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 Second Edition

Robert S. Behnke, HSD

Professor Emeritus, Indiana State University

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Behnke, Roberts., 1938-

Kinetic anatomy/ Robert S. Behnke.--2nd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7360-5909-1 (sofLcover)
1. Musculoskeletal system—Anatomy. 2. Human locomotion. 3. Human anatomy.
[DNLM: 1. Musculoskeletal Physiology. 2. Musculoskeletal System—anatomy & histology. 3.
Movement. W E 103 B419k 2006] I. Title.
QM100.B445 2006
611 f .7—dc22
2005006622

ISBN-10: 0-7360-5909-1
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-5909-1

Copyright © 2006. 2001 by Human Kinetics, Inc.

All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any
information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.

Acquisitions Editor: Loam D. Robertson, PhD; Developmental Editor: Maggie Schwarzentraub; Assistant Editors: Amanda
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At one time or another in our lives, we come in contact with someone whom we consider
our teacher, supervisor, mentor, or our role model. In many instances, these people may
also become our friends. I was fortunate during my professional preparation to have all
of the above and more in one individual. During my professional preparation, this person
emphasized the importance of knowing human anatomy, because he believed it was a
keystone to understanding athletic performance and to preventing, recognizing, treat-
ing, and rehabilitating athletic trauma. This emphasis has inspired me throughout the
preparation of this book. I'd like to thank Robert Nicolette, former head athletic trainer
(1957-1969) at the University of Illinois, on behalf of all of us who are fortunate enough
to know him. He has touched everyone we work with as a result of our association with
him. I dedicate this book to him to express how much I appreciate him.
 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi

PART I General Concepts of Anatomy 1

Chapter 1 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Bones 4
Joints 9
Muscles 12
Nerves 15
Bloodvessels 16
Other Tissues 19
Motor Unit 19

Chapter 2 Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Anatomical Locations 26
Planes and Axes 26
Fundamental Movements 28

PART II Upper Extremity 55

Chapter 3 The Shoulder 35

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle 36
Bones of the Shoulder Joint 39
Joints and Ligaments of the Shoulder Girdle 40
Ligaments of the Shoulder Joint 42
Other Ligaments of the Shoulder 43
Fundamental Movements and Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle 44
Fundamental Movements and Muscles of the Shoulder Joint 48
Combined Actions of the Shoulder Girdle and Shoulder Joint 55
Chapter 4 The Elbow and Forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Bones of the Elbow and Forearm 62
Ligaments and Joints of the Elbow and Forearm 64
Fundamental Movements and Muscles of the Elbow and Forearm 66

Chapter 5 The Wrist and Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Bones of the Wrist and Hand 76
Joints and Ligaments of the Wrist and Hand 77
Movements of the Wrist and Hand i
80
Wrist and Extrinsic Hand Muscles 80
Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 86
Muscles of the Thumb 88

Chapter 6 Nerves and Blood Vessels of the Upper Extremity . . . . . . . . . 95

Nerves of the Brachial Plexus 96
Major Arteries of the Upper Extremity 101
Major Veins of the Upper Extremity 104

PART II Summary Tables

Articulations of the Upper Extremity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^ . . . . . . . . . .108
Upper-Extremity Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

PART III The Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Thorax 117

Chapter 7 The Spinal Column and Pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Bones of the Spinal Column 122
Ligaments of the Spinal Column 125
Movements and Muscles of the Spinal Column 128
Bones of the Pelvis 136
Ligaments of the Pelvis 138
Movements and Muscles of the Pelvis 139

Chapter 8 The Thorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Bones of the Thorax 146
Joints and Ligaments of the Thorax 148
Movements and Muscles of the Thorax 150
 60
VII

Chapter 9 Nerves and Blood Vessels

of the Spinal Column and Thorax 157
Nerves of the Thorax and Trunk 158
Arteries of the Thorax and Trunk 159
Veins of the Thorax and Trunk 161

PART III Summary Tables

Articulations of the Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Thorax 164
Spinal Column and Thorax Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Supply . . . . . 166

PART IV Lower Extremity 171

Chapter 10 The Hip and Thigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Bones of the Hip Joint and Thigh 174
Ligaments of the Hip Joint 176
Fundamental Movements of the Hip Joint 177
Muscles of the Hip Joint and Upper Leg 177

Chapter 11 The Knee 189

Bones of the Knee 190
Ligaments of the Knee 194
Menisci of the Knee 197
Movements of the Knee and Lower Leg 198
Muscles of the Knee and Lower Leg 198

Chapter 12 The Lower Leg, Ankle, and Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Bones of the Lower Leg 208
Bones of the Foot 209
Ligaments and Joints of the Ankle and Foot 212
Movements of the Lower Leg, Ankle, and Foot 217
Muscles of the Lower Leg, Ankle, and Foot 219

Chapter 13 Nerves and Blood Vessels of the Lower Extremity . . . . . . . . 231

Nerves of the Lumbosacral Plexus 233
Major Arteries of the Lower Extremity 236
Major Veins of the Lower Extremity 240
PART IV Summary Tables
Articulations of tSie Lower Extremity 245
Lower-Extremity Muscles, Nerves, and Blood Supply .............247

Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions 253

Suggested Readings 256
Index 257
About the Author 267
Essentials of Interactive Functional Anatomy 268
 Preface

Human anatomy has not changed during our pists, educators, coaches, allied health personnel,
lifetimes, so why would a textbook titled Kinetic and others using a universal language of human
Anatomy need a second edition? Although the anatomy and enhanced comprehension of human
subject matter is essentially unchanged, the anatomy. A second goal is to give readers a firm
manner in which it is presented is always subject concept of how a human body is constructed and
to change. Numerous faculty and students looking how it moves by discussing bones, tying the bones
for an entry-level text positively received the first together to make articulations (joints), placing
edition of Kinetic Anatomy. As a result of their muscles on the bones (crossing joints), and then
comments and suggestions, a second edition of observing how the joints move when the muscles
Kinetic Anatomy has been prepared in a manner contract. The book also discusses the nerves and
that will further enhance learning. I thank all those blood vessels that supply the muscles essential
who took the time to provide helpful feedback to movement, but the main emphasis is on put-
and suggestions. ting together the human body for the purpose of
Students studying human anatomy will find studying movement. Knowing what structures are
this second edition even more helpful, with new involved and how they should function allows
full-color illustrations that enhance the written an individual to identify problems and correct
text. The "hands-on" experiences that have read- them to enhance physical activity. Other areas of
ers use their own bodies or that of a partner to human anatomy require more extensive learning
learn various anatomical structures and the "focus of the internal organs, the nervous system, the
points" that present common anatomical condi- cardiovascular system, the digestive system, and
tions were well received in the first edition, and the respiratory system. The typical student of
additional experiences have been included in the physical education, athletic training, and allied
second edition. Also included from the first edi- health care fields will likely examine these sys-
tion are the end-of-chapter reviews of terminology tems in advanced studies of anatomy, physiology,
(lists of the key terms that are boldfaced within exercise physiology, biomechanics, neurophysiol-
each chapter), suggested learning activities, and ogy, and other scientific offerings involving the
practice multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank human body. A third goal, possibly less academic
questions pertaining to material introduced in but most important of all, is to impart knowledge
the chapter. An answer sheet for these questions that allows the pursuit of healthy living. Knowing
appears after the final chapter of the text. Also about your body can alert you to potential prob-
retained from the first edition is a list of suggested lems and, with other acquired information, help
readings for those who want additional informa- you prevent or resolve those problems and lead a
tion about material presented in this book. New healthful lifestyle.
to the second edition is an index that allows for As it was in the first edition, this text is orga-
easier use of the book. nized into four parts. Part I discusses the basic
The primary goals of Kinetic Anatomy, Second concepts of anatomy. The remainder of the text,
Edition, remain as they were in the first edition. like many textbooks on kinesiology and biome-
One goal is to present the basic vocabulary of chanics, divides the body into the upper extremity
anatomy. This knowledge will enable readers to (part II of this text); spinal column, pelvis, and
communicate with colleagues, physicians, thera- thorax (part III); and lower extremity (part IV).
X Preface

Each anatomical chapter in parts II, III, and IV cific structure on the screen can be rotated up to
follows the same format: bones, joints and liga- 360° and stopped at any point for viewing. Addi-
ments, and muscles. Each of these parts concludes tionally, the live-action video option allows users
with a chapter examining the major nerves and to observe muscle actions during walking, standing
blood vessels of the anatomical structures dis- from a sitting position, and other activities such as
cussed in that part. The part II, III, and IV sum- push-ups and sit-ups. A zoom control allows the
mary tables for muscles, nerves, and blood ves- user to zoom in for a closer look at specific details
sels that were so well received in the first edition or zoom out for overall views of any structure.
have been supplemented in the second edition Every structure has related text material to further
with summary tables of bones, joints, ligaments, define the structure being viewed.
movements. The anatomy text of Essentials of Interactive
Faculty choosing to use the second edition Functional Anatomy includes bones, ligaments,
of Kinetic Anatomy have access to two ancil- muscles, tendons, retinacula, capsules, cartilage,
lary products: an instructor guide, with chapter discs, membranes, and other miscellaneous struc-
summaries, lecture aids, activities, and selected tures. For Kinetic Anatomy users, the program
figures from the text that can be used to create a includes detailed animations for the shoulder,
Microsoft PowerPoint® presentation; and a test elbow and forearm, wrist and hand, trunk, hip,
package that includes questions (multiple-choice, knee, and ankle and foot. Each joint has a muscle-
true-and-false, fill-ins) for each chapter. action analysis of each fundamental movement
Students and instructors alike will benefit of the joint. Essentials of Interactive Functional
from the software program Essentials of Interac- Anatomy provides excellent learning opportunities
tive Functional Anatomy by Primal Pictures that for students of human anatomy, kinesiology, and
is bound into the back of this book. This learning biomechanics.
tool allows the user to remove structures layer by Both students and instructors will benefit from
layer through 11 layers (from skin to bone) with the additions to Kinetic Anatomy in this second
the "strip away" technique. Accompanying text edition. As was said in the first edition of Kinetic
includes information regarding proximal and distal
r *•

Anatomy, the study of human anatomy is a fas-

attachments, nerve innervation, blood supply, and cinating subject particularly because it is about
primary and secondary actions. Views of any spe- you. Enjoy!
 Acknowledgments

