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Abstract
Life goals and the opportunities that define them are impaired by the stigma of
mental illness. Three kinds of stigma may act as barriers to personal aspirations:
public stigma, self-stigma, and label avoidance. Challenging mental illness stigma
is essential in helping individuals accomplish recovery-related goals. Public stigma
may be changed through protest, education, and contact. Self-stigma can be ad-
dressed by fostering group identity, changing the perceived legitimacy of stigma
through cognitive rehabilitation, and making strategic decisions about disclosing
one’s mental health history. Stigma change for label avoidance is not as well un-
© 2007 iStockphoto.com/Angel Herrero de Frutos

derstood but may include the education and contact approaches used for public
stigma. Evidence-based approaches to stigma change need to be substantiated
by rigorous investigations.

Patrick W. Corrigan, PsyD; and Abigail Wassel, BA

42 JPNonline.com
M
ental illness strikes this is the mark. The belief that and unpredictable. Those who
with a double-edged police officers are vital in emer- agree with this view tend to fear
sword. On one hand, gency situations is a stereotype people with mental illness and
the distress and lost opportunity about that group. avoid them as a result.
that accompanies the illness may Stereotype is not synonymous A second stereotype is blame
be a direct result of psychiatric with prejudice. People learn many (Weiner, 1995). Individuals
symptoms, cognitive dysfunction, stereotypes that describe outgroups with mental illness may have a
and social skills deficits. On the by virtue of being reared in a spe- weak moral backbone and feel
other hand, lost opportunity and cific culture. If one learns a stereo- responsible for their symptoms
personal demoralization occur type, it does not necessarily mean and disabilities as a result. Blame
because of the stigma of mental he or she agrees with it. Prejudice stereotypes may result in anger
illness (Corrigan & Kleinlein, is concurring with the stereotype (i.e., “Why do people use ‘mental
2005). This article briefly reviews (i.e., believing that all individuals illness’ as an excuse to get every-
models of mental illness stigma with mental illness are danger- thing handed to them on a silver
and their effects on the course and ous) and applying it to members platter?”), which may result in
outcome of mental illness. Strate- of the outgroup to yield a nega- coercion. Examples of coercion
gies that diminish stigma are also tive evaluation. Discrimination is include forcing people to comply
discussed. The summary is based the behavioral result of prejudice with specific treatments or send-
largely on empirical findings, be- (i.e., deciding not to hire someone ing them away to institutions.
cause just as mental health ad- because he or she is from a certain The third stereotype is known
vocates believe treatment should stereotyped group that has been as benevolence, the belief that
show a solid base of evidence, so negatively prejudged). This cogni- individuals with mental illness
too must anti-stigma strategies. tive model is used to describe the are like children and need a pa-
processes of public stigma, self- rental figure to make decisions
Stigma models stigma, and label avoidance. for them. This kind of stereotype
Stigma is a complex term leads to other people making au-
and, in this article, represents Public Stigma thoritarian and unilateral deci-
the overall stereotypical and Public stigma represents what sions for the individual because
prejudicial process. Current the public does to people who he or she is believed to be inca-
models represent mental illness are marked with a mental illness pable of acting independently.
stigma as cognitive-behavioral (Corrigan & Kleinlein, 2005).
constructs (Crocker, Major, & These marks can either be obvi- Self-Stigma
Steele, 1998); a model represent- ous or hidden. Obvious cues in- Some individuals internalize
ing these constructs is illustrated clude psychotic behavior and a public stigma, harming themselves
in the Figure. As a broad theory, disheveled appearance that may both cognitively and behaviorally
cognitive-behavioral models de- distinguish a person as odd and, as a result (Link, 1987). In this
fine the process of human behav- therefore, mentally ill. Mental case, the link between marks and
ior in three parts: illness may also be described in corresponding stereotypes is the
l Situational cues signal a spe- terms of hidden stigma. For ex- construct of interest at the be-
cific setting for which behavioral ample, if an individual has a his- ginning of the self-stigma model.
responses may be indicated. tory of serious mental illness and Four factors comprise perception
l Cognition makes sense out decides not to disclose his or her of the mark and subsequent ste-
of these cues. symptoms at work, coworkers are reotype (Corrigan, Larson, & Ku-
l Behavior results from these unaware of the condition. How- wabara, 2007):
cognitions. ever, if the individual decides to l Are individuals aware of

