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From Public Relations to Strategic

Communication in Sweden
The Emergence of a Transboundary Field of Knowledge

Jesper Falkheimer & Mats Heide

Abstract
In this conceptual article, we argue that strategic communication is a transboundary concept
that captures, better than public relations does, the complex phenomenon of an organiza-
tion’s targeted communication processes in contemporary society. The aim of the article is
twofold. First, the purpose is to describe and reflect the development and institutionalization
of public relations education and research in Sweden. Second, based on the transboundary
changes we see in industry, education and research, we argue that strategic communication
is a conceptual and holistic framework that is more valid and relevant than public relations.
Moreover, we suggest that strategic communication also integrates organizational (internal)
communication as well as aspects of management theory and marketing, thus allowing us
to understand, explain and criticize contemporary communication processes both inside
organizations and between organizations and the surrounding society.
The article is mainly based on secondary data about the public relations industry, earlier
research and a mapping of public relations education and research in Sweden.
Keywords: strategic communication, public relations, organizational communication,
transboundary

Introduction
Traditionally, organizational communication activities have been separated and managed
by different departments. The human resource department has primarily been responsible
for internal communications. The marketing department has focused on communica-
tion to customers, and the communications or public relations department has had the
mission to build legitimacy and maintain good relations between the organization and
different publics. During the past two decades or so there has been an increased focus
on organizational communication activities – such as branding, organizational identity,
corporate reputation, corporate image, organizational crisis, change communication and
legitimacy – that require a strategic and all-embracing approach. Hence, these activities
are integrated and interrelated. As an example, organizational identity – the perception
among organizational members of being one with and belonging to an organization
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989) – is closely related to the corporate brand. If organizational
members do not “live the brand”, branding or image-building communication will only
be a varnish weakly related to the social reality of the organization. This development is

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also related to an understanding of the fundamental value of communication. Commu-

nication produces and reproduces organizations through texts, images and conversations
(Putnam & Nicotera, 2010).
In this conceptual article, we argue that strategic communication is a transboundary
concept that captures, better than public relations does, the complex phenomenon of an
organization’s targeted communication processes. The aim of the article is twofold. First,
the purpose is to describe and reflect the development and institutionalization of public
relations education and research in Sweden. Second, based on the transboundary changes
we see in industry, education and research, we argue that strategic communication is a
conceptual and holistic framework that is more valid and relevant than public relations.
Moreover, we suggest that strategic communication also integrates organizational (in-
ternal) communication as well as aspects of management theory and marketing, thus
allowing us to understand, explain and criticize contemporary communication processes
both inside organizations and between organizations and the surrounding society.
The article is mainly based on secondary data on the public relations industry, com-
munication professionals, a mapping of public relations education and research in Sweden
as well as on earlier research. In the article, we first shortly describe, based on a national
perspective but using some international comparisons, the public relations industry and
practice in Sweden, and subsequently the development of education and research. The
focus is not on historical analysis, but the contemporary development. In the final part,
we argue for the need for a new conceptual framework: strategic communication. The
changes in late-modern society, the tremendous growth of the public relations industry,
and the rapprochement between public relations, organizational communication, man-
agement and marketing in theory and practice are highlighted. A figure that illustrates
the transboundary theoretical framework is presented, and a discussion regarding the
advantages, disadvantages and the academic positioning of strategic communication
concludes the article.

A Short Comment on Professionalization

Professionalization is not of primary interest here, but it must be mentioned that profes-
sionalization is, of course, an important dimension. Cheney and Ashcraft (2007) point out
that we often miss the multiple, ambiguous, and conflicted meanings of the term. Profes-
sionalization is mainly related to certain requirements, such as specialized theoretical
knowledge, university education, professional association, codes of ethical conduct and
an ability to uphold those codes. The importance and effect of codes of ethics for public
relations are discussed by, for example, Bivins (1993) and Huang and Su (2009). Tobin
(2004) believes professionalization can make the PR industry trustworthier. In a recent
study, Sha (2011) found a clear pattern among American public relations practitioners
– a bifurcation between “elites” and “non-elites.” According to Sha, the polarization of
practitioners can be dangerous and undercut the professionalization of public relations
as a field. Public relations industry associations claim that public relations is a profes-
sion, but there are also many examples of critics who argue that public relations has
not yet achieved professional status and can only be regarded as a trade (Bowen 2009).
This understanding was also valid in the early 1970s. Carr (1971) underscores that very
few outside public relations accept it as a profession. Contemporary studies in different

