Coleridge as Literary Critic
Introduction to Samuel Taylor Coleridge as a Critic
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834), one of the founders of the English Romantic
movement, was not only a poet but also an influential literary critic. His critical
writings, particularly those in Biographia Literaria (1817) and his lectures on
Shakespeare, developed a philosophical approach to literature. Coleridge sought to
explain the creative process and explore how literature functions as an artistic,
intellectual, and emotional experience.
Coleridge’s criticism moved beyond the empirical analysis of literature common in
the 18th century and focused instead on the deeper, often metaphysical questions of
how and why art affects the mind and soul. He combined literary analysis with
philosophical inquiry, influenced by German idealism and his own experiences as a
poet and philosopher.
Key Concepts in Coleridge's Criticism
1. Organic Unity
Coleridge's notion of "organic unity" is fundamental to his literary criticism. For
Coleridge, a literary work is an organism where every element—theme, character,
plot, structure—interacts in a way that reflects natural, organic growth. Just as in
nature, every part of a work of art serves the overall purpose and meaning.
● Example: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner exhibits this principle. The poem's
supernatural elements, moral themes, and symbolic imagery interconnect,
each contributing to the spiritual and ethical dimensions of the story. The
poem grows from a central moral vision, that of sin, punishment, and
redemption, rather than a mechanical plot arrangement.
Impact: This idea challenged the neoclassical principles of formal structure, which
valued adherence to established rules, like the unities of time and place. Coleridge's
emphasis on organic unity has influenced later critics and writers who focus on the
coherence of a work's emotional, thematic, and structural components.
2. Imagination and Fancy
One of Coleridge’s most enduring contributions to literary theory is his distinction
between imagination and fancy, found in Biographia Literaria.
● Imagination: Coleridge divides imagination into primary and secondary
categories.
○ Primary Imagination is the basic human ability to perceive the world
and make sense of it, an unconscious act of the mind to synthesize
perceptions.
○ Secondary Imagination is the creative force of the artist, a conscious
act of creation that unifies and transforms raw material into artistic
expression. It is the soul’s faculty to reshape reality in a new,
transcendent way.
● Fancy, by contrast, is merely a mechanical act of recombining preexisting
ideas, objects, or images. It is decorative, not transformative, dealing with
superficial associations rather than deep, original creativity.
● Example: In Kubla Khan, Coleridge’s use of imagination is clear in how the
poem transcends its literal images of pleasure-domes and rivers. It creates a
unified and symbolic whole, representing the creative process itself. The
vividness and unity of the poem come from the poet’s imaginative power,
rather than a mere fanciful arrangement of unrelated images.
Impact: Coleridge’s distinction between imagination and fancy has influenced
generations of poets and critics, particularly those who see literature as a creative
and intellectual process, capable of transforming perceptions and emotions into
profound artistic experiences.
3. Suspension of Disbelief
Coleridge introduced the concept of the “willing suspension of disbelief” in
Biographia Literaria. This idea refers to the reader’s ability to accept the fantastical
or supernatural elements in a work of fiction if the author can evoke a sense of
emotional and psychological truth. The concept suggests that readers will suspend
their skepticism if the story or poem provides compelling emotional and thematic
truths.
● Example: In The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge uses supernatural
elements like the curse of the albatross, ghostly spirits, and the living-dead
crew. Though highly unrealistic, these elements become believable through
the power of the poem’s moral and spiritual resonance. The reader willingly
accepts the Mariner’s bizarre and mystical experiences because of their
symbolic depth and the emotional force behind the narrative.
Impact: Coleridge’s concept is essential in the analysis of not only Romantic and
Gothic literature but also modern fantasy and science fiction. It has become a
critical tool for understanding how readers engage with fictional worlds that deviate
from reality.
4. Philosophy of Poetic Creation
Coleridge’s critical thought is heavily influenced by German Idealism, particularly
the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Schelling. He believed that the act of
creation was deeply tied to the self, the spirit, and the intellectual faculties of the
poet. Art, for Coleridge, was not merely an imitation of nature but a projection of the
mind’s inner vision.
● Example: In Dejection: An Ode, Coleridge laments his loss of creative energy,
which he links to the failure of his imagination. He suggests that the external
world can only reflect what the mind brings to it, thus affirming his belief that
the mind and spirit of the poet are central to the creative process.
Impact: Coleridge’s fusion of poetic creation with philosophical idealism has shaped
critical perspectives on the role of the poet, not as a passive observer of the world
but as an active participant in the creation of meaning. His ideas influenced
subsequent movements like modernism, which emphasized the internal world of the
artist.
