface of metal when light radiations of suitable frequency fall on it.
(iv) Work Function The minimum amount of energy required to just eject an
electron from the outer most surface of metal is known as work function of the metal.

(v) Cut-off Potential For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum
negative (retarding) potential V0 given to plate for which the photoelectric current
becomes zero, is called cut-off or stopping potential.

(vi) Cut-off Frequency The minimum frequency of light which can emit
photoelectrons from a material is called threshold frequency or cut-off frequency of
that material.
(vii) Cut-off Wavelength The maximum wavelength of light which can emit
photoelectrons from a material is called threshold wavelength or cut-off wavelength
of that material.
3. Effect of Intensity of Light on Photo current For a fixed frequency of incident
radiation, the photoelectric current increases linearly with increase in intensity of
incident light.
4. Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current For a fixed frequency and intensity of
incident light, the photoelectric current increases with increase in the potential applied
to the collector. When all the photoelectrons reach the plate A, current becomes
maximum it is known as saturation current.

5. Effect of Frequency of Incident Radiation on Stopping Potential We take

radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity. For each radiation, we study
the variation of photoelectric current against the potential difference between the
plates.

6. Laws of Photoelectric Emission

(i) For a given material and a given frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric
current number of photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.
(ii) For a given material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is
found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation, whereas the stopping
potential is independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident
radiation below which no emissions of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is
called threshold frequency.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron or equivalent stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident
light but depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident light.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectron is very small, less than even 10-
9 s.
7. Einstein Photoelectric Equation Energy Quantum of Radiation, Kmax = hv –
Ф0 where, hv = energy of photon and Ф = work-function
NOTE: According to Planck’s quantum theory, light radiations consist of tiny packets
of energy called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is called a photon which
travels with the speed of light.
8. Relation between Stopping Potential (V0) and Threshold Frequency (v0)

9. Important Graphs related to Photoelectric Effect

(iii) Frequency (v) and photoelectric current (I) graph. This graph shows that the
photoelectric current (I) is independent of frequency of the incident light till intensity
remains constant.

(iv) Intensity and stopping potential (V0) graph

(v) Photoelectric current (I) and time lag (t) graph is given by

According to De Broglie’s theory of matter waves, each particle of matter with linear
momentum is also a wave. The amount of a particle’s linear momentum is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of a matter wave associated with that particle. The
quantification of the electron’s angular momentum in Bohr’s model of the hydrogen
atom is justified by De Broglie’s notion of the electron matter wave. The De Broglie
hypothesis claims that all matter has wave-like qualities and that the wavelength of
matter is proportional to its momentum.

De-broglie Principle And Hypothesis

The French physicist Louis de Broglie made a daring claim in his doctoral dissertation
in 1923 (or 1924, depending on the source). De Broglie proposed that the wavelength
of any matter could be determined from Einstein’s coupling of wavelength to
momentum p, in the formula:

λ=h/p

Here h is the planck’s constant

The de Broglie wavelength is the name given to this wavelength. Because it was
uncertain whether Eshould be total energy, kinetic energy, or total relativistic energy
 with matter, he picked the momentum equation over the energy equation. They all
have the same for photons, but not for matter.

However, using the kinetic energy EK and assuming the momentum connection, a
comparable de Broglie relationship for frequency f might be derived.

f= EK/h

Significance of the de Broglie Hypothesis

The de Broglie hypothesis demonstrated that wave-particle duality was a fundamental

principle shared by both radiation and matter, not just an aberrant behaviour of light.
As a result, if the de Broglie wavelength is properly applied, wave equations can be
used to describe material behaviour. This would be critical for quantum mechanics to
advance. It is now an accepted part of atomic structure and particle physics theory.




Though de Broglie’s hypothesis predicts wavelengths for any amount of matter, there
are practical limitations on when it can be used. The de Broglie wavelength of a
baseball thrown at a pitcher is around 20 orders of magnitude less than the diameter of
a proton. The wave characteristics of a macroscopic item are so small that they are
unobservable in any practical sense, yet they are fascinating to contemplate.

de Broglie Hypothesis

At the sub-microscopic level, matter is thought to behave both like a particle and a
wave, according to quantum mechanics. Matter’s particle behaviour is clear. When
you think of a table, you imagine it as a solid, stationary object with a specific place.
This is true at the macroscopic level. However, as we zoom in closer to the subatomic
level, things become more convoluted, and matter does not always behave as we
expect.



 Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, suggested this non-particle behaviour of matter
in 1923. He proposed in his PhD thesis that particles contain wave-like qualities as
well. He generated an equation to verify it using Einstein’s renowned mass-energy
relation and the Planck equation, despite not having the means to test it at the time.

de broglie principle equation

De Broglie arrived at his equation through a sequence of substitutions based on well-

known theories. De Broglie was the first to apply Einstein’s famous equation for the
relationship between matter and energy:

E=mc2……. (2)

Here E is the energy

m is the mass

c is the speed of light

Using Planck’s theory, each quantum of a wave has a discrete quantity of energy that
can be calculated using Planck’s equation:

E=hν……… (1)

Here E is the energy

h is the planck’s constant

and ν is the frequency

De Broglie hypothesised that the two energies would be equivalent because particles
and waves share the same characteristics:

mc2= hν……… (3)

De Broglie proposed velocity (v) for the speed of light since real particles do not
travel at the speed of light ( c ).

mv2= hν…….. (4)

From above equation, De Broglie replaced v/λ for v in the equation and arrived at the
final expression that connects wavelength and particle speed.
 mv2= hν/λ ………. (5)

Hence

λ= hν/λ = h/mv

The bulk of Wave-Particle Duality problems can be solved using the above equation
and a variety of cancelling out units.

de broglie uncertainty principle quantum

The wave-particle duality, and more specifically the de Broglie interval wave, can be
used to derive Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.