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Jesper Falkheimer & Mats Heide From Public Relations to Strategic Communication in Sweden

countries (e.g., Abdullah & Threadgold 2008; de Bussy & Wolf 2008; Zerfaß, Verčič,
Verhoeven, Angeles, & Tench 2012) show that most public relations practitioners are
well-educated, have high management-level positions and acknowledge the importance
of ethical standards. Even so, a study in Australia (de Bussy & Wolf 2008:380) comes to
an interesting conclusion:
Paradoxically, it seems the more public relations becomes indispensable to the
strategic management of major private and public sector organizations, the more
reluctant practitioners become to use the term itself. Despite the positions of
influence and comparatively high salaries, PR practitioners appear almost embar-
rassed to acknowledge their field of practice. Public relations, it may be said, is the
profession that dare not speak its name.

The Swedish Public Relations Industry and Practice

There are definitely differences between public relations in Sweden and other countries,
but we also assume that there are similarities. As in several other countries, the public
relations industry in Sweden has experienced extraordinary growth since the 1980s, and
interest in public relations education and research has increased in a similar way during
recent decades. Public relations has become professionalized, even if public relations has
never become a profession because this requires an exclusive jurisdiction and a universal
standard of licensing (L’Etang 2002).
According to the only academic study on Swedish public relations history, the first
signs of professionalization occurred during World War II and substantial growth in
the sector was seen during the 1960s (Larsson 2005). In the same study, Larsson (p. 52)
described Swedish public relations development as being interwoven with two main
societal characteristics: the growth of interest organizations (e.g., unions and business
organizations) and development of the welfare system (local, regional and national public
government). The first public relations consultant agency in Sweden, Svenska PR-byrån
(The Swedish PR Agency), was founded in 1956, but most agencies were founded in
1994 or later1.
Leaving the historical approach behind, it is obvious that the development of public
relations in Sweden is mainly a contemporary phenomenon, as it is in several other
countries. According to Davis (2002), the number of public relations consultants in
Britain increased by approximately 1,000 percent during the 1980s and 1990s. In Swe-
den, the boom in the consultancy sector started in 1992–1996 and continued for at least
ten years. Statistics from the Association of Public Relations Consultancies in Sweden,
PRECIS (representing 80% of the consultancy sector), show rapid growth in income
since the 1990s. The member organization for all public relations employees, the Swed-
ish Public Relations Association, had 5,800 members in 2013 (in 1971, the association
had 500 members, 2,000 members in 1993, and 4,000 members in 2001). According to
an annual index – Informationsindex (Montén 2012) – Swedish organizations invested
approximately EUR 4.3 billion in public relations activities in 2011.
In the early days, public relations was mainly viewed as a task for former journalists.
Today, the typical practitioner has an academic degree in the social science or humanities.
The trade union for communication and public relations professionals (DIK Association),
with 5,400 members, has background statistics. For several years now, the trade union for

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journalists (Swedish Union of Journalists) does not allow public relations practitioners
to be members.
In 2010, seventy-nine percent of public relations members of the DIK association were
women and the medium age was 40 years. Fifty-two percent of members worked in the
private sector, 25 percent for the state, 17 percent in local or regional government and 5
percent were self-employed. The notion that most public relations practitioners have a
background in journalism is not correct if one actually looks at educational background.
Only five percent of DIK members have a higher academic degree in journalism. Most
members, 58 percent, have a degree in media and communication studies and 18 percent
have a degree in the humanities.
The concept of public relations has not been widely used in Sweden. There is an aver-
sion to using public relations as a concept, and this was and still is for ideological reasons.
In the Swedish context (as in several other countries), public relations is associated with
pseudo-events, propaganda techniques and manipulation. The concept of public rela-
tions has been used occasionally, but after World War II the dominating concept has
been “information” (e.g., information secretaries, information consultants). The use
of “information” has been challenged since the late 1990s, and today “communication”
probably dominates. During the past decade a new concept has also been established, fol-
lowing an international trend: strategic communication. The development of this concept
is not based on an ideological aversion to public relations. Instead, the main reason is
that strategic communication is a wider and more holistic concept than public relations,
integrating different fields of goal-oriented communication and using a multi-disciplinary
and management approach, which we will discuss later (cf. Falkheimer & Heide 2011;
Hallahan, Holtzhausen, van Ruler, Verčič, & Sriramesh 2007; Holtzhausen 2008).