Current models of stigma corre- be open about the illness, the la- the link between the marks of
spond with cognitive-behavioral bel of mental illness can poten- mental illness and corresponding
theory. Marks are the cues that tially signal stereotypes and prej- stereotypes?
signal stereotypes. Stereotypes, the udice (Link & Phelan, 2001). l If they are aware of the

cognitive products that emerge Several discrete cognitions stereotype, do they agree with
from the mark, are cognitive ef- result from this kind of signal; it? Thus far, stereotypes have
ficiencies that summarize char- three are prominent in the litera- not been internalized and hence
acteristics of a social group. For ture. Perhaps of greatest concern yield no self-stigma effect.
example, people in blue uniforms is the stereotype that individuals l Do individuals apply the

with badges are police officers; with mental illness are dangerous recognized and agreed-on ste-

Journal of Psychosocial Nursing • Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008 43

 This process is different than
Cue Cognition Behavior the kinds of experiences found in
Public Stigma public stigma or self-stigma. Pub-
Obvious marks Stereotypes Prejudice/Discrimination lic stigma is what the population
Psychotic symptoms Dangerous Lost opportunities does to a group by endorsing and
Disheveled appearance To blame Coercive treatments implementing the stereotypes,
Benevolence prejudice, and discrimination
Hidden Marks that comprise mental illness stig-
Label by association ma. Self-stigma is what people
within a group do to themselves.
Label avoidance is dodging a
Self-Stigma group altogether to escape the
Aware of mark and Apply stereotype to self Prejudice/Discrimination negative effects of public stigma
stereotype link Experience self-esteem Loss of self-esteem and and self-stigma. Those who avoid
Agree with this link decrement self-efficacy
the label are aware of the stereo-
“Why try” effect
type and may even agree with it.
However, they are strongly in-
clined to not apply the stigma to
Label Avoidance themselves and avoid any group
Aware of mark and Avoid situations where Prejudice/Discrimination that will lead to this mark. One
stereotype link person may be labeled Do not participate in way to obtain group identity is
treatment
Agree with this link Do not apply to self by associating with the group,
but people who are known to re-
ceive mental health care may be
Figure. A basic social cognitive model of public stigma, self-stigma, and label avoidance. labeled as crazy or weak. Hence,
people who do not pursue treat-
ment escape mental illness preju-
reotypes to themselves? Con- Someone like me is not able to dice and discrimination (Link &
sider the person who agrees that handle a job!”) (Corrigan et al., Phelan, 2001).
individuals with mental illness 2007). The why try effect also
are to blame for their disorder, occurs because of diminished Strategies for
applies the stereotype to himself self-esteem (i.e., “Why should I changing Public
or herself, and concludes, “I have try to live on my own? Someone Stigma
a mental illness, so I must be to like me is not worthy of such Research has identified three
blame for my illness.” goals!”). general categories of strategies for
l Does applying the stereo- changing public stigma: protest,
type to one’s self diminish self- Label Avoidance education, and contact (Corri-
esteem and self-efficacy? This Stigma can also harm a third gan & Penn, 1999).
is a form of discrimination and group: individuals who have not
differentiates people who “beat been diagnosed with a mental Protest
themselves up” about stigma ver- illness but avoid mental health In protest, advocates appeal
sus those who use coping skills to care so as to not be marked with to a moral authority after review-
ignore its effect. the label. Research suggests as ing the disrespectful ways mental
In addition to decrements in much as one half to two thirds illness is perceived. As a result,
self-esteem and self-efficacy, the of individuals who might benefit people who hold these percep-
discrimination of self-stigma from psychiatric services opt not tions are asked to stop these be-
may have a direct effect on the to pursue them (Corrigan, 2004). liefs. Unfortunately, protest may
pursuit and accomplishment of Several factors may explain this lead to rebound effects; people
life goals, such at getting a job, phenomenon, including a dearth who are asked to suppress disre-
living independently, and devel- of mental health resources in a spectful endorsements may actu-
oping meaningful relationships. particular community or govern- ally demonstrate worse attitudes
Called the “why try” effect, ment policies that dissuade par- (MacRae, Bodenhausen, Milne,
absence of self-efficacy under- ticipation in care. In addition, & Jetten, 1994; Wenzlaff &
mines one’s confidence (i.e., stigma is thought to block treat- Wegner, 2000). Keeping some-
“Why should I try to get work? ment seeking. thing out of mind is an active

