GIS-BASED ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION SITE POTENTIAL USING

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: AZENA WATERSHED, ABAY BASIN,

AMHARA REGION, ETHIOPIA

MSC THESIS

GIRMA MELESE

August, 2024

Wollo University
GIS-BASED ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION SITE POTENTIAL USING

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: AZENA WATERSHED, ABAY BASIN,

AMHARA REGION, ETHIOPIA

MSc Thesis is submitted to Department of Geography and Environmental

Studies, Directorate of Graduate Studies, WOLLO UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF

SCIENCE IN GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

By
Girma melese

August, 2024

Wollo University
 APPROVAL SHEET
DIRECTORATE OF GRADUATE STUDIES
WOLLO UNIVERSITY

As members of the Examining Board of the final MSc open defense, we certify that we have
read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Girma Melese entitled as “GIS-Based Assessment
of Irrigation Site Potential Using Physical Characteristics: Azena Watershed, Abay Basin,
Amhara Region, Ethiopia” and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the thesis
requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in GIS and Remote Sensing.

Dr. Nurhussen Ahmed ______________ _____________

Name of major Advisor Signature Date

Mohamed Motumma (Ass Prof.) ______________ _____________

Name of internal examiner Signature Date

Dr. Abebe Mengaw ______________ _____________

Name of external examiner Signature Date

Hikma Birhanu ______________ _____________

Name of chairperson Signature Date

Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is contingent upon the submission of the final copy
of the thesis to the post graduate, Research and coordination service council (RGCSC) Through
the Departmental of GIS and Remote sensing.

___________________________ ______________ _____________

Director, Graduate studies directorate Signature Date

 DECLARATION

I GIRMA MELESE hereby declare that the thesis, entitled “GIS-Based Assessment of
Irrigation Site Potential Using Physical Characteristics: Azena Watershed, Abay Basin,
Amhara Region, Ethiopia” submitted to the Department of Geography and Environmental
studies, College of Social Science and Humanities, Wollo University, in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GIS AND
REMOTE SENSING (MSC), is a record of original research work done by me during 2016
(E.C), under the supervision and guidance of Dr. NURHUSSEN AHMED, and it has not formed
the basis for the award of any Degree / Diploma / Associateship / Fellowship or other similar
title of any candidate of any university.

Girma Melese Signature ----------------------------

Place: Wollo university, Dessie.

Date: August, 2024

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude towards my respected advisor, Dr. Nurhussen Ahmed, who
has continuously provided valuable guidance, insightful ideas, constructive feedback, and has
made tremendous efforts to explain complex concepts clearly and concisely during the duration
of my thesis writing process.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Alemayehu Department of Geography, our
esteemed department head, for providing unwavering support and excellent research facilities
throughout the duration of this study.

I would like to convey my gratitude to my friends, family, coworkers, and students who have
provided me with invaluable support and assistance throughout my research. The successful
completion of this study would not have been possible without the strong collaboration and
cooperation of the participants. I am deeply thankful to all the respondents who made the
challenging task of data collection effortless for my research, and I am truly appreciative of
their contributions.

I
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process

CI Consistency Index

CR Consistency Ratio

DEM Digital Elevation Model

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GIS Geographical Information System

LULC Land Use Land Cover

RI Random Consistency Index

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ I
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................. II
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... III
LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................................VI
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... VII
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER-ONE .................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ............................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Research Objectives....................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 General Objective ................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Specific Objective ................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Research questions ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Hypothesis of the study ................................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Significance of the study ............................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Scope of the study .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Limitation of the study................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER-TWO................................................................................................................................... 9
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Irrigation Potential ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia .................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Irrigation activities in Ethiopia ............................................................................................. 11
2.3 Water Availability ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Factors for Assessing Suitability of Irrigation Land .................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Soil properties ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Topography ........................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.3 Water Availability................................................................................................................. 15
2.4.4 Land-use Land-cover ............................................................................................................ 16
2.5 Overview of GIS Application ...................................................................................................... 17
2.5.1 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis by GIS ............................................................................. 17
III
 2.5.2 Land-use Land cover Analysis by GIS ................................................................................. 18
2.5.3 Slop Analysis by GIS............................................................................................................ 18
2.5.4 Euclidean distance Analysis by GIS ..................................................................................... 18
2.6 Land Suitability Classification..................................................................................................... 19
2.7 Framework of land suitability evaluation .................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER-THREE ............................................................................................................................ 21
3. MATERIAL and METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 21
3.1 Description of Study Area ........................................................................................................... 21
3.1.1 Location ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.1.2 Topography ........................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.3 Climate.................................................................................................................................. 23
3.1.4 Vegetation ............................................................................................................................. 24
3.1.5 Socio-Economic Factors ....................................................................................................... 24
3.1.6 Soil Types and Characteristics .............................................................................................. 25
3.2 Material Used............................................................................................................................... 26
3.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 27
3.4 Validation .................................................................................................................................... 31
3.5 Factors that determine land suitability for irrigation ................................................................... 31
3.5.1 Slop Suitability ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.5.2 Soil Suitability ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.5.3 Land cover ............................................................................................................................ 32
3.5.4 Distance from water source .................................................................................................. 32
CHAPTER-FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 33
4. RESULT and DISCUSSION....................................................................................................... 33
4.1 Irrigation suitability analysis ....................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1 Slope suitability .................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.2 Land cover suitability ........................................................................................................... 34
4.1.3 Distance from water source .................................................................................................. 35
4.1.4 Soil Suitability ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Weight of variables for irrigation suitability ............................................................................... 46
4.3 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER-FIVE ................................................................................................................................. 51
5. CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................... 51

IV
5.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 51
5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 52
Reference .............................................................................................................................. 53

V
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

Table 1: Ethiopian basins potential ...........................................................................................11

Table 2: Ethiopia Irrigation projects capacity ...........................................................................12
Table 3: Study area average day and night temperature of a year ............................................24
Table 4: Socio economic data of the study area ........................................................................25
Table 5: Datasets and inputs used in this study.........................................................................26
Table 6: Software used in the study ..........................................................................................27
Table 7: Pairwise Comparison Matrix ......................................................................................29
Table 8: Normalized the Matrix ................................................................................................29
Table 9: Priority Vector (Weights) ...........................................................................................29
Table 10: Weighted Sum Vector ...............................................................................................30
Table 11: Consistency Vector ...................................................................................................30
Table 12: Principal Eigenvalue (λ_max)...................................................................................30
Table 13: Land-cover suitability classification .........................................................................34
Table 14: Pairwise Comparison Matrix ....................................................................................45
Table 15: Priority Vector (Weights) .........................................................................................47

VI
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

Figure 1: Soil texture triangle ...................................................................................................14