Education and Research in Sweden

Courses in public relations have been given at Swedish universities since the early 1970s.
Students interested in working as public relations officers could take university courses
in mass communication at the departments of political science, sociology or marketing.
During this time, public relations courses were called “information technique.” Courses
in information technique had a practical emphasis, but also encompassed modules in
social psychology and press history. During the same decade, and especially during
the 1980s, the concept of “planned communication” was used and also spread interna-
tionally through a textbook called Using Communication Theory: An Introduction to
Planned Communication (Windahl & Signitzer 1992, 2009). The overall goal of planned
communication is to alter a target group’s understanding, attitude or knowledge, and
thereby change its behavior. Planned communication is typically on a tactical level and
the communication action in itself is the predominant goal. Most examples of planned
communication were linked to public communication (i.e., stop-smoking campaigns,
health and traffic safety campaigns). The means to reach this goal were well-formulated
and target-group-adapted information. Thus, during the 1960s and until the 1980s, a
general blind faith existed in information per se. If the audience received information
with good arguments and facts, it was expected that they would follow the suggestions
presented. In Sweden, the 1970s was the era of social marketing campaigns. Different
public organizations cried out their messages through billboards and advertisements: “Eat

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Jesper Falkheimer & Mats Heide From Public Relations to Strategic Communication in Sweden

7–9 slices of bread everyday!”, “Use a condom!”, “Don’t drink too much!” etc. Another
characteristic, which is connected to the transmission view of communication, was the
great confidence in the efficacy of different mass media such as TV, radio and newspapers
(Axley 1984; Carey 2009; Varey 2000). The transmission view on communication may
still predominate in the Western world, and it mainly focuses on the process of deliver-
ing information from a sender via adequate media to recipients. A consequence of this
understanding of communication is an overestimation of the effect of information per se
and neglect of interpretations as well as contextual, cultural or situational aspects. Even
if today’s alternative – the sense-making view – is acknowledged, the transmission view
probably still predominates.
During the 1970–1990s, higher education in public relations was generally very na-
tional, fragmented and media-centric. Another problem related to media-centrism was
that many lecturers in information techniques were not active researchers and conse-
quently did not have sufficient knowledge about international developments within re-
search fields such as marketing, public relations and organizational communication. Still,
the media professors were internationally active and successful scholars at, for example,
the Universities of Lund, Gothenburg and Stockholm. There are, however, examples of
Swedish public relations scholars (using the concept of planned communication) during
this time period, but it was not until the mid-1990s that the first few doctoral theses in
this field were published (Linderholm 1997; Palm 1994).
In 1992, the subject Media and Communication Studies was launched at universities
in Sweden – a multi-disciplinary subject merging mass communication theory (with a
strong research base) and information techniques (with mainly an educational base).
Lecturers with a mass communication background had a higher status because they were
active scholars and also had better institutional positions, allowing them to control course
content. The educational focus was primarily on mass media and research methods,
while courses in, for example, planned communication, organization and management
theories were more or less absent. Courses in organizational communication, planned
communication and public relations had a lower status compared to courses, and profes-
sors, in media studies. This cleavage has been negative for the development of courses
and programs, and has, at several institutions, tied public relations to the tactical level.
When it comes to the students, the opposite relationship is true. Most of the students are
interested in public relations, marketing communication and organizational communi-
cation, and many Bachelor’s theses are written within these fields. The Swedish Public
Relations Association has also criticized the curriculum for media and communication
studies for being too removed from practice and not including courses in marketing and
communication management (Högskoleverket 2001).
A new phase started in the early 2000s. “Strategic communication” is now a growing
educational and research area at Swedish universities and colleges. From around 2003
onward, the names of courses in public relations, planned communication and organiza-
tional communication at several institutions were changed to strategic communication. It
is not clear why this change evolved, but one explanation is that strategic communication
became more and more common within the industry and that some books and articles
(e.g., Falkheimer & Heide 2003, 2007; Hallahan et al. 2007) emphasized strategic commu-
nication as a modern concept for communication professionals and researchers. At Lund
University, Campus Helsingborg, a new Master’s program in strategic communication was