The second edition has been enhanced with and coaches during their educational preparation
new illustrations in each chapter, wonderfully will never be forgotten. I thank these men for their
produced by Jason M. McAlexander. This artist influence on and, above all, their wonderful inspi-
and subsequent artwork developed for this edi- ration for this edition of Kinetic Anatomy,
tion were strongly influenced as a result of a very Several individuals at Human Kinetics Pub-
unique experience. During the 1940s, 1950s, and lishers (HK) have contributed tremendously to
early 1960s, all physical education majors at the this edition of Kinetic Anatomy. First, Dr. Loarn
University of Illinois were required to take 10 Robertson, senior acquisitions editor, must be
semester hours of Physiological Anatomy (two 5 thanked for initially inspiring the development
semester hour courses). A wonderful professor of of Kinetic Anatomy and then insisting a second
anatomy and physiology at the university designed edition could be produced that would enhance
and taught these two courses. Dr. Walter Phillipp the material presented in the first edition. Second,
Elhardt designed his own textbook for the course: Maggie Schwarzentraub, developmental editor,
Physiological Anatomy: A Text-Book and Labora- earns my respect and appreciation for her guid-
tory Manual for Physical Education Students. The ance, suggestions, and persistence in seeing this
ninth (1959) and final edition was published by project to its conclusion. Last, I thank Dr. Rainer
John S. Swift Company, Chicago, Illinois. The book Martens, HK president and founder, for approving
was actually Dr. Elhardt's typed lectures combined the vast artwork project making the second edi-
with anatomical drawings primarily done by tion of Kinetic Anatomy so beautifully illustrated.
Thomas S. Strieker, a friend of Dr. Elhardt's and These three people not only made working on the
former B-25 pilot who was shot down over Ger- second edition of Kinetic Anatomy a pleasure but
many during World War II. The illustrations new also have produced a publication that will make
to Kinetic Anatomy, second edition, are a tribute the study of human anatomy enjoyable for anyone
to and an appreciation for these wonderful men. interested in learning about the human body and
Their influence on hundreds of physical educators how it moves.
 »

»
 PART I

General Concepts
of Anatomy
CHAPTER 1 Structures
CHAPTER 2 Movement
 CHAPTER ONE

Structures
9

CHAPTER OUTLINE

4 Blood Vessels 16

9 Other Tissues 19
Muscles 12 Motor Unit 19

Nerves 15
H uman anatomy has been defined simply
as the structure of organisms pertaining
to mankind. A structure is, by one definition,
ing principles; the use of therapeutic techniques
involving human movement for prevention, treat-
ment, and rehabilitation of various physical condi-
something composed of interrelated parts form- tions; and the application of scientific principles
ing an organism, and an organism is simply to human movement.
defined as a living thing. The body is made up Although all systems of the human organ-
of four different types of tissues (a collection of ism can be said to contribute in some unique
a similar type of cells). Connective tissue makes way to movement, this text emphasizes those
up bone, cartilage, and soft tissue such as skin, systems (skeletal, articular, muscular, nervous,
fascia, tendons, and ligaments. Muscle tissue is and circulatory) that directly accomplish move-
divided into three types: skeletal, which moves ment. Primary concentration is on the following
the parts of the skeleton; cardiac, which causes structures: bones, ligaments, joints, and muscles
the pumping action of the heart; and smooth, producing movement, with additional comments
which lines arterial walls and other organs of about the nerves and blood vessels in each specific
the body. Nerve tissue is divided into neurons, anatomical area.
which conduct impulses involving the brain, the
spinal cord, spinal nerves, and cranial nerves, and
neuroglia, which are specifically involved in the Bones
cellular processes that support the neurons both
The body contains 2 0 6 bones. Bones have
metabolically and physically. The fourth type of
several functions, such as support, protection,
tissue is known as epithelial tissue. There are four
movement, mineral storage, and blood cell for-
varieties, and all are involved with the structures
mation. Arrangements of bones that form joints
of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urinary, and
and the muscular attachments to those bones
reproductive systems.
determine movement. Bones are classified by
The study of human anatomy as it pertains to their shapes into four groups: long bones, short
movement concentrates on the bones, joints (liga- bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Some
ments), and muscles responsible for the human authors also distinguish a fifth type of bone,
body's movement. Additionally, the roles of the known as sesamoid bones, which are small,
nervous system in stimulating muscle tissue and of nodular bones embedded in tendon (figure
the vascular system in providing the muscle tissue 1.1). The bones that provide the framework for
with energy and removing by-products need to be the body and that make movement possible are
studied. Although anatomy also includes subjects classified as long bones (figure 1.2). A long bone
such as the endocrine system, respiratory system, has a shaft, known as the diaphysis, and two
digestive system, reproductive system, autonomic large prominences at either end of the diaphysis,
nervous system, circulatory system, urinary system, known as epiphyses. Early in life the epiphysis is
and sensory organs, this text concentrates spe- separated from the diaphysis by a cartilaginous
cifically on those anatomical structures chiefly structure known as the epiphyseal plate. It is
responsible for making movement of the human from these epiphyseal plates at both ends of the
organism possible. diaphysis that the bone grows; thus, this area
Proper vocabulary is extremely important is often referred to as the growth plate. Once a
when discussing anatomy. Common terms make bone has reached its maximum length (maturity),
communication with others (physicians, coaches, the epiphyseal plate "closes" (bone tissue has
therapists, athletic trainers) much easier, and it is totally replaced the cartilaginous tissue), and the
essential that a student of human anatomy become epiphysis and diaphysis become one continuous
familiar with standard terminology presented in structure. Around the entire bone is a layer of
this chapter. Knowledge of the structures and tissue known as the periosteum, where bone
common terms used to describe movement ana- cells are produced. Additionally, the very ends of
tomically also facilitates the use of specific coach- each bone's epiphyses are covered with a mate-
 • •.• ... Structures 5

rial known as articular cartilage. This covering

provides for smooth movement between the
bones that make up a joint and protects the
end of the bone from wear and tear.
Short bones differ from long bones in that they
possess no diaphysis and are fairly symmetrical.
Bones in the wrist and ankle are examples of short
bones. Flat bones, such as the bones of the head,
chest, and shoulder, get their name from their
flat shape. Irregular bones are simply bones that
cannot be classified as long, short, or flat. The best
example of an irregular bone is a vertebra of the
S h o r t bone spinal column. An additional classification that
some anatomists recognize is sesamoid (sesame
seed-shaped) bones. These oval bones are free-
floating bones usually found within tendons of
muscles. The kneecap (patella) is the largest
sesamoid bone in the body; others are found in
the hand and the foot.

Articular surface
L o n g bone Flat bone

Epiphysis
Epiphyseal
Anterior surface
plate

Periosteum

S e s a m o i d bone Diaphysis
Medullary (shaft)
cavity

Arterial
opening
Compact
bone
Cancellous
bone
Irregular b o n e Epiphysis
Articular
cartilage

Figure 1.1 Classification of bones. Figure 1.2 Structure of a long bone.

 fOCMS 0^1. , . OSTEOPOROSIS
The loss of calcium and other minerals resulting from the natural aging process can cause bones
to b e c o m e porous and brittle. This condition is known as osteoporosis and can lead to broken
bones and postural disfigurement. Approximately 50% of individuals older than 60 have this condi-
tion.

Several terms are commonly used to describe 1.7). A process is a projection from a bone (figure
features of bones. These features are usually 1.3). A tubercle is a smaller bump (figure 1.4). All
referred to as anatomical landmarks and are three of these bony prominences usually serve as
basic to one's anatomical vocabulary. A tuber- the attachment for other structures. A spine, or
osity on a bone is a large bump (figures 1.3 and spinous process, is typically a longer and thinner

Acromion Coracoid process

Subscapular
notch
reater
tuberosity
Lesser
tuberosity
Subscapular
fossa

Deltoid
tuberosity

Acromion
Anterior process
Posterior

Glenoid
fossa

Lateral

Figure 1.3 Landmarks of the shoulder bones: anterior (front)s posterior (back), and lateral (side) views.
 I

Adductor Adductor
tubercle tubercle

Lateral Medial
epicondyle epicondyle

Tibial
tuberosity

Anterior Posterior

Figure 1.4 Landmarks of the thigh and leg bones.

projection of bone, unlike any of the previously

mentioned prominences (figure 1.5). The large Spinous process
bony knobs at either end of a long bone are
known as the condyles (figure 1.6). The part of
the condyle that articulates (joins) with another
bone is known as the articular surface (figure
1.2). Smaller bony knobs that sometimes appear
just above the condyles of a bone are known as
epieondyles (figure 1.4). A fossa is a smooth, Foramen
hollow surface on a bone and usually functions
as a source of attachment for other structures
(figure 1.3). A smaller and flatter smooth surface
is a facet (figure 1.8). Facets also serve for attach-
ment of other structures. A notch is an area on
a bone that appears to be cut out and allows for
the passage of other structures such as blood ves-
sels or nerves (see figure 1.3). Similar in function
to a notch but appearing as a hole in a bone is a Figure 1.5 Superior (from above) view of a typical
foramen (figure 1.5). vertebra.
 Intercondylar
notch

Femoral Femoral Femoral Femoral

condyle condyle condyle condyle
Tibial Tibial Tibial L Tibial
condyle condyle condyle condyle

Tibial
tuberosity

Anterior Posterior

Figure 1.6 Anterior and posterior views of the knee.

Olecranon Olecranon
Trochlear process process
notch
Coronoid
process
Radial Radial
Ulnar
tuberosity tuberosity
tuberosity

Lateral (radial) Medial (ulnar) Medial (ulnar) Lateral (radial)

styloid process styloid process styloid process styloid process

Anterior Posterior

Figure 1.7 The bones of the elbow and their landmarks.

 Lesser tuberosity
Joints
Facet on lesser tuberosity
The place where two or more bones join together
Proximal facet anatomically is referred to as an articulation. The
terms joint and articulation are interchangeable.
Middle facet
Tying bones together at articulations are struc-
Distal facet tures of dense, fibrous connective tissue known
as ligaments (figure 1.9). A ligament is a corcl?
Greater tuberosity band, or sheet of strong, fibrous connective tissue
that unites the articular ends of bones, ties them
together, and facilitates or limits movements
between the bones. Ligaments arc not the sole
Figure 1.8 Superior view of the humerus support for the stability of joints. The muscles

Femur

Ligaments

Tibia

Fibula

Posterior

Humerus Humerus

Annular ligament
Annular ligament
Interosseous Interosseous /
Radius membrane membrane Radius /

