EWM 303: Wildlife Ecological Survey

Wildlife and Biodiversity management require a reliable and relevant data on the distribution

of species, abundance, their habitats, as well as threats. Therefore, Remote Sensing and GIS

(Geographic information system) assists in data collection and to analyse the abundance of

wildlife as well as provide suitable data for conservation management and planning.

Remote Sensing Techniques

Remote sensing is a technological approach that utilizes sensors to gather and acquire

informative data pertaining to the environment from a considerable distance. This method has

demonstrated its efficacy as a potent and emerging instrument for the preservation and

protection of biodiversity.

The utilization of remote sensing in conservation encompasses a wide range of applications,

including the monitoring of ecological alterations and the identification of instances of

wildlife poaching.

Categories of Remote Sensing System

Remote sensing systems are divided into two groups based on separate technical solutions.

Passive remote sensing systems: measure existing radiation such as the reflected solar

radiation from the earth’s surface. An ordinary camera is an example of a passive remote

sensing system using existing light as input, and forms an image on the film. Examples of

remote sensing systems of the passive type are: Photography, Digital photography, Scanning

Mirror (MSS), and Push broom Scanner.

Active remote sensing systems: emit radiation on the study object and measure the reflected

amount of radiation. Examples of remote sensing systems of the active type are: Radar,
Sonar, and Echo-sounder and the more recently added Lidar which use laser technology to

emit and then collect reflections from the surface of the earth.

In remote sensing, different types of resolution exist, which are relevant for biodiversity

conservation application:

1) Spatial resolution: Spatial resolution is the size of pixel inside an image. The spatial

resolution of a satellite image depends on sensor have, very high-resolution data set by Quick

bird, WorldView-2 etc. provide spatial resolution up to half a meter. Other like have a spatial

resolution of 30m which is available in Landsat imagery. When the spatial accuracy

decreases, the extent of imagery increase.

2) Spectral resolution: It refers to ability of distinguishing between different objects based on

their unique spectral signatures, which may be quantified using a portable spectrometer. This

measurement process yields separate signals for each object type. Spectral remote sensing

data encompasses the breadth and quantity of bands that span several spectral ranges.

3) Thematic resolution: It refers to a characteristic of a collection of rules employed to

delineate a hierarchical structure of land cover categories, the criteria employed to

differentiate them, and the interconnections between these categories.

4) Temporal resolution: The temporal resolution is not directly related to sensor. It

corresponds to frequency of revisits and is therefore dependent on the orbitography of

platform or satellite on which sensor is hosted.

Geographical Information System (GIS)
GIS is a technical instrument facilitating the understanding of geography that enables

informed decision-making. GIS refers to computerized framework that encompasses

acquisition, retention, administration, examination, and visualization of geospatially

referenced information with processing of gathered data or information about an object or

phenomena without the need for direct physical contact.

This technology is an effective tool for collecting, storing, processing, manipulating,

analyzing, managing, retrieving and displaying georeferenced data including wildlife data of

target areas where interventional management practices are needed to monitor their

effectiveness.

It helps in assessing disease levels within populations, progress of management activities by

accommodating large varieties of spatial and non-spatial data.

Biodiversity conservation categories using remote sensing and GIS: It can be grouped into

three categories:

i. Biodiversity mapping,

ii. Biodiversity monitoring,

iii. Biodiversity modelling.

A. Biodiversity mapping for individual species, species assemblages and habitats: Satellite

based data combined with field-based habitat data, land scape structure and species

abundance information to identify the habitat boundaries and biophysical characteristics to

map species assemblage. The utilization of remote sensing technology to generate habitat

maps and gather data on species habitat associations is commonly employed in order to

obtain insights into species distribution patterns.

B. Biodiversity monitoring: It plays a crucial role in assessing and enhancing biodiversity

conservation efforts with meticulously planned and executed biodiversity monitoring

program aiming to (i) provide insights into the changing patterns of key biodiversity

elements, (ii) serve as an early indicator of potential issues, and (iii) yield measurable

evidence of both successful and unsuccessful conservation endeavors. (iv) for enhancing

management practices effectiveness and (v) to furnish pertinent details regarding the return

on investment in conservation efforts.

C. Biodiversity modelling: Remote sensing and GIS have been used to predict species

distribution and risk to biodiversity to aid visualization, exploration and modelling of data on

species distributions, modelling, ecological niche modelling and habitats suitability

modelling has been growing at a striking rate in the recent years. Species distribution or

ecological niche models (ENMs) offer a valuable approach to solve the issue of insufficient

data on species distribution. These models can effectively bridge knowledge gaps by

projecting habitats in areas that have little or no occurrence records, thereby providing a

means to enhance our understanding of species distributions. The process of species

distribution modelling involves the integration of geographically referenced occurrence data

points with various environmental data sets that provide information about the habitats in

which the focal species are found. The sets are merged and examined with the objective of

constructing a depiction of the ecological needs of the focal species.

