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SPHERICAL REFRACTING SURFACE

The portion of refracting medium, whose curved surface forms the part of a
sphere, is called spherical refracting
surface
The spherical refracting surfaces are of
two types:
(a) Convex spherical refracting
surface
(b) Concave spherical refracting
surface
1. Pole. The center of the spherical refracting surface is called its pole. It is
denoted by P.
2. Centre of curvature. The center of the sphere of which the curved surface
forms a part is called its center of curvature. It is denoted by C.
3. Radius of Curvature. The radius of the sphere of which the curved surface
forms a part is called its radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.
4. Aperture. The diameter of the spherical refracting surface is called its
aperture The line joining the points X and Y represents the aperture of the
spherical refracting surface.
5. Principal axis. The line passing through the pole and the center of curvature
of the spherical refracting surface is called its principal axis

NEW CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

New Cartesian sign conventions
1. All the distances are measured from the pole of the spherical refracting
surface.
2. The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken positive
and those measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are
taken as negative.

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To study refraction from the spherical refracting surfaces, we make the following
assumptions:
Assumptions:
1. The aperture of the refracting surface is small.
2. The object is a point object situated on the principal axis.
3. The incident and the refracted rays make small angles with principal axis.

REFRACTION AT CONVEX
SPHERICAL SURFACE
a. When object lies in the rarer
medium and image formed is
real.

From triangle AOC, we have

i=α+γ ……. (i)
i = tan α + tan γ ……. (ii)
From right angled triangles ANO and ANC, we have
AN AN
tan α = and tan γ =
NO NC
In equation (ii), substituting for tan α and tan γ, we have
AN AN
i= + …… (iii)
NO NC
Point N will be close to point P, the pole of the refracting surface.
NO ≈ PO and NC ≈ PC
AN AN
i= + …… (iv)
PO PC
From triangle ACI, γ = r + β
Or r=γ−β
Since angles β and γ are small, we have
r = tan γ − tan β …….. (v)
From right angled triangles ANC and ANI, we have
AN AN
tan γ = ≈
NC PC

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AN AN
And tan β = ≈
NI PI

In equation (v), substituting for tan γ and tan β we have,

AN AN
r= − ……. (vi)
PC PI

If μ is relative refractive index of the denser medium(μ2 ) w.r.t. the rarer medium
(μ1 ), then
μ1 sin i
μ= =
μ2 sin r

Or μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
Since the angles I and r also small, the above equation becomes
μ1 i = μ2 r
From the equations (iv) and (vi), substituting the values of i and r, we have
AN AN AN AN
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( PC + )
PO PC PI
μ1 μ1 μ2 μ2
Or + = − …….(vii)
PO PC PC PI
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
Or + =
PO PI PC

Applying new Cartesian sign conventions:

PO = -u
PI = +v, PC = +R
Therefore, the equation (vii) becomes
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
+ =
−u +v +R
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
Or − + = …….. (viii)
u v R

Dividing both sides of the equation (viii) by μ1 , we have

μ2 μ2
1 ⁄μ1 ⁄μ1 −1
− + =
u v R
μ2
Since ⁄μ1 = μ, we have

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1 μ μ−1
− + =
u v R

b. When object lies in the rarer

medium and image formed is
virtual.

Let △AOP = α; △AIP = β and

△ACP = γ
From triangle AOC,
i=α+γ
AN AN
i = tan α + tan γ = +
NO NC
As aperture of the refracting surface is small, it follows that
NO ≈ PO; NC ≈ PC
AN AN
∴ i= + …… (ix)
PO PC
From triangle AIC, r = γ + β
Now, angles β and γ are very small. Therefore,
AN AN
r = tan γ + tan β = +
NI NC
Again, as the aperture of the refracting surface is small,
NI ≈ PI; NC ≈ PC
AN AN
∴ r= + …….. (x)
PI PC
If μ is relative index of the denser medium(μ2 ) with respect to the rarer
medium (μ1 ), then
μ2 sin i
μ= =
μ1 sin r
Or μ2 sin r = μ1 sin i
Since the angles i and r are small, we have
μ2 r = μ1 i
From the equations (ix) and (x), substituting the values of i and r in the
above equation, we have
AN AN AN AN
μ2 ( + ) = μ1 (PO + PC )
PI PC
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
Or − = …….(xi)
PO PI PC