Figure 2: Farm land topography ................................................................................................15
Figure 3: Availability of water for irrigation ............................................................................16
Figure 4: Land-use land-cover in agricultural landscape ..........................................................17
Figure 5: Research framework ..................................................................................................20
Figure 6: Study Area .................................................................................................................22
Figure 7: Elevation profile of study area...................................................................................23
Figure 8: Study area slop suitability map..................................................................................33
Figure 9: Study area LULC suitability map ..............................................................................35
Figure 10: Study area proximity to river map ...........................................................................36
Figure 11: Study area soil type map ..........................................................................................37
Figure 12: Study area soil suitability class................................................................................38
Figure 13: Study area soil depth map ........................................................................................39
Figure 14: Study area soil depth suitability map.......................................................................40
Figure 15: Study area soil texture map .....................................................................................41
Figure 16: Study area soil texture suitability map ....................................................................42
Figure 17: Study area soil drainage map ...................................................................................43
Figure 18: Study area soil drainage suitability class .................................................................44
Figure 19: Study area overall soil suitability map ....................................................................46
Figure 20: Irrigation land suitability map of study area ............................................................48

VII
 ABSTRACT

Effective land management practices are essential to maximize agricultural productivity and
ensure long-term sustainability. This is crucial for meeting the needs of Ethiopia's increasing
population and driving economic development. Agricultural land suitability is influenced by
factors such as soil fertility, terrain, climate, and access to water. Agriculture in Ethiopia
heavily relies on rainfall, which is often unpredictable and varies greatly. However, developing
irrigation systems in the study area is hampered by the lack of reliable information about
suitable land and available water resources. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the
potential for irrigation site in Azena water-shed, Abay Basin, taking into account factors such
as soil characteristics, slope, land use and land cover, and proximity to water sources. The
assessment utilized Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) technique, specifically the
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). This approach allows for the integration and weighting of
multiple criteria to generate a suitability map for irrigation purposes. The suitability of these
elements for surface irrigation was assessed using an overlay tool in ArcGIS which, performed
a weighted analysis based on a cumulative score. Among the variables, the slope plays a crucial
role in determining suitability, accounting for 55.8% of the overall assessment. Following
closely behind, soil characteristics were identified as the second most important factor,
contributing 26.3% to suitability. Additionally, the proximity to water sources, particularly
rivers, was responsible for 11.3% of the overall influence. Moreover, the land use/land cover
(LULC) aspect accounted for 6.5% of suitability assessment, taking into account existing land
use patterns and vegetation cover, which can impact the feasibility of converting land for
irrigation purposes. The above findings reveal that 16.85% of the area is highly suitable for
irrigation, 50.56% is moderately suitable, and 32.59% is marginally suitable for this purpose.
By considering various factors like slope, soil characteristics, water proximity, and LULC, the
assessment provides valuable insights for future agricultural development. Implementing
targeted interventions in highly suitable areas, along with sustainable practices, has the
potential to enhance productivity and contribute to the overall agricultural success of the
region.

Keywords: Irrigation, Analytic Hierarchy Process, land use/land cover, MCDA, land
suitability

VIII
 CHAPTER-ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Land suitability analysis is essential for land use planning. It helps decide the best uses for
different pieces of land based on various factors. This is important for sustainable development,
making sure land is used wisely. Traditional methods often use expert opinions and qualitative
assessments. These methods include land capability classification and land evaluation systems
for Land Evaluation. These frameworks assess land based on factors like soil characteristics,
climate, topography, and vegetation. For instance, the FAO Framework evaluates land
suitability for specific crops by considering soil depth, texture, drainage, and fertility, among
other factors (Mugiyo et al., 2021). While traditional land evaluation methods offer a systematic
approach, they may be hindered by their reliance on personal opinions and the lack of
comprehensive land information.

Land suitability analysis has a wider scope than agriculture, encompassing urban planning,
environmental conservation, and disaster management. In urban planning, land suitability
analysis can help identify the best locations for new infrastructure projects, taking into account
factors such as proximity to existing infrastructure, environmental impact, and socio-economic
benefits (Mendoza, n.d.). In environmental conservation, it aids in identifying areas that are
most suitable for conservation efforts, ensuring that critical habitats are preserved (Mugiyo et
al., 2021). Land suitability analysis can be used to determine areas vulnerable to natural
disasters such as floods and landslides, facilitating the creation of mitigation strategies.

Land suitability analysis is an essential step in land use planning and management. Its purpose
is to identify the most suitable uses for various land parcels according to different criteria. This
analysis takes into account multiple factors, including soil properties, terrain, climate, and
socio-economic conditions, to establish the optimal use of land. One of the most widely used
methodologies in land suitability analysis is the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which helps
in decision-making by structuring complex problems into a hierarchy of more easily
comprehensible sub-problems (Bilas et al., 2022).

1
Irrigation is one means by which agricultural production can be increased to meet the growing
food demands of the fast-growing population of the country were made by considering factors
like slope, soil properties, distance from the river(Belete et al., n.d.). Irrigation is the artificial
application of water onto cropland for the purpose of satisfying the water necessary for growing
different crops and it plays a key role in stabilizing food production in a number of countries
by either supplementing or replacing the need for natural precipitation for the purpose of food
production(Negasa & Wakjira, 2021).

The average rate of irrigation development for the Sub-Saharan Africa region (40 countries) for
the last 12 years was about 43,600 ha/year, which is an average of 1090 ha/year for each
country. Some counties like Tanzania, Nigeria, Niger, Zimbabwe and South Africa have an
average rate of development over 2000 ha/year (Y. Bekele et al., n.d.).

Taking into account the potentials of land and water resources, and the problems of food
insecurity, population increase, and limited rainfall, agricultural development has been a
priority for the new Ethiopian government since 1991 (Eyasu Yazew Hagos, 2005).

Traditional irrigation in Ethiopia was practiced before centuries, while the Government of
Ethiopia and the Dutch company known as HVA-Ethiopia sugar cane plantation started modern
irrigation in the early 1950’s (Y. Bekele et al., n.d.). Water resources management for
agriculture includes both support for sustainable production in rain-fed agriculture and
irrigation(S. Bekele et al., n.d.).

Irrigation has the ability to greatly enhance the economic growth of Ethiopia. If fully realized,
irrigation could contribute up to ETB 140 billion (approximately USD 3.2 billion) to the
national economy (Awulachew et al., 2010a). This significant economic impact highlights the
necessity of investing in irrigation systems to promote sustainable growth in agriculture.

As of recent estimates, the total area equipped for irrigation in Ethiopia is around 3.07 million
hectares (Gebul, 2021). It is essential to tackle these issues in order to fully capitalize on the
advantages of irrigation. The country’s nine major river basins offer substantial opportunities
for expanding irrigation (Awulachew et al., 2010a). By implementing advanced irrigation
technologies and enhancing current systems, Ethiopia has the potential to boost agricultural
productivity and attain improved food security.