Applications of GIS and Remote Sensing in Biodiversity Conservation
GIS and Remote sensing technology has revolutionized the way we study and conserve

biodiversity via various ways in which this technology is being used to develop conservation

plans to protect critical habitats and species that depend on them.

1. Habitat Mapping and Monitoring: Habitat mapping is process of identifying the spatial

distribution of habitats in a specific area. Remote sensing technology can provide high

resolution images of study area that enables identification of different types of vegetation and

land cover. This information is useful for developing habitat maps that can be used to identify

and manage critical habitats for various species. In addition to habitat mapping, remote

sensing can be used for habitat monitoring. By regularly monitoring changes in habitat,

conservationists can detect any threats to biodiversity and implement necessary actions.

These can detect changes in land cover and vegetation, which may indicate habitat

degradation or fragmentation.

2. Species Distribution Modelling: Remote sensing can also be used to develop species

distribution models, which can be used to predict the spatial distribution of species based on

environmental variables. This information is valuable for biodiversity conservation efforts

because it enables conservationists to identify areas that are important for specific species

survival. By combining remote sensing data with field data on species occurrence and

environmental variables, conservationists can develop accurate species distribution models to

develop conservation plans that target critical habitats for specific species.

3. Monitoring of Invasive Species: Invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity, and

remote sensing can be used to monitor their spread and distribution. Remote sensing

technology can detect changes in vegetation patterns and identify areas where invasive

species are becoming established.

4. Assessment of Forest Cover Change: Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in

forest cover over time. By comparing satellite images from different time periods,

conservationists can assess the extent and rate of forest cover change useful for developing

conservation plans to protect forest habitats and species that depend on them.

5. Monitoring of Wetland Ecosystems: Wetland ecosystems are important habitats for many

species, but they are also threatened by human activities such as land use change and

pollution. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in wetland ecosystems, including

changes in vegetation, water quality, and water levels that can be useful for developing

conservation plans to protect wetland habitats and species that depend on them.

6. Monitoring of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are important habitats for many marine species, but

they are also threatened by climate change and human activities such as pollution and

overfishing. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in coral reefs, including changes

in coral cover and water temperature for developing conservation plans to protect coral reef

habitats and species that depend on them.

7. Detection of Wildlife Poaching: Remote sensing can also be used to detect illegal activities

such as wildlife poaching. By monitoring changes in vegetation patterns, conservationists can

identify areas where poaching may be occurring to target antipoaching efforts and prevent

further damage to wildlife populations.

8. Assessment of Land Use Change: Human activities such as agriculture and urbanization

can have a significant impact on biodiversity. Remote sensing can be used to assess changes

in land use over time, including changes in vegetation patterns and urbanization extent for

developing conservation plans to mitigate negative impacts of human activities on

biodiversity.
9. Monitoring of Water Bodies: Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans are important

habitats for many species. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in water quality,

water levels, and vegetation patterns in and around water bodies for developing conservation

plans that aim to protect aquatic habitats and the species that depend on them.

10. Monitoring of Grassland Ecosystems: Grassland ecosystems are important habitats for

many species, including large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn. Remote sensing can

be used to monitor changes in grassland ecosystems, including changes in vegetation

patterns, land use, and water availability useful for developing conservation plans that aim to

protect grassland habitats and depending species.

11. Detection of Forest Fires: Forest fires can have a significant impact on biodiversity, and

remote sensing can be used to detect and monitor forest fires. By monitoring changes in

vegetation patterns and temperature, conservationists can identify areas where forest fires

may be occurring or are at risk of occurring with early warning systems and responding to

forest fires quickly, thereby minimizing their impact on biodiversity.

Challenges in Biodiversity Conservation by GIS and Remote Sensing

Remote sensing has benefits for biodiversity conservation, but challenges include data quality

and availability, lack of standardization, technical limitations, and limited expertise.

Addressing these challenges can lead to effective use of remote sensing in conservation.

Some of the challenges are:

a) Data Availability and Quality: Remote sensing relies heavily on data, and availability and

quality of data can be a major challenge. In some cases, the data may be incomplete or

outdated, making it difficult to accurately assess changes in biodiversity over time.