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introduced during autumn semester 2007 and consequently a new major in the Swedish
university system was born. The academic programs related to strategic communication
that are offered at Swedish universities usually have media and communication studies
as a major. Two Bachelor’s programs later followed the Master’s program in strategic
communication, and an additional international joint Master’s program, together with
the University of Stirling, was launched in 2012.
Today at least twenty-four academic programs with some sort of connection to
strategic communications are offered at Swedish universities or colleges, according to
one mapping (Falkheimer & Heide 2011). Most programs are based in media and com-
munication studies, with strategic communication as a possible direction concentration
or as elective courses.
Research in public relations and strategic communication in Sweden is growing but
still remains a minor field. The number of senior researchers that identify themselves
with the field or concept is approximately 20–30, and there are several PhD candidates
(Falkheimer & Heide 2011). But if one includes research that is actually about strategic
communication issues, the number would be much higher (including researchers in
business administration, political science, rhetoric and other related fields).
In Sweden, public relations or strategic communication as an academic subject has
traditionally been a minor sub-discipline in media and communications studies. In
other Nordic countries, research and education in public relations and strategic com-
munication is, in several cases, based in business administration. The increased focus on
organizational and management theory in strategic communication makes the academic
positioning difficult. It is not self-evident that strategic communication is a media and
communications discipline or a business administration discipline. We wish to emphasize
that it is important not to restrict research and education in strategic communication
to any single academic field or subject. Instead we should accept that different subjects
and disciplines help to broaden and deepen the aggregated knowledge of strategic com-
munications, which may gradually develop into a separate field.

Strategic Communication as an Alternative Framework

The concept of strategic communication was originally used in military theory and
international relations (Stenberg 2012). The first academic work using the concept,
“Strategic Communication in the Middle East,” was published in Foreign Affairs during
World War II (de Bussy & Wolf 2008), where strategic communication was understood
as a kind of transport system during warfare. Two decades later, the concept was used
in a Journal of Peace Research article about communication strategies for achieving
nuclear stability during the Cold War (Pitman 1966). Although the concept does have
pre-twentieth-century origins, strategic communication has a rather short history as
a research field and a professional practice. From a social theoretical perspective, the
increased interest in strategic communication may be interpreted as a consequence of
modernity: “In circumstances of uncertainty and multiple choice, the notions of trust and
risk have particular application” (Giddens 1991:3). In line with this thinking, strategic
communication is an expert system used by organizations and individuals to achieve or
enforce legitimacy in relation to different publics, institutions or stakeholders. Mahoney
(2011), who looks at a shorter time-span, interprets the contemporary rapid development

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of strategic communication as a consequence of increased organizational uncertainty due