Radial collateral Oblique Oblique Ulnar collateral

ligament cord cord ligament

Lateral Medial

Figure 1.9 Medial and lateral views of the major ligaments of the elbow; posterior view of the ligaments of the knee.
that cross the joint and the actual formations of concave surface. Although the description of the
the articulating bones also contribute to joint condyloid joint is similar to that of the ball-and-
stability. socket joint, the difference is that the condyloid
There are two major forms of joints: diarthrodial joint is capable of movement in only two planes
and synarthrodial. Diarthrodial joints are distin- about two axes, whereas the ball-and-socket joint
guished by having a separation of the bones and is capable of movement in three planes about
the presence of a joint cavity. Diarthrodial joints three axes. (Note: Planes and axes are discussed
are divided into six subdivisions by their shape in chapter 2.) An example is the joint where the
(figure 1.10). The hinge joint has one concave metacarpal bones of the hand meet the phalanges
surface, with the other surface looking like a spool of the fingers. The saddle joint is often considered
of thread. The elbow joint is an example of a hinge a modification of the condyloid joint. Both bones
type of diarthrodial joint. The ball-and-socket have a surface that is convex in one direction and
type of diarthrodial joint consists of the rounded concave in the opposite direction, like a saddle.
head of one bone fitting into the cuplike cavity of These joints are rare, and the best example is the
another bone. Both the hip joint and the shoulder joint between the wrist and the thumb (carpo-
joint are examples of the ball-and-socket type of metacarpal joint). In the pivot joint, one bone
diarthrodial joint. The irregular type of diarthro- rotates about the other bone. The radius bone (of
dial joint consists of irregularly shaped surfaces the forearm) rotating on the humerus (upper-arm
that are typically either flat or slightly rounded. The bone) is an example of a pivot joint.
joints between the bones of the wrist (carpals) are All of the diarthrodial joints are considered
an example of this type of joint. Gliding movement synovial joints. The synovial joints are where the
occurs between the carpal bones. The condyloid greatest amount of movement occurs. They are
joint consists of one convex surface fitting into a characterized by a space between the articulating

Head ofN / V
Humerus humerus

Scapula
Carpals

Ball-and-socket Irregular joint

Hinge joint joint

Phalanx
Humerus

Metacarpal

Metacarpal
Radius

Carpal

Condyloid joint Saddle joint

Figure 1.10 The six types of diarthrodial joints.

surfaces (figure 1.11); a synovial membrane lining
the joint secretes synovial fluid for lubrication and Periosteum
provides nutrients to joint structures. Synovial
joints have what is known as a joint (articular)
capsule. Synovial joints are classified into four
Ligament
categories by the type of movement they permit in
planes and about axes (figure 1.12). Joints between
bones that allow only a gliding type of movement Joint cavity
(contains
over each other are known as nonaxial joints, such synovial fluid)
as are found in the wrist and the foot. Uniaxial
joints, such as the elbow joint, permit movement
Fibrous
in only one plane about one axis. A biaxial joint,
Articular capsule
such as the wrist, permits movement in two planes,
capsule
about two axes. The triaxial joint allows move- Synovial
ment in three planes, about three axes, illustrated membrane
by the movements of the shoulder joint and the hip
joint, which are both ball-and-socket joints.
Articular (hyaline)
Synarthrodia! joints have no separation or joint cartilage
cavity, unlike the diarthrodial joints. There are
three subdivisions of synarthrodial joints (figure
1.13): sutured, cartilaginous, and ligamentous. Figure 1.11 A diarthrodial (synovial) joint.

Uniaxial pivot
joint (elbow)

Nonaxial sliding
joint (wrist)

Triaxial
ball-and-socket
joint (hip)

Biaxial condyloid
joint (wrist)

Figure 1.12 The four types of synovial joints: nonaxial, uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial.
 Interosseous
ligament

Fibula Tibia

Cartilaginous joint Sutured joint Ligamentous joint

Figure 1.13 The three types of synarthrodia! joints: cartilaginous, sutured, and ligamentous.

The sutured joint has no detectable movement

and appears to be sewn (sutured) together like
Muscles
a seam in clothing. The bones of the skull are Muscle tissue is often categorized into three types:
the classic examples of sutured joints. Because smooth, which occurs in various internal organs
there is no movement in these joints, they are and vessels; cardiac, which is unique to the heart;
not discussed further in this text. Cartilaginous and skeletal, which causes movement of the bones
joints allow some movement, but cartilaginous and their joints. For the purpose of looking at anat-
joints other than those of the spinal column do omy and movement, this text concentrates on the
not play a major role in movement. The cartilagi- skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle has the ability to
nous joint contains fibrocartilage that deforms stretch (extensibility), return to its original length
to allow movement between the bones and also when stretching ceases (elasticity), and shorten
acts as a shock absorber between them. The liga- (contractility). The various forms of skeletal muscle
mentous joints tie together bones where there is are fusiform, quadrate, triangular, unipennate,
very limited or no movement. The joints between bipennate, longitudinal, and multipennate fibers
two structures of the same bone (e.g., the coracoid (figure 1.14). Most skeletal muscles are either
process and acromion process of the scapula) and fusiform or pennate fibers. Fusiform muscles are
between the shafts of the forearm and lower-leg formed by long, parallel fibers and typically are
bones are examples of the ligamentous form of a involved in movement over a large range of motion.
synarthrodia! joint. Pennate muscles consist of short, diagonal fibers

Fusiform Quadrate Triangular Unipennate Bipennate Longitudinal Multipennate

Figure 1.14 Various fiber arrangements of skeletal muscles.

 Tendons of origin
(biceps brachii)

Tendon of insertion
(triceps brachii)

Figure 1.15 (a) Tendons of origin of biceps brachii. (b)Tendon of insertion of triceps brachii.

and are involved in movements that require great

strength over a limited range of motion. The fibers
of a muscle form the muscle belly. At either end
of the belly of a muscle, a unique form of connec- Muscle tendon
tive tissue, a tendon, attaches the muscle to the to finger
bones. Tendon is similar to ligament in that both
are dense, regular connective tissue. The main
Tendon sheath
difference is that the tendon tissue does not have
as much elasticity as does the ligamentous tissue.
Tendons are also extensible and elastic, like skel-
etal muscle, but they are not contractile. Tendons
of skeletal muscles are usually defined as either
tendons of origin or tendons of insertion (figure
1.15). Tendons of origin are usually longer and are Figure 1.16 Tendon sheaths.
attached to the proximal (closest to the center of
the body) bone of a joint, which is typically the less Within the epimysium are numerous bundles of
mobile of the two bones of a joint. The tendons of muscle fibers that are individually wrapped in a
insertion are shorter and are attached to the more fibrous sheath known as the perimysium. Within
distal (farther from the center of the body) bone of the perimysium are muscle fibers, which are in
a joint, which is typically the more movable of the turn enclosed in a connective sheath known as the
two bones of a joint. Additionally, because tendons endomysium. A muscle fiber consists of a number
cross bony areas or need to be confined to certain of myofibrils, which are the contractile elements
areas, the tendons are covered by connective tissue of muscle. Individual myofibrils are enclosed by
known as tendon sheaths (figure 1.16) to protect a viscous material known as sarcoplasm and
them from wear and tear from the bony structure wrapped in a membrane known as the sarco-
they cross. lemma. Lengthwise, myofibrils consist of bands
The general structure of skeletal muscle is shown of alternating dark and light filaments of contrac-
in figure 1.17. Skeletal muscle is encased by a form tile protein known as actin and myosin (figures
of connective tissue known as the epimysium. 1.17 and 1.18). This alternating pattern produces a
 Muscle fiber
Sarcolemma

Myofibril
Periosteum

Sarcoplasm

Striations

Thick (myosin)
filament
Myofilaments
Thin (actin)
filament

Figure 1.17 The structure of a skeletal muscle.

striped (striated) appearance when viewed under a Z-lines (Z-lines bisect I-bands). Actin also occurs
microscope. A myofibril is divided into a series of in A-bands. As the actin filaments extend into the
sarcomeres, which are considered the functional A-band, they overlap with the myosin filaments
units of skeletal muscle (figure 1.18). Sarcomeres contributing to the darker appearance at the edges
contain an I-band, the light-colored portion where of the A-band. The lighter-colored, central portion
the protein filament actin occurs, and an A-band, of the A-band is known as the H-zone. This region
the dark-colored area where the protein filament is lighter in color because actin does not extend
myosin occurs (figure 1.18). A sarcomere is that into this area and because the myosin filament is
portion of a myofibril that appears between two thinner in the middle than at its outer edges. The

Thin (actin) filament —

Thick (myosin) filament

Cross-bridge

Sarcomere

Z-line H-zone Z-line

Thick (myosin) filament

Thin (actin) filament

-band A-band l-band

Figure 1.18 A muscle fiber and its myofibrils.

two protein filaments, actin and myosin, are the runner, whereas a runner with a higher percentage
site of muscular movement (contraction). The of fast-twitch fibers in lower-extremity muscles is
myosin filament has cross-bridges (small exten- more likely to become a sprinter.
sions) that reach out at an angle toward the actin
filaments (figure 1.18).
There are two primary types of skeletal muscle Nerves
fibers, which are commonly known as fast-twitch
The body has three main nervous systems: an auto-
and slow-twitch fibers (figure 1.19). Most muscles
nomic nervous system, a ccntral nervous system,
contain both types of fibers, but depending on
and a peripheral nervous system. The autonomic
heredity, function, and, to a lesser degree, train-
nervous system is involved with the glands and
ing, some muscles contain more of one type of
smooth muscle of the body. The central nervous
fiber than the other. Fast-twitch fibers are large
system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The
and white and appear in muscles used to perform
peripheral nervous system consists of 12 pairs
strength activities. The slow-twitch fibers are
of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
small and darker (red) than the fast-twitch fibers
The spinal nerves, divided in plexuses (networks
(primarily because they have a greater supply of
of peripheral nerves), innervate (stimulate) the
hemoglobin). Slow-twitch fibers are slow to fatigue
muscles to create movement. The major plexuses
and are prevalent in muscles involved in perform-
are the cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and, to
ing endurance activities. A runner with a higher
a limited extent, coccygeal (figure 1.20). Spinal
percentage of slow-twitch fibers in lower-extremity
column levels are typically referred to by specific
muscles is more likely to develop into a distance
vertebra. For example, C5 is the fifth cervical ver-
tebra, T8 is the eighth thoracic vertebra, and L2 is
the second lumbar vertebra.
The nerve (figure 1.21), or neuron, consists of
a nerve cell body and projections from it, which
are known as the dendrite and the axon. In a
motor nerve, the dendrite receives information
from surrounding tissue and conducts the nerve
impulse to the nerve's cell body (responsible for
neuron nutrition), and the axon conducts the
nerve impulse from the cell body to the muscle
fibers. Another structural component of a motor
Figure 1.19 Fast-twitch (light) and slow-twitch (dark) nerve is the myelin sheath that insulates the axon.
muscle fibers. The gaps in the myelin sheathes are known as the

Focus OH, . , MUSCLE VISCOSITY

Viscosity is more easily understood if one considers motor oil used in an automobile. The vis-
cosity (thickness) of the oil d e p e n d s on the temperature: The oil either thins (as the temperature
increases) or thickens (as the temperature decreases). Some authorities believe that one of the
benefits of a warm-up before physical activity is that muscle viscosity changes with the increased
temperature within the muscle tissue, which makes the muscle more able to endure the stress of
the physical activity.
The study of muscle physiology and the physiology of exercise reveals other values of warm-
ing up. Anyone involved in prescribing physical activity (physicians, coaches, therapists, athletic
trainers, and personal trainers) needs to understand the physiological factors involved in warm-up,
including the effect on muscle viscosity.
 Dendrites

Cervical
plexus Cell body

A \
/
Axon
Myelin
sheath

Brachial
plexus Node of
Ranvier End
brush
/
y
M

* i

Motor nerve

Central terminal
branches
Lumbar
plexus

Axon
Sacral (central
plexus fiber)