The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is a fundamental principle of quantum physics

that explains why a scientist cannot simultaneously measure many quantum variables.
Until the advent of quantum physics, it was assumed that all variables of an object
could be known with absolute precision at the same time. Newtonian physics set no
boundaries on how better methods and techniques could reduce measurement error,
therefore it was theoretically possible to characterise all information with sufficient
care and accuracy. Heisenberg boldly proposed that this precision has a lower limit,
making our understanding of a particle fundamentally unreliable.

Conclusion

According to the de-Broglie hypothesis, a moving material particle behaves like a

wave at times and like a particle at other times. Every moving material particle is
connected with a wave. The de-Broglie wave or matter-wave is an unseen wave
associated with a moving particle that propagates in the form of wave packets with the
group velocity. To see the wave nature of matter particles practically, the de-Broglie
wavelength should be on the order of the particle size. The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle is a fundamental principle of quantum physics that explains why a scientist
cannot simultaneously measure many quantum variables.
Semiconductor Electronic: Material, Devices And Simple Circuits Class 12 Notes
Class 12 Notes Chapter 14

1. Metals They possess very low resistivity or high conductivity.

ρ ~ 10-2.10-8 Ωm, σ ~102. 108 Sm-1
2. Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and
insulators.
ρ ~ 10-5. 106 Ωm, σ ~ 10+5 .10-6 Sm-1
Types of Semiconductors Types of semiconductors are given below:
(i) Elements Semiconductors These semiconductors are available in natural form,
e.g. silicon and germanium.
(ii) Compound Semiconductors These semiconductors are made by compounding
the metals, e.g. CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, anthracene, polyaniline, etc.
3. Insulators They have high resistivity or low conductivity.
ρ ~ 1011 . 1019 Ωm, σ ~ 10-11. 10-19 Sm-1
4. Energy Band In a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence electrons of one
atom are shared by more than one atom in the crystal. Now, splitting of energy level
takes place. The collection of these closely spaced energy levels are called an energy
band.
5. Valence Band Valence band are the energy band which includes the energy levels
of the valence electrons.
6. Conduction Band Conduction band is the energy band above the valence band.
7. Energy Band Gap The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from
valence band to conduction band is called energy band gap (Eg ).
8. Differences between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy
bands are given below:

9. Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a

material at absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0K)
10. On the basis of purity , semiconductors are of two types:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors It is a pure semiconductor without any significant
dopant species present
ne = nh =ni
where , ne and nh are number densities of electrons and holes respectively and ni is
called intrinsic carrier concentration.
An intrinsic semiconductor is also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors Pure semiconductor when doped with the impurity, it
is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types: (a) n-type semiconductors
(b) p-type semiconductors
NOTE: Both the type of semiconductors are electrically neutral.
11. In n-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority
charge carriers are holes, i.e. ne> nh .
Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its electrons bond
with the four silicon neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent
atom.
Formation of n-type semiconductor is shown below:

12. In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge
carriers are eletron i.e. nh > ne .
In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity atoms, i.e. those
atoms which have three valence electrons in their valence shell.
Formation of p-type semiconductor is shown below:

13. At equilibrium condition, ne nh = ni2

14. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair, hv > Eg where, Eg is
energy band gap.
15. Electric current, I = eA(neve + nhvh) where, A is area of cross-section.
where, ve and vh are speed of electron and hole respectively.

18. p-n Junction A p-n junction is an arrangement made by a close contact of n-type
semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.
19. Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction During formation of p-n
junction, due to the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p-
side to n-side (p —> n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n —> p).
This space charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion
region.
Depletion region is free from mobile charge carriers. Width of depletion region is of
the order of 10-6 m. The potential difference developed across the depletion region is
called the potential barrier.

20. Semiconductor Diode/p-n Junction Diode A semiconductor diode is basically a

p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an
external voltage.

The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current (when the diode
is under forward bias).
21. The graphical relations between voltage applied across p-n junction and current
flowing through the junction are called I-V characteristics of junction diode.
22. (i) Junction diode is said to be forward bias when the positive terminal of the
external
battery is connected less to the p-side and negative terminal to the n-side of the diode.
The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a forward biased diode is shown below:

The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a reverse biased diode is shown below.

23. The DC resistance of a junction diode,

rDC = V/I
24. The dynamic resistance of junction diode,
rAC = ∆V/∆I
25. Diode as Rectifier The process of converting alternating voltage/current into
direct voltage/current is called rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for converting
alternating current/voltage into direct current/voltage.
There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier i.e.

(i) Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier Diode conducts corresponding to positive half

cycle and does not conduct during negative half cycle. Hence, AC is converted by
diode into unidirectional pulsating DC. This action is known as half-wave
rectification.
Circuit diagram of p-n junction diode as half-wave rectifier is shown below:
The input and output wave forms have been given below:

(ii) Diode as a Full-Wave Rectifier In the full-wave rectifier, two p-n junction
diodes, D1 and D2 are used. The circuit diagram or full-wave rectifier is shown
below:

The input and output wave forms have been given below:

Its working based on the principle that junction diode offer very low resistance in
forward bias and very high resistance in reverse bias.
26. The average value or DC value obtained from a half-wave rectifier,
27. The average value or DC value obtained from a full-wave rectifier,

28. The pulse frequency of a half-wave rectifier is equal to frequency of AC.

29. The pulse frequency of a full-wave rectifier is double to that of AC.

31. Zener Diode Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped p-n junction diode. It
is operated in breakdown region.

32. Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator When the applied reverse voltage (V)
reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode there is a large change in the
current. So, after the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in the current can be
produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage i.e. Zener voltage
remains constant even though the current through the Zener diode varies over a wide
range. The circuital arrangement is shown as follows.