to the global economic crisis of 2008/2009.
Strategic communication offers new possibilities for both researchers and practi-
tioners, and is more encompassing than traditional fields such as public relations and
marketing communications. There are at least three different research fields that focus
on organizational communication: public relations (PR), organizational communica-
tion (OC) and marketing communication (MC). Although they concentrate on the
same area in general, they deal with different topics: epistemology, methodology and
virtue (cf. Wehmeier & Winkler 2013). The three fields originate from different aca-
demic traditions. Public relations originates from mass communication studies and
journalism (Heath 2001), while organizational communication originates from speech
and communication studies (Tompkins & Wanca-Thibault 2001), and marketing com-
munication from business administration (Dahlén, Lange, & Smith 2010). Accordingly,
the fields emphasize different topics. Public relations and marketing have traditionally
been oriented toward external communication, and organizational communication
toward internal communication. Both public relations and marketing communication
concentrate on functions and communication where stakeholders, publics or consumers
are treated as segments. These two research fields mainly have a managerial perspec-
tive with the intention of making communication function more effectively (cf. Moss
& DeSanto 2011). Correspondingly, the lion’s share of research within PR and MC has
a realist epistemology and mainly uses quantitative methods such as surveys. McKie
(2001), among others, has criticized public relations researchers for being stuck in a
traditional understanding of science, where the goal is to produce value-free and “objec-
tive” knowledge that mirrors reality “out there.”
Until the mid-1980s, organizational communication had the same functionalist ap-
proach as PR and MC, i.e., making communication between managers and employees
more effective; however, OC has since then experienced several “turns,” such as the inter-
pretive turn (Cheney 2000; Putnam 1983), the critical turn (Mumby 1988, 2013) and the
discourse turn (Fairclough 1995; Grant 2004). As a consequence, there are several alter-
native ways to study organizational communication, and the majority of research today
focuses on understanding organizational communication as a phenomenon rather than
on helping practitioners become more effective. There has also been an epistemological
development within PR and MC. The editor of the latest Handbook of Public Relations,
Robert Heath (2010), sees a more varied orientation, with such concepts as meaning,
discourse, dialogue and rhetoric, which have as their prerequisite a social constructionist
epistemology. An equivalent development can be observed in MC, where there has been
a shift from short-spanned, tactical communication campaigns to interactive, strategic,
and relationship-building communication. One of the latest trends within marketing
communication is conversational marketing (Jaffe 2007), which is a development of re-
lationship marketing (Gummesson 2002). Grönroos (2006) argues that the relationship
should be reciprocal, creating loyalty between organizations and customers. This has
implications for communication activities that can no longer be limited to communica-
tion campaigns and commercial ads, but must also involve customer interactions and
critical dialogue. At the same time, there is still a strong functionalist emphasis within
PR (Wehmeier & Winkler 2013) as well as a strong applied nature (Ihlen & Verhoeven
2012). The same tendency is true for marketing communication. Media and advertising

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are still emphasized in modern textbooks on marketing communication (e.g., Pelsmacker,

Geuens, & Bergh 2010).
Scholars within the fields of PR, OC and MC have long had no interest in cooperating,
but rather continue to maintain the walls that exist between the fields. However there
have been some exhortations to increase cooperation between, for example, organiza-
tional communication and public relations. Cheney and Christensen (2001) claim that
the artificial boundary between internal and external communication is problematic, as
there is a mutual relationship and integration between the two forms of communication.
When it comes to communication activities that aim to reinforce or change the organi-
zational identity through branding or image management programs, it is not possible to
draw a clear boundary between internal and external communication. Organizational
members will definitely notice external communication in the form of commercial ads,
and conversely, internal communication will not stay within the “walls” of an organiza-
tion. Organizational members, who collectively have a large network, will talk about
internal issues with friends and discuss organizational problems in social media. There is
also the effect of auto-communication, which blurs the borders of internal and external
communication. Auto-communication is an external communication whose message has
a more important meaning to organizational members than to external publics (Broms
& Gahmberg 1983; Cheney & Christensen 2001). The function of auto-communication
is not the message per se, but the self-referential and self-reinforcement effect. Hence,
there is a close relationship between internal and external communication, and coopera-
tion across field boundaries would increase possibilities for generating new knowledge
on the phenomenon of organization communication.
Cheney and Christensen (2001) remind us that there is also an epistemological as-
pect of this reasoning. The traditional metaphors of organizations are problematic. The
container metaphor of organizations indicates that an organization is understood as
an object, a phenomenon existing “out there,” independent of organizational members,
and different forms of “human” metaphors suggest that an organization is a subject that
acts, learns, makes decisions and so forth (Czarniawska-Joerges 1993). In these essen-
tialist metaphors, communication is understood as something that exists and flows in
an organization and as an exchange process between an organization (as a subject) and
different receivers (i.e., internal and external target groups). In a contemporary, social,
constructionist understanding of organizations, communication is not only a process for
information dissemination, but also the very process of constructing and maintaining
an organization. The American organizational psychologist Karl E. Weick (1979) un-
derlined early on that organizations should not be understood as stable objects. Instead,
Weick explained that organizations are caught up in everlasting processes of becoming,
where communication enacts temporary and fluid social structures (i.e., organizations).
Weick has a process orientation and believes that use of the verb “to organize” prevents
us from being captured in the traditional realist epistemology (cf. Hernes 2008).
Since the beginning of 2000, there has been a strong trend toward integrating com-
munication functions in organizations, where different units, e.g., the departments of
human resources, IT, public relations and marketing, emerge as one large communica-
tion department. One rational behind this development is that a large communication
department has enhanced possibilities to influence the organizational agenda and to
add a communicative perspective to organizational decisions and actions. Furthermore,