44 JPNonline.com
effort, and active suppression of Education efforts progress, evaluators of in-
ideas can keep the idea in the In education, myths about dividual programs need to collect
fore of current thoughts. The mental illness are contrasted data to show the effects of such
rebound effect might also rep- with facts. Consider the myth of action. At this point, research
resent cognitive stubbornness, a incompetence, or the belief that is mostly limited to process and
result of the “don’t tell me what individuals with mental illness outcome findings.
to think” phenomenon. are incapable of living indepen- What does this suggest about
If an advocate’s goal is to dently or working a real job. The public service announcements
change employers’ minds about myth is diminished when con- (PSAs), which embody educa-
hiring people with mental ill- trasted with information from tion in its many forms? PSAs
ness, protesting against the long-term follow-up research produced for television and radio
employers’ current beliefs will (Harrison et al., 2001) which, have the potential for influenc-
make attitudes worse. Although contrary to expectations, showed ing entire population segments
troublesome for attitude change, that most individuals with men- (Kotler, Roberto, & Lee, 2002);
protest is likely to influence be- tal illness are able to live on their however, this kind of broad-scale
havior, especially when the tar- own and hold a job. Research approach may have limited ef-
get of this change is the media. suggests that education yields fect (Corrigan & Gelb, 2006).
Consider the effects of organized small effects on attitudes; un- One major effect of PSAs is to
protest on an ABC Television fortunately, this kind of attitude alert people of the same mind-

Network program called Won- change is not maintained over set to specific problems wrought
derland. Aired in the spring of time (Corrigan et al., 2001). by mental illness stigma. Such
2000, the first episode portrayed Nevertheless, education is “singing to the choir” will ener-
a person with mental illness widely endorsed for influencing gize people who agree that social
shooting at several police of- prejudice and discrimination. injustice is caused by mental ill-
ficers and stabbing a pregnant One reason is because educa- ness stigma. However, much of
psychiatrist in the belly with a tion processes are believed to be the remainder of the population
hypodermic needle. Advocacy fundamental to human behavior. may see the PSA as irrelevant
groups came together to let If people had the correct knowl- and tune it out. This does not
ABC sponsors know they would edge or effective problem solving mean PSAs should be set aside
boycott the network if the tone skills, would they be able to give altogether. They may have posi-
of the show was not amended up public stigma and handle as- tive effects when the message of
(Corrigan & Gelb, 2006). ABC, sociated concerns more directly? the announcement is closely an-
realizing individuals with men- A second reason education is chored to the target of change.
tal illness and their families had touted for social change is ex- For example, a recently produced
a huge economic influence on portability. Development of an PSA from the Substance Abuse
the network, pulled Wonderland anti-stigma manual is easy and and Mental Health Services Ad-
from the lineup, rather than matter of fact. A group of authors ministration (2006) strives to
risking a boycott. Anecdotes like can come to consensus about an encourage, educate, and inspire
this suggest the behavioral ef- anti-stigma program and outline adolescents and young adults to
fects of protest, yet more careful it quickly in a straightforward support their friends who have
research needs to be conducted manner. These manuals can then mental health problems.
to support such stories with cor- be disseminated relatively easily The effects of PSAs also need
responding evidence. via mail or the Internet. As these to be assessed using rigorous