From new Cartesian sign conventions:

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PO = -u
PI = -v, PC = +R
Therefore, the equation (xi) becomes
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
− =
−u −v +R
μ1 μ2 μ2 −μ1
Or − + = …….. (xii)
u v R

Dividing both sides of the equation (xii) by μ1 , we have

μ2 μ2
1 ⁄μ1 ⁄μ1 −1
− + =
u v R
μ2
Since ⁄μ1 = μ, we have
1 μ μ−1
− + =
u v R

c. When object lies in denser

medium.

Let △AOP = α; △AIP = β and

△ACP = γ
From triangle AOC,
α=i+γ
or i=α−γ
Since angles α and γ are small,
AN AN
i = tan α − tan γ = −
NO NC

As aperture of the refracting surface is small,

NO ≈ PO; NC ≈ PC
Therefore, the above equation becomes
AN AN
i= − …… (xiii)
PO PC
From triangle AIC, β = γ + r
Or r=β−γ
Now, angles β and γ are very small. Therefore,

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AN AN
r = tan β − tan γ = − ……… (xiv)
NI NC

∵ NI ≈ PI; NC ≈ PC , we have
AN AN
r= −
PI PC
If μ is relative index of the denser medium(μ2 ) with respect to the rarer
medium (μ1 ), then
μ2 sin r
μ= =
μ1 sin i
Or μ2 sin i = μ1 sin r
Since the angles i and r are also small, we have
μ2 i = μ1 r
From the equations (xiv) and (xiii), substituting the values of i and r in the
above equation, we have
AN AN AN AN
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( PO + PC )
PI PC
μ2 μ1 μ2 −μ1
Or − = …….(xv)
PO PI PC

From new Cartesian sign conventions:

PO = -u
PI = -v, PC = -R
Therefore, the equation (xv) becomes
μ2 μ μ −μ
− 1= 2 1
−u −v −R
μ μ μ −μ
Or − 2+ 1= 1 2 …….. (xvi)
u v R
Dividing both sides of the equation (xvi) by μ1 , we have
μ2 μ
⁄μ1 1 1 − 2⁄μ1
− + =
u v R
μ
Since 2⁄μ1 = μ, we have
μ 1 1−μ
− + =
u v R

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REFRACTION AT CONCAVE SPHERICAL

SURFACE

Let △AOP = α; △AIP = β and △ACP = γ

From triangle AOC,
α=i+γ
or i=α−γ
Since angles α and γ are small,
AM AM
i = tan α − tan γ = −
MO MC

As aperture of the refracting surface is small,

MO ≈ PO and MC ≈ PC
Therefore, the above equation becomes
AM AM
i= − ……. (xv)
PO PC
From triangle AIC, β = γ + r
Or r=β−γ
Now, angles β and γ are very small. Therefore,
AM AM
r = tan β − tan γ = −
MI MC

∵ MI ≈ PI; MC ≈ PC , we have
AM AM
r= − …….. (xvi)
PI PC
If μ is relative index of the denser medium(μ2 ) with respect to the rarer
medium (μ1 ), then
μ2 sin i
μ= =
μ1 sin r
Or μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
Since the angles i and r are also small, we have
μ1 i = μ2 r
From the equations (xv) and (xvi), substituting the values of i and r in the
above equation, we have
AM AM AM AM
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( PI + )
PO PC PC