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an understanding has also grown among practitioners that internal and external com-
munication are closely related.
As a consequence of the development described above, the boundaries between
traditional research fields interested in organization communications (i.e., marketing,
organizational communication and public relations) are artificial. There have been sev-
eral attempts from different directions to increase the integration of the fields, and these
have led to new concepts, such as total communication (Grönroos & Rubinstein 1986;
Åberg 1990), integrated communication (Grönstedt 2000), integrated marketing com-
munication (Holm 2006; Proctor & Kitchen 2002), internal public relations (Gill 2011)
and internal marketing (Kotler, Armstrong, Wong, & Saunders 2008). In the current
marketing communication literature, there is an obvious integration trend, as issues like
reputation and branding are discussed in relation to identity and internal communica-
tion processes (Fill 2009).
The concept of corporate communication is closely related to strategic communication.
The basic idea behind applied corporate communications and the concepts mentioned
above is that an organization should speak to many publics simultaneously and using
consistent messages (cf. Cornelissen 2011). The core of corporate communications is
corporate identity – the desire for different stakeholder groups to have a certain, positive
image of an organization. Christensen, Morsing and Cheney (2008) argue that corporate
communications is based on a metaphor of holism, meaning that everything is embraced
within one framework. An organization within corporate communication is implicitly
understood as being a body that can include and integrate all variations and perspec-
tives into one amalgamated message. It is further assumed that the expressions of an
organization can be managed from the top level of an organization. In other words, these
concepts have a clear functionalist approach, where it is believed that a strong message
transmitted to all publics will have a strong impact. Corporate communications also has
a holistic approach to organization communication, but it has a predominantly instru-
mental and functionalist view based in management and marketing research (Christensen
et al. 2008). The integration of the communication approach has been very successful
among practitioners, but there are now signs of decreasing belief in the very idea behind
corporate communication. The recently published European Communication Monitor
2012 shows that the idea of shaping a consistent message and image for all stakeholders
is supported by fewer respondents than was the case in earlier monitors2. Christensen
and Cornelissen (2011) criticize the majority of textbooks on corporate communication
for not explicitly defining the concept. Corporate communication is most often regarded
as an umbrella term for different forms of communication practices in organizations.
Another frequent criticism of corporate communication is the fact that a distinct per-
spective has dominated the majority of previous research in corporate communication
– functionalism with its overconfidence in information per se (i.e., the transmission
view of communication) (Christensen & Cornelissen 2011; Ihlen & Verhoeven 2012).
Corporate communication and strategic communication are cousins. While corpo-
rate communication has its origins in the management and marketing fields, strategic
communication originates from media and communication studies and public relations.
Strategic communication also adopts a holistic approach to organizations in regard to
their communication. This means that the dichotomy that exists between public relations
(focus on external communications) and organizational communication (internal com-