5. Criticism of Shakespeare
Coleridge’s Shakespearean criticism represents some of his most insightful and
lasting work. In his lectures on Shakespeare, he explored the psychological
complexity of Shakespeare’s characters and the organic unity of his plays.
● Example: In his analysis of Hamlet, Coleridge praised Shakespeare’s
portrayal of Hamlet’s introspection, moral struggle, and delay. He
emphasized how Hamlet’s complex psychology drives the play’s plot and
thematic depth. Unlike other critics of his time, Coleridge argued that
Hamlet's hesitation was not due to external circumstances but rather an
internal philosophical conflict—a reflection of Coleridge’s own interest in the
inner workings of the mind.
Impact: Coleridge’s character-based analysis of Shakespeare marked a shift from
earlier critics who focused more on plot and formal structure. His emphasis on
psychological realism has had a profound influence on modern Shakespeare
criticism and character-driven interpretations of literature in general.
Coleridge's Legacy in Literary Criticism
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s critical thought laid the groundwork for modern literary
theory. His insights into the creative imagination, organic unity, and psychological
realism prefigured much of what would become central to later schools of criticism,
including New Criticism, psychoanalytic criticism, and Romantic idealism.
● Influence on Romanticism: Coleridge helped shape the core principles of
Romanticism, which emphasized the power of the individual’s imagination,
the importance of nature and the sublime, and the belief in art’s capacity to
reveal universal truths.
● Influence on 20th-Century Criticism: His ideas on the unity of form and
content, as well as the psychological complexity of characters, anticipated
the work of critics like T.S. Eliot, I.A. Richards, and Northrop Frye, who
explored the relationship between the mind, language, and literary form.
Conclusion
Coleridge’s criticism remains relevant because of its emphasis on the transformative
power of literature. By examining literature as an organic, imaginative act,
Coleridge helped shift criticism away from rigid formalism and toward a more
philosophical, psychological, and emotionally resonant approach. His insights into
the role of the poet, the function of the imagination, and the psychology of
characters continue to influence the way we read and interpret literature today.
Using Coleridge's Biographia Literaria (1817) as the source for examples, we gain a
clearer understanding of how Coleridge applied his critical theories to both his own
work and the work of others. The text is a combination of autobiography,
philosophical reflection, and literary criticism, and it contains examples that
illustrate his theories, especially those of imagination, fancy, and poetic creation.
Let’s examine these ideas with reference to the examples provided in Biographia
Literaria itself:
Coleridge’s Critique of Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads
In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge famously critiques and praises the work of his
close friend William Wordsworth, specifically his contribution to Lyrical Ballads.
Coleridge agrees with Wordsworth’s focus on using the language of common people
in poetry, but he also questions some aspects of Wordsworth’s theory and execution.
Example 1: The Language of Poetry
In Chapter 14 of Biographia Literaria, Coleridge discusses Wordsworth's preface to
Lyrical Ballads, in which Wordsworth champions the use of ordinary, everyday
language in poetry. Coleridge appreciates Wordsworth's argument but raises some
nuanced criticisms, particularly that not all “common language” is suitable for
poetic expression, as some of it may lack the inherent musicality needed for poetry.
● Coleridge’s Example: Coleridge criticizes the lines in Wordsworth’s poem
"The Idiot Boy" for using such simple, colloquial language that it risks
becoming prosaic and losing its poetic quality. He argued that even though
Wordsworth tried to show that poetry could exist in the language of common
people, a poet must also infuse that language with creative imagination and
artistry to elevate it beyond prose.
"And Betty’s most especial charge,
Was, 'Johnny! Johnny! mind that you
Come home again, nor stop at all,
Come home again, whate’er befall.'"
Coleridge suggests that this kind of language, while faithful to the speaker's
character, risks flattening the emotional and imaginative potential of poetry. For
Coleridge, poetry should still embody a heightened sense of imagination and
musicality, even if it uses simple language.
Coleridge’s Criticism: He argued that while Wordsworth aimed to represent humble
and rustic life, there is a risk in making the language too mundane. Poetry should,
according to Coleridge, combine simplicity with the transformative power of the
imagination, a central idea in his criticism of Lyrical Ballads.
Imagination vs. Fancy in Biographia Literaria
In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge provides his most famous theoretical distinction
between imagination and fancy in Chapter 13. He uses examples from literature to
illustrate how imagination, which he believes to be a higher creative force,
transforms and unifies elements into something new, while fancy merely rearranges
existing materials without any deeper creative synthesis.