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μ2 μ1 μ2 −μ1
Or − = ……. (xvii)
PO PI PC
From new Cartesian sign conventions:
PO = -u
PI = -v, PC = -R
Therefore, the equation (xvii) becomes
μ μ μ −μ
− 1+ 2= 2 1
−u −v −R
μ2 μ1 μ1 −μ2
Or − + = …….. (xviii)
u v R
Dividing both sides of the equation (xviii) by μ1 , we have
μ2 μ2
1 ⁄μ1 ⁄μ1 −1
− + =
u v R
μ2
Since ⁄μ1 = μ, we have
1 μ μ−1
− + =
u v R

LENS MAKER’S FORMULA

The Lens Maker’s formula relates the total
length of lens to the refractive index of its
material and the radii of curvature of its two
surfaces.
- This formula is used to manufacture a
lens of a particular focal length from
the glass of given refractive index.
- Due to this reason it is called the Lens Maker’s formula
- To derive Lens Maker’s formula, we make the following assumptions and
adopt new Cartesian sign convention.
Assumptions
1. The lens is thin so that the distances measured from the poles of two
surfaces of the lens can be taken as to be the same as the distances
measured from the optical center of the lens.
2. The aperture of the lens is small.
3. The object is a point situated on the principle axis.
4. The incident and refracted rays makes small angles with the principle axis.
When light goes from air to glass
In △AOC1 ;
i1 = α + γ1

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or i1 = tan α + tan γ1
AM AM
i1 = +
MO MC1

Since M and C are close, so that

AM AM
i1 = + ……. (i)
CO CC1
In △ AI1 C1 ,
γ1 = r1 + β1
r1 = γ1 − β1
r1 = tan γ1 − tan β1
AM AM
r1 = −
MC1 MI1
AM AM
Or r1 = − …….. (ii)
CC1 CI1
According to Snell’s law;
μ2 sin i1
μ= =
μ1 sin r1
∵ i1 and r1 are small; so that
μ2 i1
=
μ1 r1
r1 μ2 = i1 μ1
From (i) and (ii), we get;
AM AM AM AM
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 (CC − )
CO CC1 1 CI1
μ1 μ1 μ2 μ2
+ = −
CO CC1 CC1 CI1
μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1
+ = ………. (iii)
CO CI1 CC1

When light goes from glass to air;

In △ BC2 I1 ,
i2 = γ2 + β1
i2 = tan γ2 + tan β1
BN BN
i2 = +
NC2 NI1
Since N and C are so close;
BN BN
i2 = + …….. (iv)
CC2 CI1

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In △ BC2 I,
r2 = γ2 + β
r2 = tan γ2 + tan β
BN BN
r2 = +
CC2 CI
According to Snell’s Law
sin r2 μ2
= =μ
sin i2 μ1
μ2 r2
=
μ1 i2
i2 μ2 = r2 μ1
BN BN BN BN
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 (CC + )
CC2 CI 2 CI1
μ1 μ2 μ2 μ1
− = −
CC2 CC2 CI1 CI
μ1 −μ2 μ2 μ1
= −
CC2 CI1 CI
μ2 −μ1 μ1 μ2
= + ………. (vi)
CC2 CI CI1

Adding (iii) and (vi);

μ1 μ1 μ2 − μ1 μ2 −μ1
+ = +
CO CI CC1 CC2

μ1 μ1 1 1
Or + = μ2 − μ1 (CC + CC )
CO CI 1 2

Applying new Cartesian Sign convention;

CO = -u
CI = v
CC1 = R1
CC2 = −R 2
μ1 μ1 1 1
+ = μ2 − μ1 ( − )
−u v R1 R2

Divide by μ1
1 1 1 1
+ = (μ − 1) ( + ) …….. (vii)
−u v R1 R2

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FIRST PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCAL LENGTH