Additionally, the quality of data may vary depending on source and method of collection,

which can impact analysis accuracy.

b) Lack of Standardized Methods: Another challenge in using remote sensing for biodiversity

conservation is the lack of standardized methods. Different organizations and researchers

may use different techniques and approaches, which can make it difficult to compare and

analyze data across different studies. A lack of standardization can also make it difficult to

replicate studies and ensure consistency in the results.

c) Technical Limitations: Remote sensing technology is advancing rapidly, but there are still

some technical limitations that can impact its effectiveness for biodiversity conservation. For

example, some remote sensing techniques may not be able to accurately detect small or

hidden species, which can limit their usefulness for monitoring biodiversity in certain

ecosystems. In addition, some techniques may be limited by weather conditions, such as

cloud cover or rain, which can impact the quality of the data.

d) Limited Knowledge and Expertise: Lack of knowledge and expertise can be a challenge in

using remote sensing for biodiversity conservation. Remote sensing is a highly specialized

field, and many conservation practitioners may not have the necessary training or experience

to effectively use and data interpretation. This can lead to data misinterpretation and

inaccurate or ineffective conservation strategies. Additionally, there may be a limited pool of

experts who are able to provide guidance and support remote sensing projects in biodiversity

conservation.

Aerial Photography

An aerial photograph is an image taken from an airborne platform, such as an airplane, drone,

helicopter, or satellite.
These photographs are used for various purposes, including mapping, surveillance,

environmental monitoring, urban planning, and artistic expression.

Aerial photography provides a unique perspective of the Earth's surface, capturing

landscapes, buildings, and other features from above.

Key types of aerial photography include:

1. Oblique Aerial Photography: Taken at an angle, showing both the ground and the

horizon. This type is often used for real estate, tourism, and military reconnaissance.

2. Vertical Aerial Photography: Captured directly downward, providing a top-down

view. This is commonly used in cartography, land surveying, and geographic

information systems (GIS).

3. Panoramic Aerial Photography: Wide-angle shots that capture a broad area, often

stitched together from multiple images.

4. Thermal Aerial Photography: Uses infrared imaging to capture heat signatures,

useful in agriculture, search and rescue, and energy audits.

Aerial photographs can be taken using traditional cameras, drones equipped with high-

resolution cameras, or specialized sensors on satellites.

Advances in drone technology have made aerial photography more accessible and affordable

for both professionals and hobbyists.

Oblique Aerial Photography

It is a type of aerial photography where the camera is intentionally tilted at an angle (not
directly downward) to capture the subject matter. This technique provides a perspective that
includes both the ground and the horizon, offering a more three-dimensional view compared
to vertical aerial photography. It is widely used for its ability to showcase depth, context, and
detail in a way that resembles how we naturally see the world.
Key Characteristics of Oblique Aerial Photography
1. Angled Perspective: The camera is tilted, typically between 30° to 60° from the
vertical axis.
2. Horizon Visibility: The horizon is often visible in the frame, providing a sense of
scale and location.
3. Depth and Context: Buildings, landscapes, and other features are shown in a way
that highlights their height, shape, and relationship to the surroundings.
4. Natural View: The perspective is more relatable to human vision, making it easier to
interpret for non-experts.

Types of Oblique Aerial Photography:

1. Low Oblique: Captures the subject at a shallow angle, with the horizon not visible in
the frame. This focuses more on the ground features.
2. High Oblique: Captures the subject at a steeper angle, including the horizon in the
frame. This provides a broader view of the landscape.

Applications of Oblique Aerial Photography:

• Real Estate: Showcasing properties, neighborhoods, and developments from an
attractive, relatable angle.
• Tourism and Marketing: Highlighting scenic landscapes, landmarks, and tourist
destinations.
• Urban Planning: Visualizing city layouts, infrastructure, and development projects.
• Disaster Assessment: Documenting damage after natural disasters like earthquakes,
floods, or hurricanes.
• Military and Surveillance: Providing detailed reconnaissance of terrain and
structures.
• Archaeology: Documenting excavation sites and historical landmarks from a unique
perspective.
Advantages:
• Provides a more natural and engaging view compared to vertical photography.
• Highlights vertical features like buildings, cliffs, and trees effectively.
• Offers context by showing the relationship between the subject and its surroundings.
Challenges:
• Distortion: Objects farther from the camera may appear smaller or distorted.
• Requires careful planning to ensure the desired features are captured effectively.
• Less suitable for precise mapping or measurement compared to vertical photography.
Oblique aerial photography is often captured using drones, helicopters, or airplanes equipped
with high-resolution cameras. Advances in drone technology have made this type of
photography more accessible and cost-effective for a wide range of applications.