2
Surface irrigation plays a vital role in Ethiopian agriculture, especially in areas like the Central
Rift Valley and the Upper Blue Nile Basin. Studies indicate that the suitability of surface
irrigation differs greatly among various regions in Ethiopia due to factors like terrain, soil
composition, and water resources. For instance, a study in the Jido River Catchment in the
Central Rift Valley utilized GIS-based methods to assess irrigation potential, revealing that
while some areas are highly suitable, others face limitations due to steep slopes and poor soil
drainage (Asfaw, n.d.). Research in the Gimbara River Catchment of the Upper Blue Nile Basin
highlighted the importance of land use and soil texture in determining irrigation suitability
(Zebene_ Final Thesis 2021, n.d.).

The Dhidhessa River Basin study emphasized the need for sustainable water resource
management to balance agricultural productivity with environmental conservation (Dawit et al.,
2020a). The country’s irrigable land has been underutilized, and only 4–5% of the possible area
has been developed for irrigation (Fikadie et al., 2022).

In Amhara region Muga watershed, researchers utilized satellite imagery and digital elevation
models (DEMs) to classify land use and land cover (LULC) and analyze terrain slope,
respectively (Zelalem Abeza (2023). Soil characteristics were assessed to determine if they
were suitable for irrigation purposes and regions with great potential for irrigation were
pinpointed. Similarly, in the Jabitehnan Woreda, a comprehensive assessment was conducted
to evaluate surface water resources and irrigable land potential (Nigusie & Dar, 2017). This
study analyzes factors such as soil type, slope, and proximity to water sources, resulting in a
detailed irrigation suitability map. Another study in the Koga watershed used a parametric
evaluation system to assess land suitability for surface irrigation, considering physical land
features like land use, soil, and slope (B. K. Abebe, n.d.).

Studies such as the one conducted in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin, Ethiopia, demonstrate the
effectiveness of GIS in evaluating land suitability for surface irrigation by integrating various
factors like soil properties, slope, land use, and proximity to water sources (Worqlul et al.,
2017). Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) is integral to GIS-based surface water
irrigation potential assessment, as it allows for the systematic evaluation of various factors
influencing irrigation suitability. This method enhances the precision of irrigation planning and

3
supports sustainable water resource management by identifying the most viable areas for
irrigation development (Negasa, 2021).

Creating accurate, location-specific maps of irrigation-eligible areas can assist in selecting the
best locations and maximizing water usage. In the Rib-Gumara watershed in Ethiopia, GIS and
remote sensing were used to classify LULC from satellite imagery, analyze slope from digital
elevation models (DEMs), and assess soil characteristics to determine irrigation suitability
(Balew et al., 2021). By integrating multiple criteria through techniques like the Analytical
Hierarchy Process (AHP), GIS-based assessments provide a robust framework for making
informed decisions in agricultural water management (A. T. Tesfaye & Defersha, 2024).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Agriculture is the backbone of the economy, employing over 80% of the Ethiopian population
and contributing significantly to the country’s GDP. Despite its importance, the sector faces
numerous challenges, including erratic rainfall, drought, and inefficient water resource
management. According to the statistical agency of Ethiopian census results and latest official
predictions, the number of populations is increased from year to year over the national level
alarmingly. As a result of this, food demand is increased to the same rate as the population
(Asfaw, n.d.). This situation calls the planning of irrigation development by estimating the total
irrigation potential of the country and corresponding physical natural resources (land and water)
in the various basin and sub-basin levels (Zebene_ Final Thesis 2021, n.d.). Ethiopia comprises
112 million hectares (Mha) of land. Cultivable land area estimates vary between 30 to 70 Mha.
Currently, high estimates show that only 15 Mha of land is under cultivation (Awulachew et
al., 2010b).

Amhara region relies heavily on agriculture, with a primary emphasis on rain-fed cultivation.
This dependency makes the region vulnerable to erratic rainfall and drought, leading to frequent
crop failures and food insecurity (Zebene_ Final Thesis 2021, n.d.). Despite the presence of
significant surface water resources, the potential for surface water irrigation remains
underutilized due to the lack of a comprehensive assessment framework (Dawit et al., 2020a).

Current methods for assessing irrigation potential in the Amhara region are fragmented and
often fail to incorporate critical factors such as slope, soil type, soil texture, soil depth, and soil

4
drainage (B. K. Abebe, n.d.). This inadequacy results in inefficient water management practices
and limits the potential for agricultural expansion and productivity (Fikadie et al., 2022). It is
essential to address these deficiencies in order to maximize the utilization of existing water
resources and improve agricultural output in the Amhara region. A GIS-based approach can
provide a more accurate and comprehensive assessment of irrigation potential, leading to better
decision-making and resource allocation (Zelalem Abeza (2023b)).

For the Amhara region to have sustainable water resource management and increase agricultural
output, it is imperative that the assessment of surface water irrigation potential be addressed.
By mapping and analyzing the region’s topography, soil types, and water resources, this
research can pinpoint areas that are most suitable for irrigation, thereby maximizing the efficient
use of available water resources (Asfaw, n.d.). The insights gained from this assessment can
help in developing targeted water management strategies that ensure the sustainable use of
surface water for irrigation, reducing water wastage and improving crop yields (Negasa, 2021).
By optimizing irrigation practices, this research can contribute to increased agricultural
productivity, which is essential for improving food security and the livelihoods of farmers in
the Amhara region (B. K. Abebe, n.d.).

Ensuring land suitability for agriculture in Ethiopia is vital for guaranteeing the nation's food
security and economic stability. With a growing population, optimizing agricultural land use is
crucial to avoid food shortages and poverty. By conducting effective land suitability
assessments, Ethiopia can improve resource management, increase crop yields, and adopt
sustainable farming practices. Neglecting these assessments could lead to ongoing soil
degradation, inefficient water use, and missed opportunities for agricultural growth, ultimately
threatening the country's development and food security.

Identify and map suitable land for surface water irrigation, evaluate the potential impact of
surface water irrigation on agricultural productivity and food security in the region. By
achieving these objectives, the research will offer valuable insights and recommendations for
the development of sustainable surface water irrigation potential places in the Amhara region.

5
1.3 Research Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
The objective of this research is to evaluate the suitability of land for surface irrigation in the
Abay basin Azena water-shed area through the utilization of GIS technology.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

1. To evaluate how much of land that is appropriate for a surface irrigation system within
the study area.
2. Rank the identified irrigable areas among the water shade for future planning and
development possibilities.
3. To prepare surface irrigation suitability map using the evaluated irrigable lands'
suitability factors.