Journal of Psychosocial Nursing • Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008 45

 roll call for police officers, grand
KE Y P OINTS rounds for health care provid-
ers, and constituent meetings
1. Individuals with mental illness who internalize stigma experience self-stigma. One
for legislators.
way to address self-stigma is to identify with a group of individuals with mental
illness.
Strategies for
2. Many of the problems of mental illness are related to public stigma against changing Self-Stigma
these illnesses. Strategies that help erase such stigma include being in contact The loss in self-esteem and
with people with mental illness. self-efficacy caused by self-stigma
is viewed as the anchor of one
3. Label avoidance is dodging a group altogether to escape the negative effects of
end of a continuum, with per-
public stigma and self-stigma. Strategies for addressing label avoidance are not
well known. sonal empowerment anchoring
the other end. People who be-
Do you agree with this article? Disagree? Have a comment or questions? lieve they have control of their
Send an e-mail to Karen Stanwood, Executive Editor, at [email protected]. lives and their treatment are less
We’re waiting to hear from you!
likely to experience self-stigma.
Several factors influence per-
methods. Research of this kind son et al., 1997). For example, sonal empowerment, with group
needs to assess penetration (How contact program participants identification being the most
much of a specific population who are instructed to “walk in pronounced. People who pur-
recalls seeing the PSA and can the others’ shoes” and to imag- posefully affiliate with groups
remember its message?) and out- ine themselves as a person with and publicly admit this relation-
come (Do these recalled PSAs mental illness show greater ben- ship are less overwhelmed by
lead to effects in prejudice and efits than do those in which stigma and are more in control.
discrimination?). participants are encouraged to Consumer-operated services,
remain aloof and approach the programs developed by people
Contact situation scientifically. with serious mental illness for
Contact can yield the most Although changing public people with serious mental ill-
robust and positive findings to- stigma in the whole population ness (Clay, 2005), are one way to
ward public stigma change (Pet- is a worthy goal, stigma change promote group identity. Specific
tigrew & Tropp, 2000). Namely, is more successful when limited examples of consumer-operated
public stigma is challenged when in scope. Challenging public services include mutual help pro-
people from the stigmatized stigma is most effective when grams, advocacy training, and
group interact with the targeted it targets people who frequently drop-in centers. Common beliefs
populations. Interaction may be interact with individuals with across consumer services include
formal in nature, such as a speak- mental illness: landlords, em- personal empowerment and ac-
er’s bureau at which individuals ployers, police officers, health countability, choice and self-de-
talk about their mental illness. care providers, and legislators. termination, recovery orienta-
Alternatively, it may be casual, These targets outline relevant tion, and spirituality.
such as when a person learns that behaviors by social role: land- Many people who experience
a coworker has depression. This lords decide whether the person self-stigma believe the stereo-
kind of real-world connection lives independently, employers types of mental illness are legiti-
has perhaps the greatest effects on hire the person, police officers mate and that they are the re-
changing stigma. Contact effects help the person in an emergen- sults of mutual stereotypes they
are enhanced when the person cy, health care providers yield a apply to themselves. As such,
providing contact and the public breadth of services, and legisla- stereotypes may be viewed as
group are perceived to be on the tors determine available resourc- the irrational self-statements,
same social level (Cook, 1985; es for mental health. Anti-stig- which are the focus of many
Gaertner, Dovidio, & Bachman, ma programs are more effective cognitive-behavioral therapies
1996). The person with mental when applied within regularly (CBT) (Kingdon & Turkington,
illness should not be viewed piti- existing meetings (Fiske, 1993; 1994). Self-applied stereotypes
fully, nor should he or she be seen Link & Phelan, 2001; Pincus, (e.g., “I think that people like
as aloof from the situation. 1999), such as Rotary Interna- me are unable to accomplish
Contact can also be augment- tional meetings for employers most of their life goals.”) are
ed by integrating empathy (Bat- and perhaps landlords, morning viewed as personally hurtful and

46 JPNonline.com
false beliefs that CBT may help pects (Chin & Kroesen, 1999). the two other forms of stigma.
diminish. One way such stereo- Downsides to coming out in- At this point of knowledge de-
types are challenged in CBT is clude experiencing worse dis- velopment, anti-stigma strate-
to collect evidence that disputes crimination. Coming out is not gies for the public are expected
its core. This is an iterative a categorical decision; individu- to have positive effects on in-
process that tests such beliefs als are either out or they are not. dividuals participating in treat-
by asking life mentors (e.g., an Instead, disclosing mental illness ment and therefore accepting
older relative, a church pastor) can be understood on a four-point the label. Therefore, contact
to provide contrary evidence. continuum (Herman, 1993):
As individuals become stron- l Secrecy. Individuals at-
ger in disputing the stereotype, tempt to achieve life goals by not
they develop counteractions letting anyone know about their
that can be used in the future to mental health history.
challenge it (Garety, Fowler, & l Selective disclosure. Indi-