Vertical Aerial Photography is a type of aerial photography where the camera is pointed
directly downward (nadir view) toward the Earth's surface, capturing images perpendicular to
the ground. This technique produces a top-down, map-like view of the area being
photographed, making it highly useful for precise measurements, mapping, and analysis. It is
one of the most common forms of aerial photography used in technical and scientific
applications.
Key Characteristics of Vertical Aerial Photography:
1. Nadir Perspective: The camera is aligned vertically, pointing straight down at the
ground.
2. Uniform Scale: Features on the ground are captured with minimal distortion,
allowing for accurate measurements.
3. Top-Down View: Provides a planimetric (flat, 2D) view of the landscape, similar to a
map.
4. No Horizon: The horizon is not visible in the frame, as the focus is entirely on the
ground.
Applications of Vertical Aerial Photography:
1. Cartography and Mapping: Creating topographic maps, land-use maps, and other
geographic representations.
2. Urban Planning: Analyzing land use, infrastructure, and development patterns.
3. Agriculture: Monitoring crop health, soil conditions, and irrigation systems (often
using multispectral or hyperspectral imaging).
4. Environmental Monitoring: Tracking changes in ecosystems, deforestation, and
natural disasters.
5. Disaster Management: Assessing damage after events like earthquakes, floods, or
wildfires.
6. Archaeology: Documenting and analyzing archaeological sites from above.
7. Military and Defense: Conducting reconnaissance and surveillance missions.
 8. Engineering and Construction: Planning and monitoring large-scale projects like
roads, bridges, and pipelines.
Advantages:
• Precision: Ideal for accurate measurements and mapping due to minimal distortion.
• Consistency: Provides a uniform scale across the entire image.
• Data Integration: Can be easily combined with Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) for spatial analysis.
• Broad Coverage: Captures large areas in a single frame, making it efficient for large-
scale projects.
Challenges:
• Limited Context: The top-down view may lack the depth and context provided by
oblique photography.
• Flat Appearance: Vertical features like buildings or trees may appear flattened,
making it harder to interpret their height or structure.
• Weather and Lighting: Requires clear weather and optimal lighting conditions to
avoid shadows or obstructions.
Techniques and Tools:
• Aircraft and Drones: Vertical aerial photography is often captured using airplanes,
helicopters, or drones equipped with high-resolution cameras.
• Satellites: Satellites also provide vertical imagery, especially for large-scale or global
mapping.
• Photogrammetry: Vertical images are often used in photogrammetry to create 3D
models and maps by stitching together overlapping images.
• Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging: Advanced sensors can capture data
beyond the visible spectrum, useful for agriculture, environmental monitoring, and
more.
Vertical aerial photography is a foundational tool in many fields, providing essential data for
analysis, planning, and decision-making. Its precision and scalability make it indispensable
for technical applications.

Panoramic Aerial Photography is a technique that captures wide, expansive views of a

landscape or subject from an elevated perspective. Unlike standard aerial photos, which have
a limited field of view, panoramic images are created by stitching together multiple
overlapping photographs to form a single, wide-angle or 360-degree image. This technique
provides a comprehensive and immersive view of the scene, making it ideal for showcasing
large areas or capturing the full context of a location.
Key Characteristics of Panoramic Aerial Photography:
1. Wide Field of View: Captures a much broader area than standard aerial photos, often
exceeding 180 degrees.
2. High Resolution: By combining multiple images, panoramic photos can achieve
extremely high resolution and detail.
3. Immersive Perspective: Provides a sweeping, immersive view that can include the
horizon and surrounding environment.
4. 360-Degree Capability: Some panoramic aerial photos are full 360-degree images,
allowing viewers to explore the entire scene interactively.
Types of Panoramic Aerial Photography:
1. Wide-Angle Panoramas: These capture a broad view of a scene, often in a
rectangular format, but do not cover a full 360 degrees.
2. 360-Degree Panoramas: These provide a complete spherical view of the
environment, allowing viewers to look in all directions.
3. Vertical Panoramas: These capture tall structures or landscapes (e.g., skyscrapers or
cliffs) by stitching images taken at different vertical angles.
Applications of Panoramic Aerial Photography:
1. Real Estate: Showcasing large properties, resorts, or developments in a single,
immersive image.
2. Tourism and Marketing: Highlighting scenic landscapes, landmarks, and tourist
destinations.
3. Urban Planning: Visualizing cityscapes, infrastructure, and development projects.
4. Event Coverage: Capturing large-scale events like festivals, sports events, or protests
from above.
5. Environmental Monitoring: Documenting large natural areas, such as forests,
coastlines, or wildlife habitats.
6. Virtual Tours: Creating interactive 360-degree aerial views for virtual reality (VR)
or online platforms.
7. Disaster Assessment: Providing comprehensive views of disaster-affected areas for
analysis and response planning.
Advantages:
• Comprehensive Coverage: Captures a much wider area than standard aerial photos.
• Immersive Experience: Offers a more engaging and interactive viewing experience,
especially with 360-degree panoramas.
 • High Detail: Stitching multiple images results in high-resolution photos with fine
details.
• Versatility: Can be used for both artistic and technical purposes.
Challenges:
• Complex Workflow: Requires careful planning, precise image capture, and advanced
software for stitching.
• Distortion: Wide-angle and 360-degree images can suffer from distortion, especially
at the edges.
• Time-Consuming: Capturing and processing panoramic images can be more time-
intensive than standard photography.
• Weather and Lighting: Consistent lighting and weather conditions are crucial for
seamless stitching.
Techniques and Tools:
1. Equipment:
o Drones, helicopters, or airplanes equipped with high-resolution cameras.
o Specialized panoramic camera rigs or rotating gimbals for 360-degree shots.
2. Software:
o Image stitching software (e.g., Adobe Photoshop, PTGui, or specialized drone
software) to combine multiple images.
o Tools for creating interactive 360-degree panoramas (e.g., Google Street
View, Pano2VR).
3. Workflow:
o Capture overlapping images with a consistent overlap (typically 20-30%).
o Use software to align and blend the images into a seamless panorama.
o Edit and optimize the final image for resolution, color, and clarity.
Panoramic aerial photography is a powerful tool for capturing expansive views and creating
immersive experiences. Its ability to showcase large areas in high detail makes it invaluable
for a wide range of applications, from marketing to environmental monitoring.