Example 2: Imagination and Wordsworth’s "The Daffodils"
Coleridge praises Wordsworth’s poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" (commonly
known as "The Daffodils") for its use of secondary imagination—a process where
the poet transforms his experience of nature into a unified and profound vision.
● Coleridge’s Example: In the poem, Wordsworth sees a field of daffodils and
through the power of imagination, transforms this simple sight into
something emotionally significant:
"A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company:
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:"
For Coleridge, this passage illustrates secondary imagination at work. Wordsworth is
not simply describing a natural scene but actively reshaping his perception of the
daffodils into a symbolic expression of joy and unity with nature. The daffodils
become more than flowers; they become emblems of spiritual wealth that remain
with the poet long after the initial experience has passed.
Example 3: Fancy in Pope’s Descriptive Poetry
As a contrast, Coleridge points to poets like Alexander Pope to demonstrate the
concept of fancy. He argues that Pope’s descriptive poetry, while technically skilled,
often falls into mere fancy. Fancy, according to Coleridge, is the mere mechanical
arrangement of imagery without deeper transformation. In Pope’s work, the
imagery is more decorative than imaginative.
● Coleridge’s Example: Pope’s The Rape of the Lock is filled with witty, clever
descriptions, but Coleridge would argue that these are examples of fancy
rather than imagination. In describing how Belinda’s hair is cut, Pope
arranges various classical allusions and playful imagery, but these elements
do not transform into a deeper unity or higher meaning.
"With varying vanities, from every part,
They shift the moving toyshop of their heart;
Where wigs with wigs, with sword-knots sword-knots strive,
Beaus banish beaus, and coaches coaches drive."
While the passage is clever and playful, it illustrates fancy’s focus on clever
associations without invoking the deeper, unifying power of imagination that
Coleridge champions.
Willing Suspension of Disbelief
In Chapter 14 of Biographia Literaria, Coleridge introduces the concept of the
willing suspension of disbelief, a crucial idea in understanding how readers
engage with fantastical or supernatural elements in literature.
Example 4: The Supernatural in Shakespeare’s The Tempest
Coleridge uses Shakespeare as a key example of how a writer can evoke the
reader’s willing suspension of disbelief. In The Tempest, Prospero’s magical powers
and the existence of spirits like Ariel might seem unbelievable, but Shakespeare’s
careful blending of supernatural and human elements makes the play emotionally
and thematically compelling.
● Coleridge’s Example: Prospero’s magical actions—such as summoning the
storm that begins the play—are central to the plot, but the emotional weight
of his character and his relationship with his daughter Miranda ground the
fantasy in relatable human experience. This allows the audience to suspend
disbelief and accept the magical elements as part of the larger moral and
emotional narrative.
"Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes, and groves,
And ye that on the sands with printless foot
Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him
When he comes back..."
Shakespeare’s use of supernatural forces in The Tempest illustrates Coleridge’s point
that if an author appeals to human emotions and experiences, the reader is willing
to accept even the most fantastical elements. This concept has become central to
modern literary analysis, particularly in discussions of fantasy and science fiction
genres.
Coleridge’s Criticism of Milton’s Paradise Lost
Example 5: Imagination in Milton’s Satan
Coleridge admired Milton’s Paradise Lost for its profound use of imagination. In
particular, he focused on the character of Satan, who, despite being a
representation of evil, is rendered with complexity and grandeur through Milton’s
imaginative power.
● Coleridge’s Example: Satan’s speech in Paradise Lost is an example of
secondary imagination, where Milton transforms Satan’s rebellion against
God into a profound expression of ambition, pride, and despair. The depth of
Satan’s character emerges not merely from fancy or clever descriptions but
from Milton’s imaginative engagement with moral and existential themes.
"Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven."
In Coleridge’s view, Milton’s imaginative vision allows Satan to become a tragic and
psychologically rich figure, illustrating the power of poetry to unify conflicting
elements—heroism, ambition, evil, and despair—into a cohesive and powerful
character.
Conclusion
By using these examples from Biographia Literaria, we see how Coleridge applied
his critical theories to actual works of literature. His distinctions between
imagination and fancy, the concept of organic unity, and the idea of the willing
suspension of disbelief were not abstract concepts but practical tools for
understanding and analyzing poetry and literature. Through his critiques of
Wordsworth, Shakespeare, Milton, and others, Coleridge demonstrates his belief in
the transformative power of the imagination and the importance of artistic unity in
creating profound literary works.
