Microcomputer Architecture

Cover

Microcomputer Architecture
Programming and the Relationship Between Programming and
Electronics

Group 2

Mzuzu University
Department of Physics and Electronics

October 2, 2024

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Microcomputer Architecture
Group Members

Group Members

• Vitumbiko Chilinda BSPHE0521

• Chisomo Bandson BSPHE0321
• Salatiel Kaliwekha BSPHE1221
• Yamikani Kashitigu BSPHE1421
• Tonny Phiri BSPHE3021
• Alexander Nkhata BSPHE2521
• Aubrey Nthala BEDSDL26718
• Chimwemwe Stoneck BEDL10420
• Stuart Zgambo

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Microcomputer Architecture
Contents

Overview
1 Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory
Input/Output (I/O) Devices
System Bus
2 Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Instruction Set Architecture
Assembly Language Programming
Machine Code
Microcontroller Programming
Interfacing with Hardware
Memory Management
3 Relationship Between Programming and Electronics
4 References
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Microcomputer Architecture
Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture

Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture

• A microcomputer is a compact and integrated computing system

that combines a microprocessor with essential peripheral
components to perform computing tasks.
• Microcomputer architecture refers to the design and organization
of a microcomputer’s core components.
• It includes:
1 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2 Memory
3 Input/Output (I/O) Devices
4 System Bus

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Microcomputer Architecture
Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• This is the brain of a microcomputer.
• It is responsible for executing instructions and performing
calculations.
• It consists of:
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• This is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical operations.
• Control Unit (CU)
• This directs the operation of the processor, including fetching,
decoding, and executing instructions.
• Registers
• These are small, fast storage locations within the CPU that are
used to hold data and instructions temporarily.
• Cache
• This is a small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU that
helps to speed up data access and improve performance.
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Microcomputer Architecture
Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture
Memory

Memory

• The memory is responsible for storage of data.

• Its hierarchy includes:
• Registers
• These are directly accessible by the CPU.
• They are used for temporary storage of data and instructions.
• Cache Memory
• This is fast and volatile memory that stores frequently accessed
data to reduce delay.
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• This is a volatile memory that is used to store data and instructions
currently in use by the system.
• Secondary Storage
• This is non-volatile storage such as hard drives or solid-state drives
(SSDs) used for long-term data retention.

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Microcomputer Architecture
Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture
Input/Output (I/O) Devices

Input/Output (I/O) Devices

• These are devices that allow the microcomputer to interact with

the external environment.
• Examples include:
• Keyboards
• Mice
• Display
• Printers
• Network interfaces

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Microcomputer Architecture
Introduction to Microcomputer Architecture
System Bus

System Bus

• The system bus is a communication system that transfers data

between the CPU, memory and I/O devices.
• It includes:
• Data Bus
• It carries data between components.
• Address Bus
• It carries addresses to identify memory locations.
• Control Bus
• It carries control signals to manage data transfers and device
operations.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture

Programming in Microcomputer Architecture

• Programming refers to the process of creating instructions that

control the behavior of digital systems such as microcontrollers,
microprocessors and embedded systems.
• It involves creating software that interacts directly with the
hardware.
• They key aspects of programming in microcomputer architecture
include:
• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
• Assembly Language Programming
• Machine Code
• Microcontroller Programming
• Interfacing with Hardware
• Memory Management

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Instruction Set Architecture

Instruction Set Architecture

• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) defines the set of instructions
that a microprocessor or microcontroller can execute.
• It serves as the bridge between hardware and software as it
specifies how software controls hardware components.
• The ISA includes:
• Instruction Set: This is the collection of operations the processor
can perform such as arithmetic operations, data movement, and
control operations.
• Examples include addition, subtraction, load, store, and branch
instructions.
• Addressing Modes: These are methods that are used to access
data operands.
• Common modes include immediate, direct, indirect, and indexed
addressing. Each mode provides different ways to specify the
operands for instructions.
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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Instruction Set Architecture

Instruction Set Architecture

Continued. . .

• Instruction Format: This is the layout of the bits in an

instruction.
• This includes the opcode (operation code) and operands.
• The format determines how the instruction is parsed and executed
by the processor.
• Control Unit: This is the part of the ISA that directs the
operation of the processor by interpreting instructions and
generating control signals.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Assembly Language Programming

Assembly Language Programming

• Assembly Language Programming is a low-level programming

technique that uses mnemonics and symbolic names to represent
machine code instructions.
• It provides a more readable way to program a microprocessor
compared to raw machine code.
• It generally includes:
• Mnemonics: These are human-readable representations of
machine instructions such as MOV for move, ADD for addition, JMP for
jump, etc.
• Mnemonics simplify the programming process and enhance
readability.
• Labels: These are symbolic names that are used to mark locations
in the code such as the start of a loop.
• Labels make code easier to understand and modify.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Assembly Language Programming

Assembly Language Programming

Continued. . .