Pudendal
(coccygeal)
plexus
Peripheral
fiber
Figure 1.20 Spinal nerves and plexuses.
Dendrites

nodes of Ranvier, which cause all impulses to

"leap" between the myelin sheathes (from node
to node), allowing the impulses to travel at higher
Sensory nerve
speeds than they would across an unmyelinated
sheathed axon. At the end of the axon is a structure
known as the motor end plate, which consists of Figure 1.21 A motor (efferent) nerve and a sensory
(afferent) nerve.
end brushes (terminal branches) that are in very
close proximity to the muscle fibers. Motor nerves
carry impulses away from the central nervous
system, whereas sensory nerves (not discussed
Blo©d Vessels
in this chapter) carry impulses to the central ner- The blood vessels bring nutrients to the muscle
vous system. Motor nerves are also referred to as tissue and carry away the waste products pro-
efferent nerves; sensory nerves are also referred duced by the muscle tissues expending energy.
to as afferent nerves. When the heart pumps, blood moves out of the
heart into a huge vascular tree consisting of arter- adventitia). The middle layer (tunica media) con-
ies, arterioles (smaller arteries), capillaries, veins, tains various quantities of smooth muscle fibers
and venules (small veins). There are three tissue depending upon the type of vessel. The arteries
layers (tunics) of the walls of arteries, veins, and and arterioles (figure 1.22) distribute blood to the
capillaries (tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica tissues, where capillaries provide the blood directly

Occipital

Internal carotid carotid

Right common carotid Left common carotid

Left subclavian
Brachiocephalic
Arch of aorta

Pulmonary
Right coronary
Left coronary

Thoracic aorta

Brachial Celiac trunk

Splenic

Ulnar ^ Lefl renal

Superior mesenteric
Radial Abdominal aorta

Inferior mesenteric
Right internal iliac
Common iliac

External iliac

Femoral

Popliteal

Anterior tibial

Figure 1.22 Major arteries of the body.

to the cells. The veins and venules (figure 1.23) col- body. The veins contain small valves that permit
lect the blood from the capillaries and return it to blood to flow in only one direction (toward the
the heart. The middle wall of the arteries contains heart). All three layers of tissue in the veins are
a vast amount of smooth muscle that contracts much thinner as compared to the arteries. As a
with the heart to pump the blood throughout the result, smooth muscle fibers are either absent or

Superior sagittal sinus

Facial

Internal jugular

External jugular
Left brachiocephalic
Right brachiocephalic
Left subclavian
Right subclavian
Pulmonary
Superior vena cava
Great cardiac
Axillary
Hepatic
Cephalic
Splenic
Small
Hepatic portal

Median cubital Superior mesenteric

Inferior mesenteric

Inferior vena cava

Common iliac
Internal iliac

External iliac

Femoral

Grealsaphenous

Popliteal

Anterior tibial

Posterior tibial

Figure 1.23 Major veins of the body.

 To heart To heart

Valve
closed

Relaxed —
skeletal
muscles

Valve
closed

Vein

Figure 1.24 A vein's valve action.

are very few thin fibers in the tunica media of the

veins. Although the veins possess either a mini-
mal amount or no smooth muscle fibers in their
walls compared to the arteries, they are assisted
in returning blood to the heart by skeletal muscles
as they contract and squeeze the veins between
muscles and/or between muscles and bones (figure
1.24). The skeletal muscles act as muscular venous
pumps that squeeze blood upward past each valve.
Gravity also assists venous return in veins that are
found above the heart. There are more valves in
the veins of the extremities where upward blood
flow is opposed by gravity.

Other Tissues
Other types of tissues associated with bones, Figure 1-25 A typical bursa.
joints, and muscles are fascia and bursa. Fascia
is another form of fibrous connective tissue of
the body that covers, connects, or supports other Motor Unit
tissues. One form of fascia, the sarcolemma of
muscle, has already been discussed. A bursa We have now observed the bones, the ligaments
(figure 1.25) is a saclike structure that contains that connect the bones to form articulations
bursa fluid and protects muscle, tendon, liga- (joints), the muscles that cross joints and create
ment, and other tissues as they cross the bony movement, the nerves that innervate the muscles,
prominences described earlier. The bursas pro- and the blood vessels that supply all these struc-
vide lubricated surfaces to allow tendons to glide tures. These structures are all considered essential
directly over bone without being worn away over to movement. We now look at the motor unit.
time from friction. Some textbooks examine the physiology of nerve
 Dendrites

Motor end plate

Cell body
Muscle fibers
Node of
Ranvier

Myelin

Axon

Figure 1.26 The motor unit, comprising a motor neuron and muscle fibers,

impulses that generate muscular contraction muscle fibers, it is at the myoneural junction that
that, in turn, causes movement. In this book, we the synapse (connection) is located. The synapse
concentrate on the anatomy of the structures that (figure 1.28) is the structure where the end brushes
actually produce movement. of the axon of a motor nerve release a chemical
A motor unit is defined as a motor nerve and known as acetylcholine. This chemical stimulates
all the muscle fibers it supplies (figures 1.26 and the outer covering (sarcolemma) of the muscle
1.27). The structural parts of the motor unit are fiber, which allows the impulse to continue to
the motor nerve and the muscle fiber. All the the muscle fiber and causes it to-contract if the
motor units together are referred to as the body's impulse is great enough to reach the muscle fiber's
neuromuscular system.. threshold. The space between the axon's end brush
The space between the end brushes of the motor and the muscle's sarcolemma where acetylcho-
end plate and the muscle fibers is known as the line passes from the nerve to the muscle tissue is
myoneural junction. Although the end brushes known as the synaptic cleft. In summary, a nerve
never actually come in direct contact with the impulse travels from the spinal cord (or brain)
to a dendrite of a spinal nerve, from the dendrite
to the nerve's cell body, and from the cell body

Synaptic vesicles

Motor nerve — w Presynaptic

Mitochondria membrane
V \ Myoneural
End brush junction Postsynaptic
Cleft membrane

Muscle fiber —

Muscle

Figure 1.28 A neuromuscular synapse and its related

Figure 1.27 Schematic of a motor unit. structures.
over the nerve's axon to the axon's end brushes Thin (actin) filament
(motor end plate), where a chemical is released
at the synapse.
Now that we have observed the anatomical
structures responsible for the nerve impulse
being transmitted to the muscle, let us look at
the components that make up the other half
of the motor unit, the muscle. As the impulse
passes from nerve to muscle, calcium is released
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse
tubules (figure 1.29) within the muscle fibers, two Thick (myosin) filament
structures closely allied with the actin and myosin
protein filaments. The calcium release causes the Figure 1.30 Cross-bridge formation and movement.
myosin cross-bridges to wiggle or swivel in such
a fashion that they contact the actin filaments
surrounding them and cause the actin to move muscle fibers per one motor nerve. The lower the
toward the center of the sarcomere (figure 1.30). ratio of fibers to nerve, the more motor units are
This chemical communication within muscle fibers required to innervate all the fibers in a muscle.
is responsible for the action known as the sliding This is the case in muscles required to perform
filament mechanism. fine movements, such as those in the hand or the
In review, the impulse from the motor nerve eye. By comparison, the biceps muscle performs
crosses the synapse at the myoneural junction elbow flexion and forearm supination, which are
and activates the release of calcium through the definitely not considered fine movements, and
sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubules, therefore has a very high ratio of muscle fibers to
causing the cross-bridges of the myosin protein motor nerve.
filament to contact the actin protein filaments and If a stimulus from a nerve is intense enough
produce movement of the actin filaments toward to reach the threshold of a muscle fiber, all
the center of the sarcomere, thus shortening the muscle fibers innervated by that nerve contract
sarcomere. completely. There is no such thing as a partial
Motor units differ widely in the number of contraction of a muscle fiber. This is referred to
muscle fibers innervated by one motor nerve. The as the all-or-none theory of muscle contraction.
ratio of muscle fibers per motor nerve can range Depending on the effort required (e.g., lifting a
from as low as 10 muscle fibers to as high as 2,000 piece of paper versus a 50 lb [23 kg] weight),
various degrees of muscle contraction (gradation
of strength) are called on to perform the activity.
Sarcoplasmic
Nucleus The gradation of a muscular contraction depends
reticulum
on two major factors: the number of motor units
Transverse
recruited and the frequency with which they are
tubules
stimulated. As the force required increases, more
motor units are called into action. Additionally,
Myofibril they are stimulated more frequently. If impulses
are sent rapidly enough to muscle fibers that they
contract before totally relaxing from the previous
contraction, a greater force of contraction can
occur (up to a point). Once the muscle is receiv-
H-band ing impulses at such a rate that it cannot relax, it
A-band
Sarcoplasm Sarcomere
reaches a state of continuous contraction known
as tetanus (figure 1.31). The application of the term
tetanus to this state of continuous contraction-the
Figure 1.29 The sarcoplasmic reticulum and trans-
verse tubules. result of physical effort-should not be confused
 Incomplete with another usage of this term, by which is meant
tetanus an infectious disease that can cause involuntary
Complete
Summation
tetanus muscular contractions.
Courses in biology, human physiology, exercise
physiology, kinesiology, biomechanics, and other
fields examine the generation of a nerve impulse
and the resulting contraction of muscle in detail.
i The preceding material should be considered an
wwvwvwwvwvvvw ? rnrTTnrvrTsmraas^^
introductory overview and by no means a detailed
Stimulus Stimulus
analysis of the neuromuscular system and its motor
units.
Figure 1.31 Muscular force increases with frequency
of impulses.

REVIEW OF TERMINOLOGY

The following terms were discussed in this chapter. Define or describe each term, and where appropri-
ate, identify the location of the named structure either on your body or in an appropriate illustration.

A-band fascia perimysium

actin fast-twitch fiber periosteum
afferent nerve fibrocartilage pivot joint
anatomical landmark foramen process
articular cartilage fossa quadrate
articular surface fusiform saddle joint
articulation hinge joint sarcolemma
axon H-zone sarcomere
ball-and-socket joint I-band sarcoplasm
biaxial joint impulse sarcoplasmic reticulum
bipennate irregular joint sensory nerve
blood vessel joint skeletal muscle
bundle ligament slow-twitch fiber
bursa ligamentous joint smooth muscle
calcium long bone spine
capsule longitudinal spinous process
cardiac muscle motor end plate sutured joint
cartilaginous joint motor nerve synapse
cell body motor unit synaptic cleft
condyle multipennate synarthrodial joint
condyloid joint muscle fiber synovial joint
connective tissue muscle tissue tendon
cross-bridge myelin sheath tendon of insertion
dendrite myofibril tendon of origin
diaphysis myoneural junction tendon sheath
diarthrodial joint myosin threshold
efferent nerve nerve transverse tubule
end brush nerve tissue triangular
endomysium neuroglia triaxial joint
epicondyle neuromuscular system tubercle
epimysium neuron tuberosity
epiphyseal plate node of Ranvier uniaxial joint
epiphysis nonaxial joint unipennate
epithelial tissue notch Z-line
facet
SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Make a fist. List all the anatomical structures (start- 3. From a standing position, rise up on your toes and
ing with the brain) that were used for that action to stand that way for a few minutes (or as long as you
occur. can).