Thermal Aerial Photography is a specialized form of aerial imaging that uses infrared (IR)
technology to capture heat signatures emitted by objects, rather than relying on visible light.
This technique produces images that represent temperature variations, making it possible to
detect and analyze heat patterns that are invisible to the naked eye. Thermal aerial
photography is widely used in fields such as agriculture, energy, search and rescue, and
environmental monitoring.
Key Characteristics of Thermal Aerial Photography:
1. Infrared Imaging: Captures heat radiation (thermal energy) emitted by objects,
rather than visible light.
2. Temperature Representation: Displays temperature differences as variations in
color or grayscale (e.g., warmer areas appear brighter or red, while cooler areas
appear darker or blue).
3. Night and Day Capability: Can be used in complete darkness, as it does not rely on
visible light.
4. Non-Intrusive: Does not require physical contact with the subject, making it ideal for
remote sensing.
Applications of Thermal Aerial Photography:
1. Agriculture:
o Monitoring crop health by detecting variations in plant temperature (e.g.,
water stress, disease).
o Assessing irrigation efficiency and identifying leakages in water systems.
2. Energy:
o Inspecting solar panels for defects or inefficiencies.
o Detecting heat loss in buildings and identifying insulation issues.
3. Search and Rescue:
o Locating missing persons or animals in remote or difficult-to-access areas,
especially at night or in dense vegetation.
o Identifying heat signatures of survivors in disaster zones.
4. Environmental Monitoring:
o Tracking wildlife populations and behavior, especially nocturnal species.
o Monitoring volcanic activity, forest fires, and other natural phenomena.
5. Infrastructure Inspection:
o Detecting overheating in power lines, transformers, and other electrical
systems.
o Identifying structural issues in buildings, bridges, and pipelines.
6. Military and Surveillance:
o Conducting reconnaissance and surveillance in low-visibility conditions.
o Detecting hidden objects or individuals based on heat signatures.
7. Firefighting:
 o Mapping the spread of wildfires and identifying hotspots.
o Assisting in firefighting efforts by locating the most intense areas of heat.
Advantages:
• Visibility in Darkness: Can operate effectively in complete darkness or low-light
conditions.
• Non-Invasive: Does not require physical contact with the subject, making it safe and
efficient.
• Wide Range of Applications: Useful in diverse fields, from agriculture to disaster
response.
• Real-Time Data: Provides immediate insights into temperature variations and heat
patterns.
Challenges:
• Limited Resolution: Thermal cameras often have lower resolution compared to
visible-light cameras.
• Environmental Factors: Weather conditions (e.g., rain, fog) can affect thermal
imaging accuracy.
• Interpretation: Requires expertise to accurately interpret thermal images and
distinguish between different heat sources.
• Cost: High-quality thermal cameras and equipment can be expensive.
Techniques and Tools:
1. Equipment:
o Drones, helicopters, or airplanes equipped with thermal cameras (e.g., FLIR
cameras).
o Handheld thermal imaging devices for ground-based verification.
2. Software:
o Thermal image analysis software (e.g., FLIR Tools, ThermViewer) for
processing and interpreting data.
o GIS integration for mapping and spatial analysis.
3. Workflow:
o Plan the flight path to ensure complete coverage of the target area.
o Capture thermal images while maintaining consistent altitude and overlap.
o Process and analyze the images to identify temperature anomalies or patterns.
Thermal aerial photography is a powerful tool for capturing and analyzing heat-related data
from an elevated perspective. Its ability to operate in darkness and provide real-time insights
makes it invaluable for a wide range of applications, from improving agricultural efficiency
to saving lives in search and rescue missions.