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munication) is rejected. Marketing’s focus on customer and sales relationships is also an

important aspect, but as part of a whole. Strategic communication permeates the entire
organization, thus affecting not only the traditional function that handles communication
issues, but also those that handle marketing. Further, strategic communication integrates
knowledge from other disciplines such as organization theory, social theory, media theory
and communication theory. The type of communication theory that is most relevant to
strategic communication, in turn, is clearly linked to sociology, social psychology and
rhetoric. This is because strategic communication in general has its origins in commu-
nication at the group, organizational and societal levels.
In 2013, strategic communication may be viewed as a minor but established inter-
national field of research with academic units and departments, professors, programs,
courses, conferences and a journal. The launching of The International Journal of Stra-
tegic Communication by the publishing house Routledge in 2007 marks an important
phase in the field’s development.
We define strategic communication as an organization’s conscious communication
efforts to reach its goals. In the broadest possible sense of the term, organization in this
context refers to private companies, public authorities and organizations, associations
and interest groups. A definition of strategic communication can be found in the first
issue of The International Journal of Strategic Communication (Hallahan et al. 2007:7):
The purposeful use of communication by an organization to fulfill its mission [...].
It further implies that people will be engaged in deliberate communication practice
on behalf of organizations, causes, and social movements.

The latter definition, similar to a definition in a Swedish textbook (Falkheimer & Heide
2007), has some shortcomings. Foremost, the vital function of communication for the
production and reproduction of organizations is neglected. A fundamental starting point
in strategic communication is that communication is not a simple tool for transmitting
information and knowledge between people in an objectified world, but is the very means
for producing and a resource that produces the social world (cf. Weick 1995; Weick, Sut-
cliffe, & Obstfeld 2005). In other words, communication is understood as a sense-making
process. As a consequence of this reasoning, it is not only communication professionals
who practice strategic communication, which is typically assumed within public rela-
tions research (cf. Wehmeier & Winkler 2013). We believe that strategic communication
practice is something that many actors – such as managers, leaders, politicians, marketers,
lawyers and human resources people and volunteers – are performing in more or less
formalized social groupings. They all act and communicate strategically and contribute
to the production and reproduction of an organization.
Furthermore, the definition only directs attention to the practices of strategic com-
munication and not to strategic communication research. Strategic communication is
firstly a research field where researchers are interested in the phenomenon of strategic
communication, i.e., they seek to describe, explain, criticize and understand the practice
of strategic communication and its impact on society, organizations and individuals. The
vital aspect of strategic communication is the epistemological interests (Ger. erkenntnis-
interesse coined by Habermas, 1968) of an organization’s communication.

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Jesper Falkheimer & Mats Heide From Public Relations to Strategic Communication in Sweden

Discussion and Remarks

The first aim of this article is to describe and reflect on the development and institutionali-
zation of public relations education and research in Sweden. The mapping and description,
based on secondary data, reveal some strong trends. First, the public relations industry in
Sweden has grown considerably since the 1980s, experiencing a boom during the 1990s.
The Swedish public relations development has its main origins in the government (or the
welfare state) and a will to educate and inform citizens. But the major increase (number of
communication officers, consultants as well as investments) during recent decades may be
interpreted as a consequence of the modern social development, with increased deregula-
tion and market liberalism that have gradually challenged the traditional welfare state.
Statistics from unions and interest organizations show that a large proportion of
practitioners now have a higher education and have moved closer to top management.
There is no doubt that the practice is undergoing a process of professionalization, even
if the occupation may never become a profession in the same sense as law or medicine.
The mapping of higher education shows that there are few examples of programs in
public relations or strategic communication at Swedish universities. Public relations and
strategic communication are often offered as minor courses in media and communica-
tion studies programs, with some exceptions. This means that there is a media-centric
bias in public relations and strategic communication in higher education. But it is also
clear that interest in strategic communication and public relations is growing in other
disciplines, such as in political science and business administration. The research field
in Sweden has been fragmented for many years, but is growing.
The second aim is to argue for the use of strategic communication as a conceptual and
holistic framework that better captures the complex phenomenon of an organization’s
communication than do traditional, boundary-maintaining concepts. Public relations,
organizational or marketing communication as concepts do not accord particularly well
with the development taking place in theory and practice. The transboundary develop-
ment clearly shows the need for a new concept and a holistic framework. We find strategic
communication, inspired by Hallahan et al. (2007), to be a better alternative concept. In
addition to the description of education and research development in Sweden, we also
think that this concept is in better accordance with the contemporary social, cultural and
economic structural transformation taking place in late-modern society.
Weick (2009) emphasizes that if an organization is to function successfully in a
complex environment, it too must be complex. Organizations should take advantage
of their internal variation, for example, individuals’ different skills, views, experiences
and cultural backgrounds. Organizations that use simple models to relate to a complex
environment will not be able to understand and manage the environment and audiences.
Strategic communication is a valid concept. Integrated marketing is too narrow a concept
and gives the wrong signals to all communications that are essentially about marketing
issues. It may be that integrated marketing can work in a business context, but in terms
of other organizations, municipalities, hospitals and government agencies, the concept
is not at all useful.
Strategic communication is multi-disciplinary, but has some clear foundations. In
the model below, we show how strategic communication may be viewed as a field that
is emerging at the intersection of communication and media theory, organizational and
management theory and social theory.