2. Either at the dinner table or in a grocery store, look at a. What type of leg muscle (fast-twitch or
the poultry and explain why a particular fowl (turkey, slow-twitch) was primarily responsible for
chicken) has meat of different colors in its various initially getting you into the toe-standing
parts (legs, thighs, breasts, wings). position?
b. What type of leg muscle (fast-twitch or
a. Did the fowl's normal activities dictate more
slow-twitch) was primarily responsible for
or less effort of certain body parts?
sustaining you in the toe-standing position?
b. What type of muscle fibers likely dominate
the muscles of these various parts? Why?

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. A junction of two or more bones forming a joint is 4. A series of sarcomeres linked together is known as
also known as a. a myofibril
a. an epiphysis b. a muscle
b. a fossa c. actin
c. an articulation d. myosin
d. a diaphysis
5. The release of which of the following substances
2. Which of the following terms does nofappropriately causes the cross-bridges to move, which in turn
fit with the other three? causes a sarcomere to shorten?
a. notch' a. actin
b. process b. myosin
c. tubercle c. calcium
d. tuberosity d. sarcoplasm

3. The functional unit of skeletal muscle is known as 6. A b u n d l e of m u s c l e fibers within a m u s c l e is

a. a myofibril wrapped in a fibrous sheath known as the
b. a sarcomere a. endomysium
c. the A-band b. epimysium
d. the l-band c. perimysium
d. sarcolemma

FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS
1. Joints with no observable movement are known as 4. Dendrites conduct nerve impulses
joints. a cell body.

2. Saclike structures that protect soft tissues as they 5. Axons conduct nerve impulses
pass over bony projections are known as a cell body.

3. A motor unit is a motor neuron and all the

it supplies.
 CHAPTER TWO

Movement
•s>

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Anatomical Locations 26 Fundamental Movements 28

Planes and Axes 26

M ow that you understand the structures
involved in movement (bones, ligaments,
muscles) and the terms used to describe them, let
below or lower than another structure (e.g., your
chest is inferior to your head). Lateral refers to
something farther away from the midline of the
us look at the universal language that describes the body than another structure (e.g., your arms are
movements performed by these structures. lateral to your spinal column). Medial means a
When we describe a human movement, there is structure is closer to the midline of your body than
an anatomical "starting point" that is universally another structure (e.g., your nose is medial to your
accepted as being the position all movements start ears). Anterior refers to a structure that is in front
from: the anatomical position. In this position, all of another structure (e.g., your abdomen is anterior
joints are considered to be in a neutral position, to your spinal column). Posterior refers to a struc-
or at 0°, with no movement having yet occurred. ture that is behind another structure (e.g., your
Occasionally, you might also hear the term funda- spinal column is posterior to your abdomen).
mental position. Note carefully the only difference The terms proximal (close) and distal (far)
between the two positions (figure 2.1). The ana- are usually used in reference to structures of the
tomical position is preferred to the fundamental extremities (arms and legs). Proximal means closer
position for any discussion of human movement to the trunk, and distal means farther from the
because the hand position in the latter makes trunk (e.g., your knee is proximal to your ankle,
certain upper-extremity movements impossible. and your hand is distal to your wrist). The term
In the following sections, the description of any dorsal indicates the top side of a structure, such
movement starts from the anatomical position. as the dorsal fin on the top of a fish. (The dorsal
aspect of your hand is commonly called the back
of your hand.) The term volar refers to the down
side, or bottom aspect, of a structure. (The volar
aspect of your wrist or hand is also referred to
as the palmar aspect, whereas the volar aspect,
or sole, of the foot is referred to as the plantar
aspect.) Two terms refer to actions of the forearm
and foot. The term pronation refers to the turn-
ing of the forearm from the anatomical position
toward the body, resulting in the volar or palmar
surface of the hand facing the body. Turning your
foot downward and inward toward the other foot
is referred to as pronation of the foot. Supina-
tion, the reverse of pronation, refers to turning
the forearm outward from the pronated position
and to the upward and outward movement of the
foot away from the other foot.
Fundamental Anatomical
position position
Planes and Axes
Figure 2.1 Fundamental and anatomical positions.
Human movement that takes place from the starting
(anatomical) position is described as taking place
Anatomical Locations in a plane (a flat surface) about an axis (a straight
line around which an object rotates). Movement
Several terms are considered universal for discuss- is described from the anatomical position as the
ing the spatial relationship between one anatomi- starting point. Muscles create movements of body
cal structure and another. The term superior refers segments in one or more of three planes that divide
to something that is above or higher than another the body into different parts. These three specific
structure (e.g., your head is superior to your chest). planes are perpendicular (at right angles) to each
The opposite term, inferior, means something is other (figure 2.2). The sagittal plane (also known
as the anteroposterior plane) passes from the front the low back area of the spinal column. As body
through the back of the body, creating a left side parts move from the anatomical position or weight
and a right side of the body. There could be any shifts through weight gain, weight loss, or carrying
number of sagittal planes; however, there is only loads, the center of gravity also shifts. No matter
one cardinal sagittal plane. The term cardinal what the body's position or weight distribution,
refers to the one plane that divides the body into however, half of the weight of the body (and its
equal segments, with exactly one half of the body load) will always be to the left and right, in front
on either side of the cardinal plane. Therefore, the and behind, and above and below the center of
cardinal sagittal plane divides the body into two gravity. The center of gravity of the body constantly
equal halves on the left and right. The term cardinal changes with each movement, each change in
plane appears in some texts as the principal plane. weight distribution, or both.
The terms are interchangeable. Earlier we defined an axis as a straight line that
The horizontal plane (also known as the trans- an object rotates around. In the human body, we
verse plane) passes through the body horizontally picture joints as axes and bones as the objects that
to create top and bottom segments of the body. rotate about them in a plane perpendicular to the
There could be any number of horizontal planes axis. There are three main axes, and rotation is
but there is only one cardinal horizontal plane, described as occurring in a plane about the axis
which divides the body into equal top and bottom that is perpendicular to the plane (figure 2.2). The
halves. sagittal plane rotates about a frontal horizontal
The frontal plane (also known as the lateral axis (figure 2.2a).
plane) passes from one side of the body to the
other, creating a front side and a back side of the Hands on. . . The knee joint is a frontal horizontal
body. Again, there, could be any number of fron- axis, and the lower leg is the object that moves in
tal planes but there is only one cardinal frontal the sagittal plane when you bend your knee.
plane, which divides the body into equal front
The horizontal plane rotates about a vertical
and back halves.
(longitudinal) axis (figure 2.2b).
The point at the intersection of all three cardinal
planes is the body's center of gravity. When all Hands Off, . . As you turn your head to the left
segments of the body are combined and the body and right as if to silently say no, your head rotates
is considered one solid structure in the anatomical in a horizontal plane about the vertical axis cre-
position, the center of gravity lies approximately in ated by your spinal column.

Vertical
axis
Frontal Sagittal
horizontal horizontal
axis

Sagittal Horizontal Frontal

plane plane plane

a b

Figure 2.2 The cardinal planes and axes.

 The frontal plane rotates about the sagittal
horizontal axis (figure 22c).

Hands on. . , When you raise your arm to the

side, your shoulder joint is the sagittal horizontal
axis and your arm is the object moving in the
frontal plane.

For a summary of the relationship of anatomical

planes and associated axes, see table 2.1.

sable 2.1 Planes, Axes, and Fundamental

Movements

Axis Movements
Sagittal Frontal horizontal Flexion and
(anteroposterior) extension

Frontal Sagittal horizontal Abduction and

(lateral) adduction
i i p p f "
Horizontal Vertical Rotation
(transverse)
Figure 2.3 Flexion at the shoulder, hip, and knee

Fundamental Movements
Sagittal piane
Again, be reminded that movement takes place
in a plane about an axis. There are three planes
and three axes with two fundamental movements
possible in each plane. In the sagittal plane, the
fundamental movements known as flexion and
extension are possible. Flexion is defined as the
decreasing of the angle formed by the bones of
the joint (figure 2.3). In flexion of the elbow joint,
the angle between the forearm and upper arm
decreases. Extension is defined as the increasing
of the joint angle (figure 2.4). Returning a joint in
flexion to the anatomical position is considered
extension. Fundamental movements in the frontal
plane are known as abduction and adduction.
Abduction is defined as movement away from the
midline of the body (figure 2.5). As you move your
arm away from the side of your body in the frontal
plane, vou arc abducting the shoulder joint. Move-
ment toward the midline of the body is defined as
adduction (figure 2.6). Returning your arm from
an abducted shoulder position to the anatomical Figure 2.4 Extension at the shoulder, hip, and knee.
position is adduction. The fundamental move-
ment in the horizontal plane is simply defined lower (leg) extremities, the terms external rota-
as rotation (figure 2.7). The earlier example of tion and internal rotation are often used (figure
shaking your head no is rotation of the head. 2.8). When the anterior (front) surface of the arm
For describing movement in the upper (arm) and or leg rotates laterally (away from the midline of
 Movement 29

Figure 2.5 Abduction at the shoulder and hip. Figure 2.6 Adduction at the shoulder and hip as a
return from the abducted position in figure 2.5.

Internal rotation External rotation

Figure 2.8 Internal rotation and external rotation of

the lower extremity.

Figure 2.7 Rotation as a twisting movement of the

spine.
the body), this is defined as external rotation (or
lateral rotation). When the anterior surface of the
arm or leg rotates medially (toward the midline of
the body), this is defined as internal rotation (or
medial rotation).
Joints capable of creating movement in two
(biaxial) or three (triaxial) planes are also capa-
ble of another movement, circumduction, which,
because it combines two or more fundamental
movements, is not considered a fundamental
movement of any joint. When movement occurs
in the two or three planes in a sequential order,
the joint is said to be circumducting. Moving your
arm at the shoulder joint in a "windmill" motion
is an example of circumduction (figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9 Circumduction at the shoulder.