Radar Imagery
It is a type of remote sensing technology that uses radio waves to create images of the Earth's
surface or other objects. Unlike optical or thermal imaging, radar (Radio Detection and
Ranging) can penetrate clouds, smoke, and darkness, making it a powerful tool for all-
weather, day-and-night monitoring. Radar systems emit radio waves and measure the time it
takes for the waves to bounce back after hitting an object, creating detailed images based on
the reflected signals.
Key Characteristics of Radar Imagery:
1. All-Weather Capability: Radar can penetrate clouds, rain, and smoke, making it
effective in any weather condition.
2. Day-and-Night Operation: Does not rely on sunlight, allowing for continuous
monitoring.
3. Surface Penetration: Can penetrate certain materials, such as vegetation, soil, and
ice, to reveal subsurface features.
4. High Resolution: Modern radar systems can produce highly detailed images,
depending on the wavelength and sensor capabilities.
5. Polarization: Radar systems can transmit and receive waves in different
polarizations, providing additional information about surface properties.
Types of Radar Imagery:
1. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR):
o A advanced radar technique that uses the motion of the radar antenna to
simulate a larger antenna, producing high-resolution images.
o Commonly used in satellites and aircraft for Earth observation.
2. Interferometric SAR (InSAR):
o Uses phase differences between two or more SAR images to measure surface
deformation (e.g., earthquakes, subsidence).
3. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR):
o Used for subsurface imaging, such as detecting buried objects, archaeological
features, or ice layers.
4. Doppler Radar:
o Measures the velocity of moving objects, such as weather systems or vehicles,
by analyzing frequency shifts in the reflected waves.
Applications of Radar Imagery:
1. Disaster Monitoring:
o Tracking floods, earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic activity.
o Assessing damage and planning relief efforts.
2. Agriculture:
o Monitoring crop health, soil moisture, and land use changes.
o Penetrating vegetation to study underlying soil conditions.
3. Forestry:
o Mapping deforestation, forest structure, and biomass.
o Detecting illegal logging activities.
4. Oceanography:
o Measuring sea surface height, waves, and currents.
o Detecting oil spills and monitoring coastal erosion.
5. Military and Defense:
o Surveillance, reconnaissance, and target detection.
o Monitoring border areas and detecting unauthorized movements.
6. Urban Planning:
o Mapping urban growth and infrastructure.
o Detecting subsidence and structural changes in buildings.
7. Climate and Environmental Studies:
o Monitoring glaciers, ice sheets, and polar regions.
o Studying changes in land cover and ecosystems.
Advantages:
• All-Weather Operation: Unaffected by clouds, rain, or darkness.
• Surface and Subsurface Insights: Can penetrate vegetation, soil, and ice to reveal
hidden features.
• High Precision: Provides accurate measurements of surface deformation and
movement.
• Wide Coverage: Can monitor large areas efficiently, especially from satellites.
Challenges:
• Complex Interpretation: Requires expertise to analyze and interpret radar data.
 • Speckle Noise: Radar images often contain noise (speckle) that can reduce clarity.
• Cost: High-resolution radar systems and data processing can be expensive.
• Limited Resolution: While SAR provides high resolution, it may still be lower than
optical imagery in some cases.
Techniques and Tools:
1. Satellites:
o SAR-equipped satellites like Sentinel-1 (ESA), ALOS-2 (JAXA), and
RADARSAT (Canada).
2. Aircraft and Drones:
o Airborne radar systems for high-resolution imaging of specific areas.
3. Software:
o Radar image processing software (e.g., ESA SNAP, ENVI SARscape) for
analysis and interpretation.
o GIS integration for spatial analysis and mapping.
Radar imagery is a versatile and powerful tool for remote sensing, offering unique
capabilities that complement optical and thermal imaging. Its ability to operate in all weather
conditions and penetrate certain surfaces makes it indispensable for a wide range of scientific,
commercial, and military applications.