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Nordicom Review 35 (2014) 2

Figure 1. Strategic Communication and its Relationship to Nearby Fields

Communication/ Organization/
media theory management theory
Strategic
communication

Social theory

There are, of course, practical advantages and disadvantages associated with the in-
tegration trend that research in strategic communication has and will reflect upon. If
we start with the disadvantages, it is clear that the integration trend has arisen from a
desire to be faster and better, and to more effectively reach different audiences with the
same message. Integrated communication aims to present a clear and unambiguous
image of what the organization stands for in all its messages, symbols and strategies.
This leads to organizational integration of all media and messages, and thereby may
seem to avoid incongruity. But because humans think and act according to their own
beliefs and understandings, the idea is that a strong brand, which is the concept of an
organization, should be the foundation of a successful organization. The risk of the
integrated communication trend is that we will get stuck in an approach that is too
simple. We believe it is easy to be blinded by a desire to integrate messages and media,
and then to forget how complex the human process of interpretation is and how dif-
ferent all of us are. We all have different interests, experiences and knowledge, and are
part of different networks, and we interpret information accordingly. In summary, it is
highly questionable that an organization could practically control all communication
in all forms and at all levels.
A clear example of a failed attempt to achieve integrated communication is the transpar-
ency trend. Organizations are under pressure, for example, by law and the media (annual
and environmental reports, journalism, social media) to be transparent by presenting as
much information as possible to various audiences. Through ICT, it is now possible for
organizations to quickly and easily publish information. This means that organizations feel
more transparent than before, but also more vulnerable than ever. The situation is some-
what ironic. First, there is an implicit notion that outside groups or stakeholders want or
require organizational transparency. Second, communication is considered to be the same
as information and it is assumed that audiences want more and more information. Third,
it is assumed that more information will allow audiences to develop sophisticated notions
of an organization. Research (e.g., Christensen & Cheney 2000) has shown, however, that
consumers or citizens are not always interested or involved in what organizations have

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Jesper Falkheimer & Mats Heide From Public Relations to Strategic Communication in Sweden

to say. Another factor is that while external groups may be interested in and have access
to all possible forms of information, we humans have no capacity to process all of it. As
early as 1956, Nobel laureate in economics Herbert Simon noted that humans are limited
rational beings, that is, we are unable to treat all information and we must be content with
a satisfactory result. The organization cannot be sure how a given person will interpret
the information provided. In other words, it would seem to be an impossible task to try
to spread uniform images of an organization. The advantage of integrated communica-
tion is that it can help to improve the status and awareness of communication issues and
organization processes, such as change and organizational learning. A strong communi-
cations department makes it is easier to build up extensive expertise in the field and to
provide opportunities to work optimally with strategic communications issues where the
boundary between internal and external communications is erased.
In the present article, we propose strategic communication as a concept that can
promote interesting and relevant research and as a way to mirror the transboundary
development taking place in organizations and society. In our concluding remarks, we
state that this concept does focus on integration, but that this does not mean that the
aim is to achieve monophony (rather the opposite), and that the idea of transparency
must be handled with care.

Note
1. http://www.precis.se
2. See http://www.communicationmonitor.eu/

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