REVIEW OF TERMINOLOGY

The following terms were discussed in this chapter. Define or describe each term and, where appropri-
ate, identify the location of the named structure either on your body or in an appropriate illustration.

abduction external rotation plantar

adduction flexion posterior
anatomical position frontal horizontal axis pronation
anterior frontal plane proximal
axis fundamental movement rotation
cardinal frontal plane fundamental position sagittal horizontal axis
cardinal horizontal plane horizontal plane sagittal plane
cardinal sagittal plane inferior superior
circumduction internal rotation supination
distal lateral vertical axis
dorsal medial volar
extension plane

SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Stand in the anatomical position. 2. The body's center of gravity is considered the point
a. Flex your knee joint. In what plane did where the three cardinal planes of the body intersect.
movement occur? About what axis did a. In what direction would your center of grav-
movement occur? ity shift if you were to put a backpack full of
b. Abduct your hip joint. In what plane did books on your shoulders?
movement occur? About what axis did b. In what direction would your center of grav-
movement occur? ity shift if you were to carry a large book in
c. Rotate your head so your chin touches your both hands in front of you below your waist?
left shoulder. In what plane did movement c. In what direction would your center of grav-
occur? About what axis did movement ity shift if you were to carry a heavy brief-
occur? case in your left hand with your arm fully
extended at your side?
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following movements is defined as 3. A motion occurring in the horizontal (transverse)
movement in the frontal plane toward the midline plane about a vertical axis is known as
of the body? a. abduction
a. abduction b. rotation
b. adduction c. adduction
c. flexion d. extension
d. extension
4. Movement taking place in the frontal plane is about
2. For movement of the shoulder joint to occur in the the
frontal plane, which of the following joint actions a. frontal horizontal axis
must take place? b. sagittal horizontal axis
a. internal rotation c. vertical axis
b. circumduction d. horizontal axis
c. flexion
d. abduction

FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS
1- When the angle formed at a joint diminishes and 3. An axis of the body that passes through the body
the movement takes place in the sagittal plane, the horizontally from front to back is known as a
movement is known as . axis.

2. Joint motion is typically described as taking place 4. When referring to a structure of an extremity being
about an axis and within . closer to the trunk than another structure, we say
that it is to the other
structure.
 PART II

Upper Extremity

CHAPTER 3 The Shoulder

CHAPTER 4 The Elbow and Forearm
CHAPTER 5 The Wrist and Hand
CHAPTER 6 Nerves and Blood
Vessels oi the Upper Extremity

PART II Summary Tables

Articulations of the Upper Extremity
Upper-Extremity Muscles, Nerves, and
Blood Supply
 CHAPTER THREE

The Shoulder

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle 36 Fundamental Movements and Museles

of the Shoulder Joint 48
Bones of the Shoulder Joint 39
Movements of the Shoulder Joint 48
Joints and Ligaments
Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint . . . . 48
of the Shoulder Girdle 40 Superior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint . . . . 50
Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Joint . . . . 51
Ligaments of the Shoulder Joint 42 Rotator Cuff 52
Other Ligaments of the Shoulder 43 Inferior Muscles 53
Ligaments of the Scapula 43
Ligament of the Humerus 44 Combined Actions of the Shoulder Girdle
and Shoulder Joint 55
Fundamental Movements and Muscles
of the Shoulder Girdle 44
Movements of the Shoulder Girdle 44
Anterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle . . . 4 6
Posterior Muscles of the Shoulder Girdle . . 4 6
A ny discussion of the shoulder must start with
the fact that the shoulder is actually two dis-
tinct anatomical structures: the shoulder girdle
tubercle, the conoid tubercle, the trapezoid line,
the costal tuberosity, and the subclavian groove.
These structures are important as places of attach-
and the shoulder joint. The shoulder girdle con- ment for soft tissue.
sists of the clavicle and scapula bones, whereas
the shoulder joint is formed by the scapula and
the humerus bones. The primary function of the
shoulder girdle is to position itself to accommodate
movements of the shoulder joint.
Clavicle

Bones ml the Shoulder Girdle

Two bones make up the structure known as the
shoulder girdle: the clavicle and the scapula (figure
Humerus
3.1). The clavicle is a long, slender, S-shaped bone
that attaches to the sternum (breastbone) at the
medial end and. to the scapula at the lateral end. Scapula
The clavicle is often referred to as the collarbone. pm
It is the only bony attachment that the upper
extremity has to the trunk. Because of its shape,
the fact that it is held in place at either end by Figure 3.1 The bones of the shoulder, anterior view.
strong, unyielding ligaments, and that fact that
it has little protection from external forces (with Body
the exception of skin), the clavicle is an often-
fractured bone.
The lateral end of the clavicle is referred to as
the acromial end, and the medial end is referred
to as the sternal end (figure 3.2). Prominent bony Acromial end Sternal end
landmarks are observed on the superior and infe-
rior views (figure 3.3) and include the deltoid Figure 3.2 Sternal and acromial ends of the clavicle

Acromial facet Conoid tubercle Media , curvature

Acromial end Sternal end

• .'••mmm>•».••••

Deltoid tubercle
Lateral curvature

Superior view

Deltoid tubercle Subclavian groove

Acromial facet

\
Sternal end
Acromial end
Costal tuberosity
Conoid tubercle
Trapezoid line
Inferior view

Figure 3.3 Prominent bony landmarks of the clavicle, superior and inferior views.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 En breves frases respondió prudente
La inspirada de Anfriso: «Insidias viles
No temas, no, que anide nuestra mente,
Ni armas contemplas á tu imperio hostiles:
El encovado can salvo amedrente
Con eternos baladros sombras miles:
Hécate, sin temor de agravio impío,
Casta guarde el umbral del regio tio.

LXXXII.

»Y es que Enéas de Troya, á quien la fama

En piedad, en valor, no dió segundo,
Tan sólo el padre á ver que tanto ama
Viene al riñon del Érebo profundo:
Si eres sordo á tan bello amor, la rama
Mira en que justas esperanzas fundo.»
Y diciendo y haciendo, el tallo santo
Sacaba de los pliegues de su manto.

LXXXIII.

Al ver, tras largos años, que áureo brilla

El dón que misterioso el labio nombra,
Manso el barquero su altivez humilla,
Cesa el debate, y con placer se asombra:
Tuerce el batel cerúleo, y á la orilla
Vuelto ya, do saliera el fondo escombra,
Las tenues almas arrojando fuera
Que sentadas bogaban en hilera.

LXXXIV.
 Recibe, en fin, la cavidad vacía
Al fuerte huésped. Rechinando opreso,
Ya anchas grietas al agua negra abria
Flaco el esquife para humano peso.
Mas el barquero con tenaz porfía
A par que á la Sibila, al héroe ileso
Trasporta, y abordando, le enajena
Sobre ovas verdes y movible arena.

LXXXV.

Enfrente á do saltaron, guarecido

En la ancha gruta en que á placer se extiende,
El can trifauce con feroz ladrido
Los ámbitos atruena que defiende:
Viéndole que de víboras ceñido
Sacude el cuello y ya en furor se enciende,
Narcótico manjar con miel dorado
Echa la maga al monstruo espeluznado.

LXXXVI.

El cual tragó la torta engañadora

Con triple boca y con voraz garganta,
Y, largo cuanto el antro donde mora,
Le abate el sueño. Con ligera planta,
Aprovechando la oportuna hora,
A las puertas Enéas se adelanta,
Y traspone volando la ribera
Deaguas que nadie repasar espera.

LXXXVII.
 En esto empiezan el comun vagido
De almas de niños á sentir; las cuales,
Léjos, muy léjos del süave nido,
Sollozan de ese mundo en los umbrales:
De tierna infancia en el verdor florido
Negra un hora á los brazos maternales
Arrebatólos, y á la luz del Cielo,
¡Ay! para hundirlos en acerbo duelo.

LXXXVIII.

Están despues los que, torciendo el fuero,

Testimonio falaz llevó á la muerte;
Mas no á sus puestos van sin que primero
Tornen sentencia á dar Justicia y Suerte:
Mínos preside el tribunal severo;
La urna aleatoria agita; indaga, advierte,
Convoca al vulgo que delante calla;
Pesa los cargos, y las causas falla.

LXXXIX.

Arrepentidos yacen, en seguida,

Los que movidos de tedioso enfado
Quitarse osaron sin razon la vida.
Hoy, por volver al mundo, ¡con qué agrado
Trabajos y pobreza aborrecida
Subieran á sufrir! Lo veda el hado;
Cierra el Estigio el paso á sus suspiros
Con nueve vallas en oblicuos giros.

XC.
 Tendidos campos se abren luégo, aquellos
Que la fama llorosos apellida:
Los que doblaron al amor los cuellos,
Los que murieron de amorosa herida
Vienen allí; y entre sus mirtos bellos
El bosque cruzan que les da guarida,
Por veredas ocultas. ¡Ay! los hieren
Penas de amor que ni en la muerte mueren.

XCI.

Muéstranse al héroe entre la selva umbría

Fedra, Prócris; Erífile doliente,
Cuyo seno áun la llaga descubria
Que el hijo vengador abrió inclemente;
Evadne, Pasifae, Laodamía;
Cénis, mancebo un tiempo floreciente,
Y ahora, por decreto del destino,
Vuelto al sexo primero femenino.

XCII.

En medio de ellas la fenicia Dido,

Su herida áun fresca, andaba en la espesura.
Cuando la hubo al pasar reconocido
Mal cierto Enéas en la sombra oscura,
Como el que alzarse entre nublados vido
La luna nueva, ó verlo se figura,
Así á hablarle empezó con tierno acento
Y lágrimas que brota el sentimiento:

XCIII.
 «¡Infeliz Dido! ¿Conque no mentia
En nuevas que me trajo funerales
La fama? ¿Tú empuñaste daga impía?
¿Yo causa hube de ser de tantos males?
Mas por todos los astros, Reina mia,
Te juro, y por los Dioses celestiales,
Y por estas mansiones justicieras,
Que partí á mi pesar de tus riberas.

XCIV.

»La férrea voluntad del Cielo santo

Que á esta abismosa eternidad me envía,
Lo mismo allá, con invencible encanto
Me arrancó de tu lado y compañía.
Ni pensé nunca que á delirio tanto
Te pudiese arrastrar la ausencia mia.
¡Mas ten! ¡vuelve! ¿á quién huyes? ¡Ley severa
Permite vernos por la vez postrera!»

XCV.

Tal dice el héroe á la infelice amante,

Por si en su ánimo airado tierno cava
Ó amansa su mirada centellante;
Las razones el llanto entrecortaba.
Mas ella, vuelto el tétrico semblante,
Torvos los ojos en el suelo clava,
Y tanto muestra que la voz la toca
Cual si ya mármol fuese ó firme roca.

XCVI.
 Y de pronto indignada huye y se esconde
En la parte del bosque más espesa,
Entre acopados árboles, en donde
Al renovado amor que le profesa,
Siqueo como de ántes corresponde.
Enéas, de piedad el alma opresa,
A la sombra siguió por trecho largo
Llorando para sí su lloro amargo.

XCVII.

Mas andando el camino, á los postreros

Campos llegaban cuya igual alfombra
Van á solas hollando los guerreros
A quien la fama por sus hechos nombra.
Entre los capitanes que primeros
Al paso Enéas encontró, la sombra
Vió del pálido Adrastro, vió á Tideo,
Vió al ínclito en la lid Partenopeo.

XCVIII.