Kuipers, 2000) (e.g., “Although viduals decide to let only some

I have some struggles, I am still people know about their mental
able to achieve most of my life illness. For example, an individual
goals just like other adults who with a mental illness can ask his or
face similar barriers.”). her officemate whether he or she
Mental illness is largely hid- saw the episode of ER in which
den; thus, so is the stigma. People Sally Fields played a person with
can be battling significant psy- bipolar disorder. If the coworker
chosocial problems, depression, responds with vitriol, saying he or
or distress while others around she is tired of such politically cor-
them are unaware of this turmoil. rect messages, then the officemate
Individuals with self-stigma must is not a good person with whom
decide whether they want to to share one’s mental illness his- with individuals with mental
come out of hiding and attack tory. However, if the officemate illness may influence a person’s
the stigma’s roots, which means says the episode caused him or her decision about the pursuit of
they must recognize mental ill- to think, then selective disclosure treatment. Education may also
ness and admit they are chal- may be successful. challenge myths about mental
lenged by it. This can occur pri- l Indiscriminate disclosure. illness that may be interfering
vately; however, people may also Individuals do not care who with care seeking or participa-
benefit from “coming out” pub- knows about their mental illness. tion in treatment. Clearly, la-
licly (Cass, 1979; Cross, 1971). They are comfortable with their bel avoidance is a phenomenon
Several benefits can result. First, mental illness and public disclo- that needs to be part of future
coming out is frequently experi- sure thereof. research on stigma change.
enced as relief that individuals l Broadcasting. Individuals
need not be ashamed of or hide realize the only way in which Implications
an important part of who they stigma is going to change on a Some research suggests that
are. Second, coming out facili- grand scale is to come out in a nurses and other mental health
tates identification with other big way, using most of their social care providers actually endorse
people with similar experiences situations as an opportunity to the stigma of mental illness
in a social setting (e.g., work, share their psychiatric history. (Mirabi, Weinman, Magnetti,
church, neighborhood potluck) Choosing how to handle & Keppler, 1985). One reason
and with whom mental illness stigma is a personal decision. In- is because these professionals
and stigma experiences might be dividuals need to weigh the pros have been slow to relinquish
shared. Third, the more people and cons of coming out and con- out-of-date ideas that the prog-
come out, the more public stigma sider how disclosure will affect nosis for people with serious
is challenged. The public will their lives. mental illness is always nega-
see that mental illness actually tive, thereby challenging no-
affects a larger group of people Label Avoidance tions of recovery. Innovators
than might be expected. Research on understanding have recognized the problem
However, coming out also and changing label avoidance and have targeted nursing and
encompasses several negative as- is not as well developed as for other professional education as

Journal of Psychosocial Nursing • Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008 47

 gether: Peer programs for people with Kingdon, D.G., & Turkington, D. (1994).
a venue to challenge stigma and mental illness. Nashville: Vanderbilt Cognitive-behavioral therapy of schizo-
replace it with hope, recovery, University Press. phrenia. New York: Guilford Press.
and empowerment. Cook, S.W. (1985). Experimenting on so- Kotler, P., Roberto, N., & Lee, N. (2002).
cial issues: The case of school desegre- Social marketing: Improving the quality
gation. The American Psychologist, 40, of life. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Conclusion
452-460. Link, B.G. (1987). Understanding label-
Most individuals with seri- Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma inter- ing effects in the area of mental disor-
ous mental illness aspire to a feres with mental health care. The ders: An assessment of the effects of
variety of life goals consistent American Psychologist, 59, 614-625. expectations of rejection. American
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programs that use mass approaches to Link, B.G., & Phelan, J.C. (2001). Con-
and psychosocial strategies that
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tices need to be examined in
Corrigan, P.W., & Penn, D.L. (1999). Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2000).
terms of their effect on stigma. Lessons from social psychology on Does intergroup contact reduce prej-
Social psychologists have discrediting psychiatric stigma. The udice? Recent meta-analytic findings.
established a broad program of American Psychologist, 54, 765-776. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice
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