Radio Collars and Animal Monitoring

These are essential tools in wildlife research and conservation. Radio collars are tracking
devices fitted around an animal's neck (or other body parts) that transmit radio signals,
allowing researchers to monitor the animal's location, movements, and behavior. This
technology has revolutionized the study of wildlife, providing critical data for understanding
animal ecology, habitat use, migration patterns, and population dynamics.

How Radio Collars Work:

1. Transmitter: The collar emits a unique radio signal at a specific frequency.
2. Receiver: Researchers use a handheld or vehicle-mounted receiver to detect and track
the signal.
3. GPS and Satellite Integration: Modern collars often include GPS or satellite
technology to provide precise location data without the need for manual tracking.
4. Data Storage: Some collars store data internally, which can be retrieved later, while
others transmit data in real-time via satellite or cellular networks.
Key Features of Radio Collars:
1. Durability: Designed to withstand harsh environmental conditions and the animal's
activities.
2. Battery Life: Varies depending on the collar type and usage, ranging from months to
several years.
3. Weight and Size: Collars are lightweight and appropriately sized to avoid hindering
the animal's movement or causing discomfort.
4. Additional Sensors: Many collars include sensors for monitoring heart rate, body
temperature, activity levels, and environmental conditions.

Applications of Radio Collars in Animal Monitoring:

1. Tracking Movements and Migration:
o Study migration routes, home ranges, and territorial behavior.
o Monitor long-distance movements of species like wolves, elephants, or sea
turtles.
2. Behavioral Studies:
o Observe daily activity patterns, feeding habits, and social interactions.
o Study predator-prey dynamics and mating behaviors.
3. Conservation and Management:
o Monitor endangered species to protect them from poaching or habitat loss.
o Assess the impact of human activities (e.g., deforestation, urbanization) on
wildlife.
4. Disease Monitoring:
o Track the spread of diseases in wildlife populations.
o Identify high-risk areas for disease transmission between animals and humans.
5. Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation:
o Track animals near human settlements to prevent conflicts (e.g., elephants
raiding crops or predators attacking livestock).
6. Climate Change Research:
o Study how animals adapt to changing environmental conditions, such as
shifting habitats or altered migration patterns.
Advantages of Radio Collars:
1. Real-Time Data: Provides immediate information on animal locations and
movements.
2. Long-Term Monitoring: Allows continuous tracking over extended periods.
3. Non-Invasive: Modern collars are designed to minimize impact on the animal's health
and behavior.
4. Versatility: Can be used for a wide range of species, from small mammals to large
predators.
5. Remote Access: GPS and satellite collars enable monitoring without physical
presence in the field.

Challenges and Limitations:

1. Cost: High-quality collars and tracking systems can be expensive.
2. Battery Life: Limited battery life may restrict the duration of monitoring.
3. Animal Welfare: Improperly fitted collars or long-term use may cause stress or
injury to the animal.
4. Data Overload: Large amounts of data require efficient processing and analysis.
5. Environmental Interference: Dense forests, mountains, or urban areas can interfere
with radio signals.

Types of Radio Collars:

1. VHF Radio Collars:
o Use Very High Frequency (VHF) signals for manual tracking.
o Require researchers to be within range to detect the signal.
o Cost-effective and widely used for short-term studies.
2. GPS Collars:
o Use Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to provide precise location
data.
o Can store data internally or transmit it via satellite or cellular networks.
o Ideal for long-term monitoring and remote areas.
 3. Satellite Collars:
o Transmit data directly to satellites, enabling real-time tracking from anywhere
in the world.
o Commonly used for migratory species like whales, sea turtles, or birds.

4. Smart Collars:
o Include advanced sensors for monitoring physiological and environmental
data.
o Provide insights into animal health, stress levels, and habitat conditions.

Examples of Radio Collar Use:

1. African Elephants: Tracked to prevent poaching and study migration patterns.
2. Gray Wolves: Monitored to understand pack dynamics and reintroduction success.
3. Sea Turtles: Fitted with satellite collars to study ocean migration and nesting
behavior.
4. Snow Leopards: Tracked in mountainous regions to study their elusive behavior and
habitat use.
5. Birds: Lightweight collars used to monitor migratory routes and breeding grounds.

Ethical Considerations:
1. Minimizing Impact: Collars must be lightweight, properly fitted, and used only when
necessary.
2. Animal Welfare: Researchers must ensure that collaring does not harm the animal or
alter its natural behavior.
3. Data Privacy: In some cases, publicly sharing animal location data can increase the
risk of poaching or disturbance.