Vió tambien los Troyanos que segados

En duras lizas los soberbios cuellos,
Fueron con llanto de la patria honrados:
Glauco, Medon, Tersíloco; y con ellos
Los tres hijos de Anténor afamados;
Y Polifétes, que tus dones bellos
Honró, Céres; é Ideo, que áun regía
El carro y armas que rigiera un dia.

XCIX.
 Tantas sombras al ver en larga hilera
Enéas, conociéndolas, suspira;
Mas á izquierda y derecha se aglomera
La multitud, que con pasion le mira;
Ni á su curiosidad satisficiera
Mirarle sólo, á detenerle aspira,
Y mil ánimas llegan voladoras
Con sus preguntas á tejer demoras.

C.

Entanto viendo al héroe, y la armadura

Del héroe, que cruzando centellea
El vacuo espacio de su estancia oscura,
Tiemblan los cabos de la gente aquea:
Tratan unos de huir, cual con pavura
Ya al mar lo hicieron en campal pelea;
Gritan otros, y á médias sólo acierta
Clamor tenue á exhalar la boca abierta.

CI.

Sigue; y hé aquí, las manos mutiladas,

Llagado el cuerpo y con la faz hendida,
Ambas sienes de orejas despojadas,
Y rota la nariz con torpe herida,
Deífobo se ofrece á sus miradas;
Y al ver que triste, avergonzado cuida
De ocultar de su afrenta las señales,
Hablóle en tono amigo y voces tales:

CII.
 «¡Valeroso Deífobo, esperanza
De Troya, hijo de reyes! ¿Quién fué osado
En tí á ejercer insólita venganza?
¿Quién consumó tan bárbaro atentado?
Oí que de combate y de matanza
Aquella horrenda noche tú cansado,
Sobre enemigos que humilló tu acero
Caido habias á morir postrero.

CIII.

»¡Mísero amigo! yo en la playa nuestra

Te alcé entónces funéreo monumento
Que áun hoy tus armas y tu nombre muestra
Tres veces te llamé con alto acento.
Mas ¡ay! ni verte pude, ni mi diestra
En suelo de la patria acogimiento
Mullir á tu ceniza.» Enéas dijo;
Y de Príamo así respondió el hijo:

CIV.

«Tú hiciste tu deber; yo estoy pagado

Y agradecido estoy. Suerte inhumana
Es la que me hunde en tan horrible estado
Y el crímen de la pérfida Espartana:
¡Éste, éste es de la pérfida el legado!
Recordarás en la alegría insana
Que pasámos la noche postrimera;
¿Quién no ha de recordarlo aunque no quiera

CV.
 »Entónces, cuando el monstruo de madera
De armas grave los muros dividia,
Hembras ella ordenaba la primera
En libre danza y bulliciosa orgía;
Y una antorcha blandiendo traicionera
Con que iba en torno al coro, falsa guia,
De la alta torre en nuestro daño ¡ay ciegos!
Señas hacía á los atentos Griegos.

CVI.

»Yo en mi tálamo infausto, sin cuidado

Ya al cansancio buscando dulce olvido,
Caí en brazos de un sueño regalado
A una plácida muerte parecido.
Mi noble esposa al punto de mi lado
Las armas de mi estancia sin rüido
Aleja: de mi lecho á la testera
Ella mi espada hurtó, fiel compañera;

CVII.

»Las puertas abre, y obsequiosa llama

Á Menelao, por si de mal la eximen
Crímenes nuevos, y la negra fama
A absolver bastan del antiguo crímen:
El Eólida á par, que ardides trama,
Acude: salvan de mi alcoba el límen ...
¡Dioses, si justas súplicas os mueven,
Lo que entónces probé los Griegos prueben!

CVIII.
 »Mas ¿á qué me detengo en mis pesares?
Tú aquí, es posible? y con vital aliento?
¿Juguete de los vientos de los mares
Vienes, ó por divino mandamiento?
¿Qué toques de fortuna singulares
Te traen, el profundo apartamiento
A visitar de la region sombría
Que nunca vió la claridad del dia?»

CIX.

En medio de estas pláticas, ligera

En su rósea cuadriga y gentil vuelo
La Aurora la mitad de su carrera
Traspuesto habia por el alto cielo;
Y acaso el héroe consumido hubiera
En estéril hablar y acerbo duelo
El plazo volador, si no le echara
La vírgen con afan su olvido en cara:

CX.

«Nosotros ¡ay! miéntras la noche avanza,

Gastamos mudo el tiempo en lloro vano!
La senda aquí se parte, y en balanza
Está la suerte; de Pluton tirano
Lleva la diestra á la valiente estanza,
Y al encantado Elíseo: á izquierda mano
Caen los muros do la gente impía
En eterno sus crímenes expía.»

CXI.
 «Perdon,» dice Deífobo, «si muevo
Tu enojo, profetisa soberana!
El número fatal que llenar debo
Torno á llenar doliente sombra y vana.
Tú vé en paz, gloriosísimo renuevo,
¡Oh luz, oh prez de la nacion troyana!
Goza suerte mejor que fué la mia.»
Y así diciendo á su ángulo volvia.

CXII.

Tornó Enéas á ver, y á izquierda mira

Cerrada una ciudad de triple muro
Al pié de una alta roca: en torno gira
Con lenguas Flegeton de fuego puro,
Y revuelca peñascos en su ira:
Frente, gran puerta, de diamante duro
Las jambas, cual ni de hombres quebrantada
Ni áun de Dioses lo fuera por la espada.

CXIII.

Férrea una torre despreciando el viento

Avánzase orgullosa: allí sentada,
Ceñida un manto de color sangriento
Guarda insomne Tisífone la entrada.
Ruido de barras, en aquel momento,
Y música de azotes despiadada
A oirse empieza, y voces de horror llenas,
Y el pesado arrastrar de las cadenas.

CXIV.
 «¿Qué gritos de dolor hieren mi oido?»
Dice Enéas parándose asombrado:
«¿Quiénes llevan allí su merecido?
»¿Cuál es ¡ay! su suplicio y su pecado?»
Y la Sibila respondió: «No ha sido
Nunca á justos varones otorgado,
Magnánimo caudillo, entrar las puertas
Sólo al delito por la pena abiertas.

CXV.

»Mas yo, cuando los bosques infernales

Por Hécate guardaba, del espanto
Vi el reino y sus tormentos eternales:
Tiene el cetro el cretense Radamanto,
Que interroga á las almas criminales,
Castiga sus delitos, y de cuanto
Ocultó hasta la muerte astucia fria,
A hacer les fuerza confesion tardía.

CXVI.

»Y, nunca de venganzas satisfecha,

Con la izquierda azuzando sus serpientes
Y del látigo armada la derecha,
Corre los sentenciados delincuentes
Tisífone á azotar, y los estrecha,
Llamando sus hermanas inclementes;
Y ábrense á devorarlos, y crujiendo
Giran las sacras puertas con estruendo.

CXVII.
 »Contempla á la cruel, que allí se asienta
Y el vestíbulo guarda de ese mundo:
¿Qué, si vieses, abiertas las cincuenta
Negras fauces, el monstruo sin segundo,
La Hidra feroz que adentro guarda atenta?
Luégo el Tártaro se abre, tan profundo
Al medio de su abismo, cuanto dista
El alto Olimpo de la humana vista.

CXVIII.

»Allí, humilladas las soberbias vidas,

Los antiguos engendros de la Tierra
Revuélvense en recónditas guaridas
A donde el rayo su ambicion encierra:
Vi á par los dos enormes Alöidas
Que el Cielo con sus manos, ¡loca guerra!
Descargar intentaron, y en su encono
A Jove mismo derrocar del trono.

CXIX.

»Vi allí tambien yacer, de angustias lleno,

Á Salmoneo, por su error insano,
Que de Jove el relámpago, y el trueno
Quiso imitar de Olimpo soberano:
De cuatro brutos gobernando el freno
Y antorchas sacudiendo con su mano,
A Elis cruzó, y en su triunfal camino
Culto pedia como á sér divino.

CXX.
 »Fingir quiso el demente (¡mal pecado!)
Al sentar de sus potros con rüido
Los cascos, con el bronce golpeado,
Inimitable luz, sacro estampido:
Envuelto Jove en lóbrego nublado
Venablo duro le lanzó ofendido,
No humosa tea ni exhalada llama,
Y á la sima arrojóle donde brama.

CXXI.

»Yugadas nueve allí cubriendo yace,

Alumno de la Tierra creadora,
Ticio: el hígado eterno le renace,
Pasto al buitre cruel que le devora,
No le consume, y sus entrañas pace
Y fiero en lo hondo de su pecho mora:
Ni el corvo pico en el roer se amansa,
Ni de brotar la víscera se cansa.

CXXII.

»¿Qué, si á Ixïon y Piritoo á cuento

Trajese? ¿ó los que roca ven colgante
Pronta siempre á caer? Áureo aposento,
Regalado festin miran delante;
Mas la Furia mayor vela de asiento
Al lado, y como alguno se levante
Las mesas á tocar, corre, y vocea,
Y airada amaga con su horrible tea.

CXXIII.
 »Allí gimiendo están los que al hermano
Profesaron, en vida, odio demente;
Los que hicieron ultraje al padre anciano,
Los que en fraude envolvieron al clïente;
Allí los solitarios que, la mano
Cerrada siempre al mísero pariente,
Sobre el oro enterrado hicieron nido:
Infame grey en número crecido.

CXXIV.

»Y allí aguardan castigo los que amores

Adúlteros pagaron con la vida;
Los que hicieron traicion á sus señores;
Los que en guerra se alzaron fratricida:
No cures de su pena los horrores
Ni las causas saber de su caida.
Quién vuelca enorme risco; atado esotro
Gira en rueda veloz, su eterno potro.

CXXV.

»Está sentado y en perpétuo duelo

Teseo lo estará.—¡Mirad si presta
La justicia ultrajar, reir del Cielo!
Flégias clamando á todos amonesta
Entre las sombras. El nativo suelo
Este por oro enajenó, funesta
Tiranía elevando: esotro puso
A precio de la ley uso y desuso.

CXXVI.
 »Y áun hubo ya con ciego desatiento
Quien de su hija el tálamo invadiera.
Todos formaron criminal intento
Y corona ciñeron en su esfera.
No si cien bocas yo, si lenguas ciento
Tuviese y férrea voz, contar pudiera
Las especies sin fin de los delitos,
Los nombres de las penas infinitos.»

CXXVII.

Así la anciana profetisa habia

Hablado, y «¡Sús!» añade: «hora es preciso
Que el paso abrevies, y por esta via
Á cumplir tu deber vayas sumiso:
Los muros que los Cíclopes un dia
Sacaron de su fragua, allá diviso;
Ya, bajo el arco que se eleva enfrente,
Las puertas veo de Pluton potente.

CXXVIII.

»Vé; obsequios debes al dintel frontero.»

Tal dijo, y con el héroe se adelanta,
Y el intermedio espacio, y el sendero
Sin luz, dejan atras con ágil planta.
Acércanse á las puertas: él primero
Entra el zaguan; con gotas de agua santa
Casto los miembros á rociar atiende,
Y el áurea rama en el portal suspende.