- The first principal focus is the position of the object on the principle axis of
lens for which the image is formed at infinity, it is denoted by ‘F1’ or first
principal focal length
- The distance between optical center and first principal focus is called first
principle focal length of the lens.
- It is denoted by ‘f1’.
In this case;
u = -f1
v=∞
equation (vii) becomes;
−1 1 1 1
+ = (μ − 1) ( + )
−f1 ∞ R1 R2
1 1 1
= (μ − 1) ( + ) …….. (viii)
f1 R1 R2

SECOND PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCAL LENGTH

- The second principal focus is the position of the image on the principal axis
of the lens when the object leis at infinity
- It is denoted by ‘F2’.
- The distance between optical center and second principal focal is called
second principal focal length.
- It is denoted by ’f2’.
In this case;
v = f2

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u = −∞
equation (vii) becomes;
−1 1 1 1
+ = (μ − 1) ( + )
−∞ f2 R1 R2
1 1 1
= (μ − 1) ( + ) …….. (ix)
f2 R1 R2

From (viii) and (ix);

1 1 1
= =
f1 f2 f
1 1 1
Therefore = (μ − 1) ( + )
f R R 1 2

This is called lens maker’s formula

Some important points:
1. The lens maker’s formula derived for convex lens is applicable to both the
convex and concave lens
2. The focal length of the convex lens is taken ‘+ve’ and that of a concave lens
is taken ‘-ve’
3. For a convex lens ‘R1’ is positive and ‘R2’is ‘negative’ while for a concave
lens’R1’ is –ve and ‘R2’ is ‘positive’.
LENS EQUATION FOR CONVEX LENS
(a) When image formed is ‘Real’
In △ ABC and △ A′ B ′ C,
AB CA
= ……… (i)
A′ B′ CA′

In △ CEF and △ A′ B ′ F,
1 1 1
− = − +
u v f

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LENS EQUATION FOR CONCAVE LENS:

In △ ABC and △ A′ B ′ C,
AB CA
= ……… (i)
A′ B′ CA′

In △ CEF and △ A′ B ′ F,
CE CF
=
A′ B′ FA′
AB CF
From CE = AB, = ……. (ii)
A′ B′ CF − CA′
CA CF
=
CA′ CF − CA′
−u −f
=
−v −f−(−v)
u −f
=
v −f+v

−uf + uv = −vf
−uf uv −vf
+ =
uvf uvf uvf
1 1 1
− + =
u v f

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
- The ratio of the size of the image formed by a lens to the size of the object
is called linear magnification.
I
m= …………. (i)
O
′ ′
△ ABC and △ A B C are similar,

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A′ B′ CA′
=
AB CA
A′ B ′ = −I
AB = O
CA′ = v
CA = −u
−I v
∴ =
O −u
v
∴ m= ……….. (ii)
u
According to lens equation;
1 1 1
− + =
u v f

Multiply by u,
u u
−1 + =
v f
u 1
= +1
v f
u f+u
=
v f
v f
=
u f+u
f
m=
f+u

Again;
1 1 1
− + =
u v f

Multiply by ‘v’
v v
− +1=
u f
−v v
= −1
u f
v v
= 1−
u f
f−v
m=
f

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POWER OF LENS
- The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the rays of light incident on it is
called the power of the lens
- The power of lens is measured as the reciprocal of is focal length in meters.
1
P=
f (in metre)
1
1 diopter =
1m
- Power of lens is measured in ‘diopter’
- The power of lens is said to be 1 diopter if its focal length is ‘1 m ‘.
EQUIVALENT LENS
- Single lens which will form
the image of a given object
at the same point as is
formed by the component
lens (Combinations of two
or more lens) is called an
equivalent lens.
For L1,
1 1 1
− + = …… (i)
u v′ f1

For L2,
1 1 1
− + = …… (ii)
v′ v f2

Adding (i) and (ii) , we get

1 1 1 1
− + = +
u v f2 f1
1 1 1
+ =
f1 f2 f

Or P = P1 + P2

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