1.4 Research questions

1. What percentage of the Azena watershed's land is suitable for surface irrigation based
on its physical features?
2. What physical factors should be considered to determine the best areas within the Azena
watershed for future irrigation projects?
3. How can surface irrigation suitability map be prepared using the evaluated suitability
factors of the identified irrigable lands?

1.5 Hypothesis of the study

Utilizing GIS technology to analyze factors such as slope, distance from water sources, land
use, soil type, texture, depth, and drainage can efficiently pinpoint and map regions with
significant potential for surface water irrigation(Bilińska et al., 2019). In particular, areas with
gradual slopes, close access to water sources, appropriate land use practices, and advantageous
soil attributes are likely to demonstrate increased irrigation prospects.

Gentle inclines are preferable for irrigation because they lower the risk of soil erosion and
enhance water retention(Dawit et al., 2020b). Access to water sources is essential for surface
water irrigation, as regions near rivers, lakes, or reservoirs typically have a dependable water
supply, reducing the expenses and complications associated with water distribution. The
utilization and coverage of land impact the availability and quality of land for irrigation, with

6
agricultural lands, grasslands, and areas with minimal vegetation being more suitable than urban
or heavily forested regions. Various soil attributes, such as type, composition, depth, and
drainage, significantly affect irrigation capabilities. For instance, loamy soils are optimal due
to their well-rounded texture and fertility, while effective drainage in soils helps prevent water
saturation, which can harm crops (Girma et al., 2020). The study seeks to assess the
effectiveness of combining various factors through GIS tools to predict irrigation potential. This
method can contribute to the effective planning and control of irrigation initiatives, promoting
sustainable water usage and agricultural yield. Incorporating these factors into a GIS framework
enables a thorough spatial examination, offering valuable guidance on optimal locations for
surface water irrigation. By enhancing the precision of irrigation potential evaluations, this
approach aids in decision-making processes related to agricultural planning and water resource
management.

1.6 Significance of the study

The current goal of the Ethiopian government is to enhance the country's economy through an
emphasis on industrialization led by agriculture. To ensure sufficient food production and
security in Ethiopia, there is a need to transition towards integrating both irrigation and rain-
fed farming methods. Water resource assessment relies on measured water flows in the
catchment under consideration (Dinku & Kebede, 2023). The future progress of development
greatly depends on the efficient administration of different industries and assets, underscoring
the significance of comprehending the total water and land resources accessible for surface
irrigation in the Abay basin Azena watershed.

Agriculture in Ethiopia is mainly dependent on rainfed systems (Awulachew & Ayana, 2011),
Because of this area is practiced rain fed agriculture once in the year as a result agriculture
production practically decreased. It is estimated about 90% of the food demand in the country
comes from low yield rainfed agriculture (Negasa & Wakjira, 2021). After knowing the
available water and irrigable area in this watershed, it helps to for planner and decision maker
to lunch any physical structures for to store or divert sufficient water for agriculture purpose.
So that the population can beneficiary or profitable by producing yields two or three times per
year this leads to, the development of Ethiopian economy.

7
1.7 Scope of the study
The study primarily centers on assessing the potential of land resources and determining their
appropriateness for a surface irrigation system using multi-criteria decision analysis within a
geographic information system framework. The analysis does not take into account the
chemical properties of the soil type. Therefore, the investigation solely considers soil physical
characteristics, land cover, proximity to rivers, and land slope when establishing the suitability
of the land for surface irrigation in the Abay basin Azena water-shed area.

1.8 Limitation of the study

The study was hindered by a lack of data on the study area. This prevented an evaluation of the
soil's chemical properties for surface irrigation and crop suitability. Only physical
characteristics like soil type, land slope, river proximity, and LULC were considered for
irrigation suitability. The study assumed limited water resources and didn't address storage
needs, detailed design, or specific location for irrigation facilities.

8
 CHAPTER-TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Irrigation Potential
Various irrigation systems are utilized globally, each with distinct pros and cons influenced by
factors like climate, terrain, water resources, and crop needs.

Surface irrigation refers to systems that deliver water to crops using a gravity-fed, overland
flow of water. Surface irrigation conveyance and distribution systems are among the first
engineering innovations of humans, dating back to more than 6,000 years ago (Taghvaeian,
n.d.). Surface irrigation systems can be classified into three major types: basin, border, and
furrow systems (Taghvaeian, n.d.). Although cost effective, it often results in inefficient water
use due to evaporation and runoff.

Sprinkler irrigation is the artificial rain that is produced by spraying the water that discharges
from pressurized pipes. The water is sprayed into the atmosphere through emitters that can
consist of drain nozzles arranged in a sprinkler mechanism that constitutes the last element of
the distribution system (Juan Antonio Rodríguez Díaz, n.d.). Sprinkler irrigation providing
more uniform water distribution but still facing challenges like wind drift and evaporation.

Drip irrigation delivered water uniformly to each plant through a closed pipe system and
improve yield more than other methods of irrigation and has high water productivity. Cost of
drip irrigation, clogging of drip emitters and skill gap of farmers on water management are the
most serious problems associated with drip irrigation (Tamene & Mitku, 2022).

Refers to the total area that can be technically, economically, and socially viable for irrigation,
considering factors such as water availability, land suitability, and environmental acceptability
(FAO, 2019). This idea includes the viability of irrigating a certain area in light of these
important considerations.

The availability of water supplies, the efficiency of irrigation systems, and the suitability of the
topography for irrigation all affect a region's capacity to irrigate land. Economically speaking,
this entails assessing the benefits of increased agricultural output as well as the cost-
effectiveness of building and maintaining irrigation systems. In terms of societal impact, it

9
considers things like labor availability, land ownership, and the possibility of social unrest.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) emphasizes the significance of integrated water
resource management and sustainable farming practices in its comprehensive guidelines and
frameworks for evaluating irrigation potential.

2.2 Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia

Irrigation can help smallholder farmers to compensate for the negative impacts of erratic and
insufficient precipitation and significantly stabilize agricultural production (Woldemariam,
2017). More specifically, it can raise agricultural production, allow for greater cropping
intensity and crop diversity (i.e., higher-value crops), and lengthen agricultural seasons
(Awulachew et al., 2010b) (Woldemariam, 2017). Irrigation fulfills three key adaptive
functions: 1) Enhancing crop production by providing necessary water, 2) mitigating risks by
ensuring a consistent water supply, and 3) facilitating the growth of high-value cash crops and
the ability to harvest multiple times by providing water during the dry season.