CXXIX.
 Puesto el dón á la Diosa, y alongados
Del sitio, ya pisaban los amenos
Jardines y los bosques fortunados
Donde con grande paz moran los buenos:
Abrense allí sobre inocentes prados
Tintos en rósea luz cielos serenos;
Regiones siempre iguales, siempre bellas,
Tienen su sol y tienen sus estrellas.

CXXX.

Aquéllos juegan en verjel florido;

Éstos combaten en la roja arena;
Otros saltan en coros, y el sonido
De sus cantos el ánimo enajena:
El tracio vate, con talar vestido,
Los siete tonos de su lira suena,
Moviendo acordes con su voz canora
Ya el plectro de marfil, los dedos ora.

CXXXI.

Brilla de Teucro allí la estirpe clara

Robustez ostentando y lozanía:
Egregios héroes á quien ver tocara
En siglo más feliz la luz del dia.
A Ilo, á Asáraco, á Dárdano repara
Autor de la troyana monarquía,
Enéas, y armas léjos ve, y baldíos
Carros que honraron ya marciales bríos.

CXXXII.
 Hincados por el campo ve lanzones,
Y que arrogantes la verdura pacen
Por acá y por allá sueltos bridones.
¡Oh! los que en mundo subterráneo yacen
No renuncian sus viejas aficiones:
Armas y carros sus delicias hacen
Si armas, carros amaron: cuidan fieles,
Si los criaron ya, régios corceles.

CXXXIII.

Luégo, á izquierda y derecha, ve adelante

Los que á dulces festines se abandonan
Tendidos en la hierba verdeante;
Los que en honor de Apolo himnos entonan
Intrincando los pasos en fragante
Bosque, á quien cimas de laurel coronan,
Donde brota y por selva ámplia y risueña
Erídano soberbio se despeña.

CXXXIV.

Están allí los que á la patria amaron,

Y heridas por la patria recibieron;
Allí los sacerdotes que guardaron
Austera castidad miéntras vivieron;
Vates dignos que á Febo interpretaron;
Maestros que el vivir embellecieron
Con artes nuevas; los que haciendo bienes
Vencieron del olvido los desdenes.

CXXXV.
 Todos éstos con ínfulas nevadas
Ceñidos van las sienes y cabellos.
Con los cuales confunde sus pisadas
La profetisa por sus campos bellos;
Y volviendo la voz y las miradas
A Museo ante todos, que alza entre ellos
Con majestad serena la cabeza
De muchos rodeado, á hablar empieza:

CXXXVI.

«Oid, almas felices, ruegos píos;

Y tú, máximo vate, ¿dó se esconde
Anquíses, por quien ya los grandes rios
Cruzamos del Erebo; dínos, dónde?
¡Ah! ¿qué sitios repuestos y sombríos
Nos le ocultan?» Museo la responde:
«Aquí moramos bajo hojosos techos,
Y son márgenes blandas nuestros lechos;

CXXXVII.

»Frescos prados tratamos por recreo,

Y á nadie se fijó mansion segura;
Mas pues tanto interes traer os veo,
Venid conmigo á la vecina altura
Y camino hallará vuestro deseo.»
Dice; ante ellos los pasos apresura,
Y horizontes de luz les manifiesta:
De ahí, descienden de la erguida cresta.

CXXXVIII.
 En un valle cubierto de verdura,
Anquíses, en el fondo, atento via
Guardadas almas que del aura pura
Subirán á gozar llegado el dia;
Allí en sombra numera su futura
Cara prole, y mirando se extasía
La fortuna y valor hereditarios,
Glorias, triunfos, virtudes, lances varios.

CXXXIX.

Y viendo que hácia allá se dirigia

Hollando Enéas el gramoso prado,
Abre Anquíses los brazos, de alegría
Lágrimas vierte y clama enajenado:
«¿Conque venciste intransitable via,
Hijo, á fuerza de amor? ¿Conque á mi lado
Hoy tornas? ¿Es posible que consigo
Verte, oirte, tocarte, hablar contigo?

CXL.

»Yo, tiempos computando, aqueste día

Fausto acercarse vi: cumplióse el voto.
¡Mas cuánta extraña tierra en tu porfía
Habrás medido, y cuánto mar ignoto,
Y qué de riesgos arrostrado, en via
De confin tan profundo y tan remoto!
De los líbicos pueblos, hijo amado,
¡Cuánto temblé por tí funesto hado!»

CXLI.
 Enéas contestóle en tal manera:
«Tu imágen veneranda, padre mio,
Siguiéndome doliente por doquiera,
Forzóme á visitar el reino umbrío.
Ocupan mis bajeles la ribera
Tirrena. Mas tú ahora, con desvío
No á mi mano, señor, robes la tuya;
No á mi abrazo filial tu cuello huya.»

CXLII.

Dice, y llorando, con amante empeño

Tres veces va á abrazar al padre anciano;
Cual humo huye la sombra ó como sueño
Y él tres veces aprieta el aire vano.
Tornó á mirar, y un bosque vió risueño
En un valle repuesto comarcano:
Gárrulo bosque, plácido retiro
Que manso baña el Lete en blanco giro.

CXLIII.

En torno vagan del durmiente rio

Gentes, pueblos, enjambres voladores,
Y cual abejas que en sereno estío
Rondan fugaces peregrinas flores,
Y á los lirios de cándido atavío
Asedian, confundiendo sus rumores,
Tal llenando de estruendo la campiña
La aérea multitud vuela y se apiña.

CXLIV.
 Maravillado de la extraña escena,
Medroso Enéas á entender aspira
Qué es aquella corriente tan serena;
Quién la infinita multitud que gira
Á par del rio y sus florestas llena.
El padre Anquíses respondióle: «Mira:
Antiguas almas á quien guarda el hado
Nuevos velos corpóreos, nuevo estado,

CXLV.

»Esas son las que afluyen al Leteo

Y en raudal bienhechor beben olvido.
Tiempos hace, hijo amado, que deseo
Mostrarte mi linaje esclarecido
En estas sombras que delante veo,
Porque, absorto en destino tan subido,
De haber llegado á la que áun mal conoces
Itálica region, conmigo goces.»

CXLVI.

«Mas ¿es creible que al sabido cielo,»

Enéas contristado así murmura,
«Alguna alma de aquí remonte el vuelo
Y á informar torne la materia oscura?
¡Mísera humanidad! ¡Qué inmenso anhelo
De vida y goces! ¡qué cruel locura!»
Anquíses acudiendo á su sorpresa,
Ordenadas razones así expresa:

CLXVII.
 «Porque en luz de verdad tu mente aclares,
Hijo, escucha: En los cielos y en la tierra,
Y en las líquidas capas de los mares,
En la alba luna que inconstante yerra
Y en el sol y en los grandes luminares,
Espíritu eternal dentro se encierra:
Todo hínchelo él, vago y profundo;
Alma y centro comun, él mueve el mundo.

CXLVIII.

»Y en él tiene su orígen el humano,

Y el bruto, el ave, y cuanto monstruo cria
En sus senos marmóreos Oceano.
Centella celestial, ígnea energía
Vida á esos séres da, gérmen temprano,
En cuanto no los rinden á porfía,
El fardo de la carne, los mortales
Órganos y ataduras mundanales.

CLXIX.

»De ahí es que ansian y temen, y ó padecen

Ó envueltos gozan en su cárcel dura:
No ven la luz; ni quedan, si fallecen,
Limpios del todo de la mancha impura
De las miserias que al mortal empecen.
¡Pobres almas! la sombra en ellas dura
De usos viles en años adquiridos
En su lucha y su union con los sentidos.

CL.
 »Por eso corren del dolor los grados,
Y vicios propios cada cual expía:
Hay unas que, purgando sus pecados,
Expuestas penden en region vacía;
Otras al fuego ó en profundos vados
Residuos sueltan que la culpa cria:
Y así los Manes, por diversos modos,
Merecida pasion sufrimos todos.

CLI.

»Al Elíseo de ahí se nos envía,

Y pocos alcanzamos los amenos
Campos de llena paz y alma alegría;
Que no se ganan por ventura, á ménos
Que (cediendo á la edad, llegado el dia,
El postrer resto de hábitos terrenos)
El alma, redimida á la materia,
Torne á ser mente pura y lumbre aeria.

CLII.

»Consumados mil años, al Leteo

Almas acuden en tropel nutrido:
Arrástralas un Dios, porque el deseo
Nazca en ellas, envuelto en alto olvido,
De volver á vestir corpóreo arreo,
De subir á habitar terreno nido.»
Tal dice, y lleva al héroe y la Sibila
Entre el ruidoso pueblo que desfila.

CLIII.
 Y porque logre, al avanzar la hilera,
Ver de frente lo digno de memoria,
Le conduce á un collado, y, «Considera,
Hijo,» le dice, «la sublime gloria
Que á la raza de Dárdano le espera;
Oye los claros nombres que en la historia
Nos guarda Italia; entre futuras gentes
Mira pasar tus dignos descendientes.

CLIV.

»Ese, de asta de paz y augusto porte,

Que á la luz va por suerte el más cercano,
Será el primero que á la vida aporte,
Con sangre mixta y con renombre albano:
Mira, es Silvio: Lavinia tu consorte
A luz darále, de tu amor, ya anciano,
Póstumo dón: le criará su madre
Rey en las selvas, y de reyes padre.

CLV.

»De ahí en Italia empezará el reinado

De Troya. Honor de la Troyana gente,
Prócas luégo aparece, y á su lado
A Cápis ves y á Numitor presente;
Y al otro Silvio, á quien tu nombre añado,
Enéas, ya en virtudes eminente,
Ya en armas, si reinare en Alba un dia:
¡Qué mancebos! ¡qué heroica bizarría!

CLVI.
 »Contempla aquésos cuya sien serena
Asombra en derredor cívica encina:
Cuáles de ellos á Gabia y á Fidena
Te alzarán, y la villa Nomentina;
Y de ellos cuáles una y otra almena
Fundarán sobre montes Colatina,
Y á Pomecio y á Inuo, á Bole y Cora;
Nombre á campos darán sin nombre ahora.

CLVII.

»Vé á Rómulo, hijo de Ilia, descendiente

De Troya, hijo de Marte, que al abuelo
Sigue; y mira ondear sobre su frente
Crestones dobles con gallardo vuelo:
Marca el padre en su noble continente
Su propia, alta mision. Por él al cielo
Levantará la frente pensadora
Roma, del orbe militar señora.

CLVIII.

»La cual de siete alcázares murada,

Con viriles renuevos en que abunda
Rie, como en su carro alborozada
De Berecinto la Deidad fecunda
Por las frigias ciudades torreada
Va, y su prole celeste la circunda:
Cien nietos que amamanta y que la adoran;
Todos son Dioses y entre Dioses moran.

CLIX.
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