Radio collars and animal monitoring technologies have transformed wildlife research,
providing invaluable insights into animal behavior, ecology, and conservation. When used
responsibly, they are powerful tools for protecting species and their habitats in an ever-
changing world.
Systematic Reconnaissance Flight (SRF)
It is a method used in wildlife monitoring and ecological research to collect data over large
areas in a systematic and repeatable manner. It involves flying over a designated area along
predetermined transects (straight-line paths) and recording observations of wildlife,
vegetation, or other environmental features. This technique is particularly useful for studying
animal populations, habitat use, and landscape changes, especially in remote or inaccessible
regions.

Key Features of Systematic Reconnaissance Flights:

1. Predefined Transects: Flight paths are carefully planned to ensure comprehensive
coverage of the study area.
2. Repeatability: Flights are conducted at regular intervals to monitor changes over
time.
3. Standardized Methods: Observations are recorded using consistent protocols to
ensure data accuracy and comparability.
4. Aerial Perspective: Provides a broad view of the landscape, making it easier to detect
patterns and trends.

Applications of SRF:
1. Wildlife Population Surveys:
o Estimating population sizes of large mammals, birds, or marine animals.
o Monitoring endangered or migratory species.
2. Habitat Assessment:
o Mapping vegetation types, land use, and habitat changes.
o Identifying critical habitats for conservation.
3. Ecological Monitoring:
o Tracking the impact of environmental changes, such as deforestation,
desertification, or climate change.
o Assessing the effects of human activities, such as agriculture, mining, or
urbanization.
4. Disease Surveillance:
o Detecting outbreaks of diseases in wildlife populations (e.g., avian flu,
anthrax).
5. Anti-Poaching Efforts:
 o Monitoring protected areas to detect illegal activities, such as poaching or
logging.

Advantages of SRF:
1. Large-Scale Coverage: Enables data collection over vast and remote areas that are
difficult to access on foot.
2. Efficiency: Faster and more cost-effective than ground-based surveys for large areas.
3. Consistency: Standardized methods ensure reliable and comparable data over time.
4. Real-Time Data: Observations can be recorded and analyzed immediately.
5. Versatility: Can be adapted for various species, habitats, and research objectives.

Challenges and Limitations:

1. Weather Dependency: Flights may be delayed or cancelled due to poor weather
conditions.
2. Detection Errors: Some species or individuals may be missed, especially in dense
vegetation or rough terrain.
3. Cost: Aircraft, fuel, and personnel can be expensive, particularly for long-term
studies.
4. Disturbance: Aircraft noise may disturb wildlife, potentially affecting their behavior.
5. Data Interpretation: Requires expertise to accurately interpret aerial observations
and account for biases.

Steps in Conducting an SRF:

1. Planning:
o Define the study area and objectives.
o Design transects to ensure even coverage and avoid bias.
o Obtain necessary permits and permissions.
2. Preparation:
o Select appropriate aircraft (e.g., fixed-wing planes, helicopters, or drones).
o Train observers and pilots on data collection protocols.
o Equip the aircraft with necessary tools (e.g., GPS, cameras, data sheets).
3. Execution:
 o Fly along the predetermined transects at a consistent altitude and speed.
o Record observations of wildlife, vegetation, or other features.
o Use GPS to mark locations and ensure accurate navigation.
4. Data Analysis:
o Compile and analyze data to estimate population sizes, map habitats, or
identify trends.
o Compare results with previous surveys to monitor changes over time.

Examples of SRF Use:

1. African Savannas:
o Monitoring elephant, giraffe, and zebra populations in national parks and
reserves.
o Assessing the impact of droughts or human encroachment on wildlife habitats.
2. Marine Environments:
o Surveying whale, dolphin, or sea turtle populations in coastal waters.
o Detecting illegal fishing activities or oil spills.
3. Boreal Forests:
o Tracking moose, caribou, or wolf populations in northern regions.
o Monitoring forest health and fire damage.
4. Wetlands:
o Counting waterfowl or other bird species during migration.
o Mapping changes in wetland extent and quality.

Technological Enhancements:
1. Drones:
o Increasingly used for SRF due to their lower cost, flexibility, and reduced
disturbance to wildlife.
2. GPS and GIS:
o Improve navigation accuracy and enable spatial analysis of data.
3. Cameras and Sensors:
o High-resolution cameras, thermal imaging, and LiDAR can enhance data
collection and reduce observer bias.
Systematic Reconnaissance Flights are a powerful tool for wildlife monitoring and ecological
research, providing valuable insights into animal populations, habitat conditions, and
environmental changes. When combined with modern technology and rigorous
methodologies, SRF can support effective conservation and management efforts worldwide.

Monitoring large mammals in grassland ecology,

sample drive count,
systematic belt transect count
Kilometric index.