Irrigation remains limited in Ethiopia, with only around 2-3% of agricultural land currently
utilizing water from the country's abundant surface water sources. However, there is significant
potential to expand irrigation practices. Through stakeholder consultations, interviews, expert
surveys, and document analysis, it has become evident that irrigation is a crucial focus for
adaptation in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government is working towards transitioning its
agricultural sector from subsistence farming to a more market-oriented approach. The potential
for irrigation in Ethiopia is enormous, as it has ample surface water and groundwater resources
on the one hand and land suitable for irrigation on the other hand (Woldemariam, 2017). Twelve
major river basins lie in Ethiopia, which form four main drainage systems. However, there is
high spatial and temporal variability (Worqlul et al., 2015).

Based on numerous research findings, there is sufficient water in Ethiopia to develop around
4.5 million hectares of agricultural land that could be irrigated through pump, gravity, pressure,
underground water, water harvesting and other mechanisms (Worqlul et al., 2015) (Makombe,
2018) (Woldemariam, 2017).

10
Table 1: Ethiopian basins potential

Irrigation potentials (ha)

Catchment (Respective recent master plan studies)
No Basin
(Area Small Scale Medium Large Total
km2) (ha) Scale (ha) Scale (ha) Potential (ha)
1 Abay 198,890.7 45,856 130,395 639,330 815,581
2 Tekeze 83,475.94 N/A N/A 83,368 83,368
3 Baro-Akobo 76,203.12 N/A N/A 1,019,523 1,019,523
4 Omo-Ghibe 79,000 N/A 10,028 57,900 67,928
5 Rift Valley 52,739 N/A 4,000 45,700 139,300
6 Awash 110,439.3 30,556 24,500 79,065 134,121
7 Genale-Dawa 172,133 1,805 28,415 1,044,500 1,074,720
8 Wabi-Shebele 202,219.5 10,755 55,950 171,200 237,905
9 Danakil Depression 63,852.97 2,309 45,656 110,811 158,776
10 Ogaden 77,121 N/A N/A N/A N/A

Source: Irrigation potential in Ethiopia Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system,
July 2010

2.2.1 Irrigation activities in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has experienced significant growth in the total irrigated land area. Between 2002 and
2014, the irrigated area increased by almost 52%, reaching approximately 858,340 hectares by
2015 (You et al., 2011). The irrigation sector in Ethiopia has experienced notable advancements
in recent decades, motivated by the goal of improving agricultural output and guaranteeing food
safety. Historically, traditional irrigation practices have been part of Ethiopian agriculture for
over 2000 years, primarily relying on indigenous knowledge and farmer-led initiatives (Gebul,
2021). However, modern irrigation development, particularly medium and large-scale projects,
began in earnest only in the last three decades, spurred by government initiatives and
international support (Gebul, 2021).

The 7,000-hectare Koga Irrigation Project in the Amhara area is one of the major large-scale
irrigation projects that is now running at full capacity. Furthermore, the irrigation projects
Kesem and Tendaho in the Afar region, which cover 20,000 and 60,000 hectares, respectively,
are essential to raising the region's agricultural output. These initiatives are a crucial part of
Ethiopia's larger strategy to use its plentiful water resources for irrigation, particularly in
regions that are susceptible to drought and food shortages.

11
The actual area under irrigation remains below the potential of the nation, notwithstanding these
achievements. Acknowledging these obstacles, the Ethiopian government has integrated
irrigation development into its Growth and Transformation Plans (GTPs).

Table 2: Ethiopia Irrigation projects capacity

No Irrigation Site River Basin Capacity (ha)

1 Awash River Basin Awash 200,000
2 Rift Valley Lakes Basin Rift Valley Lakes 50,000
3 Koga Irrigation and Watershed Blue Nile 7,000
4 Tana-Beles Integrated Water Project Blue Nile 30,000
5 Gibe III Irrigation Scheme Omo-Gibe 150,000
6 Lower Omo Irrigation Project Omo-Gibe 100,000

Source: Ministry of irrigation and low-land journal

2.3 Water Availability

Ethiopia has a lot of water, making it one of Africa's wettest countries. Its different landscapes
and weather patterns affect where the water is found. Most of Ethiopia's water is in its rivers,
lakes, and dams. The major river basins include the Abay (Blue Nile), Baro-Akobo, Omo-Gibe,
and Tekeze, which are predominantly located in the western part of the country and receive
substantial rainfall during the main rainy season from June to August (Berhanu et al., 2014a).

The total annual renewable surface water resources of Ethiopia are estimated to be around 124.4
billion cubic meters (BCM) from rivers and 70 BCM from lakes (Berhanu et al., 2014b). The
ample water resources provide a valuable opportunity for developing irrigation and hydropower
projects. Ethiopia has the potential to develop approximately 3.8 million hectares of irrigable
land and generate up to 45,000 megawatts of hydropower.

Ethiopia has plenty of surface water, but it struggles to use it efficiently. Seasonal and spatial
variability in rainfall leads to uneven distribution of water, with western regions being water-
rich while eastern regions, such as the Awash Basin, experience significant water stress
(WATER RESOURCES PROFILE SERIES, n.d.). Other challenges for water management
include sediment buildup in reservoirs, pollution from factories, and the effects of global
warming. The country is also vulnerable to extreme weather events, such as droughts and

12
floods, which can exacerbate water scarcity and affect agricultural productivity, these
conditions lead to utilize perennials rivers for the irrigation purpose.

2.4 Factors for Assessing Suitability of Irrigation Land

Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The land may be
classified in its present condition or after improvements for its specified use. The process of
land suitability classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of
their suitability for defined uses (Verheye et al., n.d.). Determining if land is good for irrigation
requires a careful study of different elements. These include soil type, the land's shape, climate
conditions, water availability, and current land use.

2.4.1 Soil properties

The quality of soil is crucial when considering land for irrigation. Soil directly affects how well
the land holds water, drains water, and allows plants to grow roots. Important soil factors
include its texture, depth, drainage, and type it is (Figure 1). The texture of soil, which is
determined by the amount of sand, silt, and clay, affects how quickly water soaks into the soil
and how well the soil keeps water. For instance, sandy soils have high infiltration rates but low
water retention, while clayey soils retain water well but have poor drainage (Hagos, Andualem,
et al., 2022). The amount of usable soil for plant roots and water storage depends on its depth.
Soils with good drainage prevent waterlogging, which can damage crops. In Ethiopia, studies
have shown that integrating these soil factors using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can
significantly enhance the accuracy of land suitability assessments for irrigation (Schafer, 2018).