• Directives: These are instructions to the assembler that control

the assembly process such as defining constants or reserving space
in memory.
• Examples include .data to declare data segments and .text to
define code segments.
• Assembler: This is a tool that translates assembly language code
into machine code.
• Assemblers can be integrated into development environments or run
as standalone applications.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Machine Code

Machine Code

• Machine Code is the binary representation of instructions that a

microprocessor can execute directly.
• It consists of sequences of binary digits (0s and 1s) that encode
operations, operands and control information.
• It involves the following:
• Binary Encoding
• Machine code instructions are encoded in binary form.
• Each instruction is represented by a unique sequence of bits with
specific patterns corresponding to different operations and operands.
• Instruction Formats
• Different ISAs have different instruction formats such as
fixed-length or variable-length instructions.
• The format affects how instructions are fetched, decoded, and
executed.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Machine Code

Machine Code
Continued. . .

• Execution
• The microprocessor fetches machine code instructions from memory
and then decodes them.
• It then executes them according to the ISA.
• The execution involves performing operations on data, updating
registers, and manipulating memory.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Microcontroller Programming

Microcontroller Programming
• Microcontrollers are compact integrated circuits that combine a
processor, memory and I/O peripherals on a single chip.
• Microcontroller programming involves writing code to control
microcontrollers.
• The following are generally involved in microcontroller
programming:
• Embedded Systems
• Microcontrollers are often used in embedded systems where they
control specific tasks in devices such as appliances.
• Peripheral Interfaces
• Programming microcontrollers involves configuring and interacting
with various peripherals such as timers, analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs) and communication interfaces.
• Firmware
• This is the software that is written for microcontrollers.
• It includes instruction for initializing hardware, handling interrupts,
and performing specific functions.
.
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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Interfacing with Hardware

Interfacing with Hardware

• Interfacing with hardware involves connecting microprocessors or
microcontrollers to external devices and components.
• This is important for enabling communication and control between
the microcomputer and its environment.
• This is used as follows:
• Input/Output (I/O) Ports
• Digital I/O ports are used to interface with external devices.
• These ports can be configured as input or output and are used to
read signals from sensors or control actuators.
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)
• ADCs convert analog signals into digital form so that they can be
processed by the microprocessor.
• Communication Protocols
• Microcomputers often use communication protocols to exchange
data with other devices or systems.
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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Memory Management

Memory Management
• Memory Management is the process of handling and organizing
memory resources within a microcomputer system.
• Proper memory management ensures efficient use of memory and
optimal performance.
• • Memory Hierarchy
• Microcomputers have a hierarchy of memory types including
registers, cache, random-access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM).
• Each type has different characteristics in terms of speed and
capacity.
• Memory Allocation
• Programming involves allocating memory for variables, arrays, and
data structures.
• Proper allocation and deallocation of memory are crucial to avoid
issues such as memory leaks and fragmentation.

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Programming in Microcomputer Architecture
Memory Management

Memory Management
Continued. . .

• Stack and Heap

• Memory is often divided into stack and heap segments.
• The stack is used for function calls and local variables while the
heap is used for dynamic memory allocation.
• Address Space
• Microprocessors have a defined address space that determines the
range of memory addresses they can access.

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Relationship Between Programming and Electronics

Relationship Between Programming and Electronics

• The relationship between programming and electronics is

fundamental as it enables the creation and the improvement of
complex electronic systems.
• Programming as the process of writing or generating codes for
programmable logic devices (PLDs) functionality uses input and
output electronic devices.
• The programming codes are stored in memory devices
(electronics).
• Programmable devices provide a bridge between electronics and
programming as the user is able to design or achieve anything
through computer codes with the aid of an electronic device.

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Relationship Between Programming and Electronics

Relationship Between Programming and Electronics

Continued. . .

• This includes:
• Embedded Systems
• Programmers write codes to control and interact with electronics
devices such as microcontrollers, robots and appliances.
• Firmware
• Programs are stored in non-volatile memory (ROM) and control the
behavior of electronic devices.
• Hardware platforms
• Electronic devices such computers, smartphones and
microcontrollers provide the physical infrastructure for running
programs.
• Input/Output Interfaces
• Electronics enable communication between devices and the outside
world, hence allowing programs to interact with the users and other
systems.
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References

References
Gibson, J., & Darnell, A. (2021). The microprocessor: Architecture,
programming, and applications with the 8085 (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
Harris, D. M., & Harris, S. L. (2018). Digital design and computer
architecture (2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann.
Nesbitt, J. H., & Gill, D. G. (2020). Introduction to embedded systems:
Interfacing, programming, and design (2nd ed.). Springer.
Patterson, D. A., & Hennessy, J. L. (2017). Computer organization
and design: The hardware/software interface (5th ed.). Morgan
Kaufmann.
Stallings, W. (2020). Computer organization and architecture:
Designing for performance (11th ed.). Pearson.
Tanenbaum, A. S., & Bos, H. (2015). Structured computer organization
(6th ed.). Pearson.
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