13
Figure 1: Soil texture triangle

2.4.2 Topography
When assessing land for irrigation, the physical features of the terrain must be considered, as
they influence water flow, soil erosion, and irrigation efficiency (Figure 2). The land's gradient
is important. Gentle slopes are preferred for surface irrigation due to their ability to distribute
water uniformly and reduce erosion. Steeper slopes, on the other hand, may require terracing
or other soil conservation measures to prevent erosion and ensure effective irrigation (Hagos,
Andualem, et al., 2022). Gentle slopes (typically less than 5%) are ideal for surface irrigation
because they allow for uniform water distribution and minimize runoff (Marew, n.d.). Steeper
slopes can lead to excessive runoff and soil erosion, making them less suitable for irrigation
(Cihacek, n.d.). The direction a slope faces can influence local weather conditions and the
amount of water in the soil. South-facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere, for instance,
receive more sunlight and can dry out faster, impacting irrigation efficiency (Marew, n.d.).

14
Higher elevations may have cooler temperatures and shorter growing seasons, which can affect
crop choices and irrigation schedules (Negasa, 2021). Conversely, lower elevations might be
prone to flooding, requiring careful water management strategies. The unevenness of the terrain
can lead to different microclimates within a field, requiring specific irrigation methods to use
water effectively. By studying the topography, farmers can irrigate more efficiently, waste less
water, and increase crop production.

Figure 2: Farm land topography

2.4.3 Water Availability

Perennial rivers, which flow year-round, are essential for choosing irrigation sites. These rivers
offer a steady water supply, making them ideal for farming areas that rely heavily on irrigation
(Figure 3). Being near a perennial river can greatly improve the success and long-term viability
of irrigation projects. the distance to perennial rivers was considered the most important factor,
with a 35% weight, in determining the suitability of sites for surface irrigation (Attia et al.,
2022). Reliable water flow from rivers that don't dry up helps crops stay healthy even when it’s
hot and dry. This leads to better farming and fewer crop losses. These rivers can also help small
farms get the water they need, which is important for people living in the countryside.

15
Figure 3: Availability of water for irrigation

2.4.4 Land-use Land-cover

The type of land and how it's being used (LULC) is very important when choosing places for
irrigation. This is because LULC affects the amount and quality of land and water available.
Knowing exactly what LULC is can help us find the best spots for irrigation by looking at things
like soil type, plants growing there, and how the land is used now (Figure 4). GIS-based multi-
criteria evaluation to assess land suitability for surface irrigation in the Gilgel Gibe watershed,
Ethiopia, incorporating LULC as a key factor (Akalu, 2022). Similarly, Patel and Chaudhari
(2023) highlighted the importance of LULC maps in the site selection of water harvesting
structures in semi-arid regions, demonstrating how these maps provide critical information on
land use patterns that are essential for effective water management (Patel & Chaudhari, 2023).
Furthermore, the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) emphasizes that understanding
LULC changes is crucial for sustainable land and water resource management, as these changes
reflect the dynamic interactions between natural processes and human activities (Jubilee, 2024).

16
Figure 4: Land-use land-cover in agricultural landscape

2.5 Overview of GIS Application

2.5.1 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis by GIS
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) integrated with Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) is a powerful approach for tackling complex spatial decision-making problems. MCDA
provides a structured framework for evaluating multiple conflicting criteria, which is essential
in spatial planning and resource management. When combined with GIS, it allows for the
visualization and analysis of spatial data, enhancing the decision-making process.

GIS-based MCDA is often used to determine how suitable land is for different purposes. In
Regina, Canada, experts used this method to find out which areas of the city were best for
various land uses, taking into account social, economic, and environmental factors. The study
revealed trends and challenges in urban extension, providing valuable insights for policymakers
(Chen, 2014).

GIS-based MCDA has been successfully used in the field of natural hazard management. One
such application is in landslide risk assessment. By combining spatial data with multiple criteria
such as slope, soil type, and rainfall, decision-makers can identify high-risk areas and

17
implement mitigation measures (Kavzoglu et al., 2014). This strategy not only increases the
precision of risk assessments but also facilitates proactive planning and risk reduction.

2.5.2 Land-use Land cover Analysis by GIS

Using GIS and RS to analyze land use and land cover can help us find the best places for
irrigation. By integrating GIS and RS, researchers can efficiently analyze spatial data and
satellite imagery to classify different land cover types, such as agricultural lands, water bodies,
and barren lands (G. Abebe et al., 2022). Understanding the spatial arrangement of resources
through this classification is vital for assessing the potential of developing irrigation.

In Ethiopia, GIS and RS have been employed to analyze LULC changes over time, providing insights
into the expansion of cultivated areas and the reduction of forest cover (G. Abebe et al., 2022). This
information is vital for selecting irrigation sites that minimize environmental impact and promote
sustainable land use. By combining socio-economic data with spatial analysis, researchers can also
understand the drivers behind LULC changes and make informed decisions about irrigation site
selection (Hassan et al., 2016).

2.5.3 Slop Analysis by GIS

Slope analysis is essential for understanding how well irrigation systems will work in a specific area. It
affects how water moves, how much soil is lost, and how efficiently water is used. Combining slope
information with other factors like soil type, what the land is used for, and how close it is to water
sources helps researchers find the best places for irrigation. In Ethiopia, a study in the Gilgel Gibe area
used GIS and a special method called multi-criteria evaluation to determine which areas were best suited
for irrigation. The study found that slope, along with soil type and river proximity, played a significant
role in determining land suitability (Akalu, 2022). The study highlighted that slope was a major limiting
factor for large-scale irrigation, emphasizing the need for technological interventions to mitigate its
impact (Worqlul et al., 2017). Another study in the Soroka watershed, northwestern Ethiopia, utilized
GIS, remote sensing, and MCE to identify potential lands for surface irrigation. The findings
underscored the importance of slope in the overall land suitability assessment (Hagos, Mengie, et al.,
2022).

2.5.4 Euclidean distance Analysis by GIS

GIS analysis of irrigation sites heavily relies on the distance to water sources. This distance
affects how easy and expensive it is to get water to farms. Using GIS with remote sensing,
scientists can precisely locate and study how close potential irrigation areas are to rivers, lakes,

18
 and reservoirs. For example, a study in the Gilgel Gibe watershed in Ethiopia utilized GIS-
based multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) to assess land suitability for surface irrigation,
highlighting those areas closer to water sources were more suitable due to reduced water
conveyance costs (Akalu, 2022).

Similarly, in the Minch Yekest watershed, West Amhara, Ethiopia, distance from water sources
was a key parameter in determining land suitability for irrigation, with closer proximity
enhancing suitability (Hagos, Mengie, et al., 2022). These analyses aid in locating the most
suitable locations for irrigation facilities, promoting efficient water management and
sustainable agricultural practices.

2.6 Land Suitability Classification

The FAO's classification system assesses land quality for irrigation, dividing it into categories
based on its suitability for agricultural purposes. This helps ensure that land is used effectively
and sustainably for farming. This classification system is divided into several hierarchical
levels: Orders, Classes, Subclasses, and Units. Land Suitability Orders indicate whether land is
suitable (S) or not suitable (N) for irrigation. Suitable land (S) is expected to yield benefits that
justify the inputs without causing unacceptable damage to land resources, while not suitable
land (N) has qualities that preclude its use for irrigation (A Framework for Land Evaluation,
1976).

The FAO framework typically uses five classes:

• S1 (Highly Suitable): Land with no significant limitations for irrigation.

• S2 (Moderately Suitable): Land with minor limitations that reduce productivity or require minor
management adjustments.
• S3 (Marginally Suitable): Land with moderate limitations that significantly reduce productivity
or require substantial management adjustments.
• N (Not Suitable): Land with severe limitations that make irrigation only marginally feasible.

The FAO framework focuses on a comprehensive approach that takes into account various
factors such as soil quality, weather, land shape, water resources, and social and economic
circumstances. This comprehensive evaluation ensures that land suitability assessments are
tailored to specific irrigation needs, promoting efficient water use and sustainable agricultural

19
practices (A Framework for Land Evaluation, 1976). This classification system guides planners
and developers toward choices that support both agricultural sustainability and environmental
preservation.

2.7 Framework of land suitability evaluation

An international framework for evaluating, is used to guide analysis of land use sustainability
(Figure 5), through a series of scientifically sound, logical steps (Smyth & Dumanski, 1995).
Following the collection of all necessary data from various data sources, each physical factor
underwent additional investigation to enhance comprehension of its role in determining the
viability of the area for irrigation.

Factor determining the suitability of the land for irrigation was classified into four classes such
as highly suitable (Class S1), moderately suitable (Class S2), marginally suitable (Class S3),
and currently not suitable (Class N).

Figure 5: Research framework

20
 CHAPTER-THREE

3. MATERIAL and METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of Study Area
3.1.1 Location
The study area is found in Abay Basin South-West of Amhara region in West Gojam and Agew
Awi zone. The study area lies covers Ankasha, Banja and Burie Wemberma weredas.
Geographically, the study area lies between 10° 22” 21” and 10° 59’ 36” N latitude, and 36°
40’ 20” and 36° 59’ 50” E longitude. The total area which the basin covers is 137,849.59hectare,
(Figure 6).

Crop production in the watershed is primarily reliant on rainfall and small-scale irrigation
systems. According to the Amhara region Bureau of Agriculture, the dominant crops in Agew
Awi and West Gojam zones are barley, sorghum, maize, wheat, and teff. The rainy season
typically begins in late March or early April.

The study area is fortunate to have abundant perennial water sources that support both
agriculture and daily life. The Ankasha River in Ankasha Wereda and the Banja River in Banja
Wereda provide reliable irrigation and domestic water. Lake Tana's proximity also benefits
Banja's water table. In Burie Wemberma Wereda, the Burie River and groundwater wells ensure
a steady water supply. These water resources are vital for the livelihoods of the people in these
weredas.

21
Figure 6: Study Area

3.1.2 Topography

The study area which is one of many water-shed of Abay basin consists of variety of landscape,
with various topographical features with elevation variation from 776 to 2916 m above mean
sea level, (Figure 7).

The region spans a wide range of elevations, from lowlands to highlands. The lower areas,
around 776 meters, are generally warmer and drier, affecting the types of plants that can grow.
As you go higher Azena to Injibara, the climate gets cooler and more moderate, which is better
for growing crops like barley and wheat and supports various ecosystems.

Higher altitudes in the area, reaching almost 3,000 meters, tend to have cooler weather and
more rain. This can help the soil stay moist and fertile, making these places good for farming.
Because the land has different heights, it probably has different local climates, each supporting
different kinds of plants and land use. This variety of land and weather in your study area is a

22
great place to learn about surface water irrigation. You can see how different heights and
climates affect water availability and how good the land is for irrigation. Understanding this is
important for creating good and long-lasting irrigation plans.

Figure 7: Elevation profile of study area

3.1.3 Climate
The study area has a moderate climate with distinct seasons. The average temperature ranges
from 15°C to 25°C. It's warmest from March to May, reaching 27°C during the day. During the
rainy season (June to September), it's slightly cooler, around 20°C to 22°C. The coldest months
are November to January, with night temperatures sometimes below 10°C. The annual average
is about 20°C. This climate is good for agriculture, especially the cooler temperatures during
the rainy season. The table shows the monthly average temperatures for Ankasha, Banja, and
Burie Wemberma weredas.

23
Table 3: Study area average day and night temperature of a year

Average Daytime Average Nighttime

No Month
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

1 January 22 10
2 February 23 11
3 March 25 12
4 April 26 13
5 May 27 14
6 June 24 12
7 July 22 11
8 August 22 11
9 September 23 12
10 October 24 12
11 November 22 10
12 December 21 9

Source: Ethiopian meteorological Institute

3.1.4 Vegetation
The Ankasha, Banja, and Burie Wemberma weredas, feature a diverse landscape that includes
agricultural areas with trees, natural forests, and cultivated land. In Banja, many people grow
trees alongside their crops, using a wide range of tree species like Eucalyptus and Justicia.
These trees help people make a living and protect biodiversity. The area has a mix of native and
introduced plants, which is good for the environment and economy. The forests and
reforestation efforts also provide homes for animals and help prevent soil erosion. Overall, the
plants in this region are very important. They provide resources for farming, fuel, and building,
and they make the area look beautiful and healthy.

3.1.5 Socio-Economic Factors

The study area highlights a predominantly agrarian society with significant reliance on
subsistence farming and livestock rearing. According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical
Agency, these weredas exhibit varying levels of educational attainment, with primary school

24
enrollment rates being relatively high, but secondary and tertiary education levels remaining
low. Access to basic services such as healthcare and clean water has seen improvements over
recent years, yet challenges persist, particularly in rural areas. The economic activities in these
weredas are largely centered around agriculture, with a focus on crops like teff, maize, and
barley, which are essential for both consumption and local markets. Additionally, the regions
face issues related to poverty and food security, with seasonal food shortages being a common
challenge. The table below summarizes key socio-economic indicators for these weredas.

Table 4: Socio economic data of the study area

Burie
No Indicator Ankasha Banja
Wemberma

1 Primary School Enrollment 85% 83% 80%

2 Secondary School Enrollment 25% 22% 20%
3 Access to Clean Water 70% 68% 65%
4 Main Economic Activity Farming Farming Farming
5 Poverty Rate 30% 32% 35%
6 Food Security (Seasonal) Moderate High High
Source: Ethiopian Statistics Agency

3.1.6 Soil Types and Characteristics

In the study area, the variety of soil types significantly impacts agricultural productivity and
land management. Eutric Fluvisols, commonly located in the floodplains and valleys, are
nutrient-rich due to their formation from recent alluvial deposits, making them highly suitable
for crop cultivation, particularly in well-watered areas. Humic Nitisols, found predominantly in
the highlands, are characterized by their moderately drained profiles and high organic matter
content. These soils are excellent for growing a range of crops, including cereals and legumes,
thanks to their superior structure and fertility. Conversely, Lithic Leptosols are shallow soils
found on steep slopes and rocky terrains. Due to their limited depth and high stone content,
these soils are less suitable for intensive agriculture but can support grazing and certain types
of forestry. The distribution and characteristics of these soils play a crucial role in shaping land
use patterns and agricultural practices in the Ankasha, Banja, and Burie Wemberma weredas.

25
3.2 Material Used
The materials and data used to assess the irrigation water potential and land suitability of this
study were, ESRI website of 2023 data of Sentinel-2 10-Meter Land Use/Land Cover, Soil data
accessed from latest FAO with detail of all characteristics, DEM (Digital Elevation Model) of
30m pixel resolution collected from earth explorer, software’s such as ArcGIS 10.8 was used
for watershed delineation, the DEM with 30 * 30 m pixel size, which provides topographic
information of the watershed was used.

The Harmonized World Soil Database version 2.0 (HWSD v2.0) is a comprehensive global soil
inventory developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), among other collaborators. This database
provides detailed information on soil properties, including morphology, chemistry, and physical
characteristics, at a 1 km resolution.

Table 5: Datasets and inputs used in this study

No Dataset Source of datasets

National Metrological Agency (west

Meteorological data
1 Amhara metrology service center).

Soil data
2 FAO Soils Portal
Vector data (Roads) Dessie City Roads authority
3
Sentinel-2 10-Meter Land Use/Land
Esri Land Cover
4 Cover;
Elevation data (SRTM DEM Elevation Database
5 30m*30m) (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov)
Amhara region zones, woreda, kebele Dessie City Administration Urban
6 shape files development and Infrastructure office

7 Agricultural data in study area Amhara region Bureau of Agriculture

26
Table 6: Software used in the study

No package Purpose of software package

Thematic maps production, overlaying different
1 ArcGIS 10.8.1 raster maps
2 Google earth Identification and visualization
3 Mendeley For the purpose of Citation and references.
5 HWSD 2.0 Source of detailed soil data
for further weight overlay purpose in ARG-GIS
6 AHP extension 10.8.1,

3.3 Methodology
This study utilizes a GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) approach,
specifically the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), to pinpoint suitable sites for surface water
irrigation in Ethiopia’s Amhara region. The methodology integrates various spatial datasets,
including Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for slope analysis, soil characteristics (type,
drainage, texture, and depth), Land Use Land Cover (LULC), and proximity to rivers.

A 30x30m DEM was used to derive the slope of the study area, a critical factor in irrigation
suitability due to its influence on water flow and soil erosion. The DEM data was processed
using GIS tools to generate a slope map, categorizing the terrain into different slope classes.

Soil characteristics, including type, drainage, texture, and depth, were collected from HWSD
databases. These attributes were mapped and classified according to their suitability for
irrigation. Soil type affects water retention and permeability, while drainage and texture
influence the soil’s ability to support irrigation. Soil depth is crucial for root development and
water storage capacity.

LULC data was sourced from satellite imagery to understand current land use patterns and
identify areas that can be converted to irrigated agriculture. The LULC map was categorized
into four classes.

Proximity to water sources is essential for surface irrigation. From river networks were buffer
zones were created around the rivers to identify areas within feasible distances for irrigation.
27
The AHP method was used to assign weights to each criterion based on their relative importance
in determining irrigation suitability. The steps involved in the AHP process include:

Criteria such as slope, soil (type, drainage, texture, depth), LULC, and proximity to rivers were
selected based on literature review and expert consultation. A hierarchical structure was
constructed with the goal (irrigation suitability) at the top, followed by the criteria and sub-
criteria.

Pairwise comparisons were conducted to evaluate the relative importance of each criterion.
Experts provided judgments on a scale of 1 to 9, where 1 indicates equal importance and 9
indicates extreme importance of one criterion over another. The pairwise comparison matrix
was then used to calculate the weights of each criterion using eigenvalue methods.

The RI is crucial in AHP for assessing the consistency of pairwise comparison matrices. For a
matrix of size 4, the RI value is typically 0.90, derived from the average consistency index of
generated matrices. The CR was calculated to ensure the reliability of the pairwise comparisons.
A CR value of less than 0.1 was considered acceptable, indicating consistent judgments.

Weighted Overlay Analysis: The weighted overlay tool in GIS was used to combine the
weighted criteria maps. Each criterion map was reclassified based on suitability scores, and the
weighted sum of these maps was calculated to produce the final irrigation suitability map.

Explanation of Values:

✓ Slope vs. Soil: Slope is moderately more important than Soil (3).

✓ Slope vs. River Proximity: Slope is strongly more important than River Proximity (5).

✓ Slope vs. LULC: Slope is very strongly more important than LULC (7).

✓ Soil vs. River Proximity: Soil is moderately more important than River Proximity (3).

✓ Soil vs. LULC: Soil is strongly more important than LULC (5).

✓ River Proximity vs. LULC: River Proximity is moderately more important than LULC (3).

28
Table 7: Pairwise Comparison Matrix

Criteria Slope Soil River Proximity LULC

Slope 1 3 5 7

Soil 1/3 1 3 5

River Proximity 1/5 1/3 1 3

LULC 1/7 1/5 1/3 1

Sum 1.676 4.533 9.333 16.000

Table 8: Normalized the Matrix

Criteria Slope Soil River Proximity LULC

0.597 0.662 0.536 0.438
Slope
0.199 0.221 0.321 0.313
Soil
0.085 0.074 0.107 0.188
River Proximity
0.119 0.044 0.036 0.063
LULC

Table 9: Priority Vector (Weights)

Criteria Priority Vector (Weights)

Slope (0.597+0.662+0.536+0.438) / 4 = 0.558

Soil (0.199 + 0.221 + 0.321 + 0.313) / 4 = 0.263

River Proximity (0.085 + 0.074 + 0.107 + 0.188) / 4 = 0.113

LULC (0.119 + 0.044 + 0.036 + 0.063) / 4 = 0.065

29
Table 10: Weighted Sum Vector

Criteria Weighted Sum Vector

Slope (1*0.558 + 3*0.263 + 5*0.113 + 7*0.065) = 2.367

Soil (1/3*0.558 + 1*0.263 + 3*0.113 + 5*0.065) = 1.113

River Proximity (1/5*0.558 + 1/3*0.263 + 1*0.113 + 3*0.065) = 0.475

LULC (1/7*0.558 + 1/5*0.263 + 1/3*0.113 + 1*0.065) = 0.267

Table 11: Consistency Vector

Criteria Consistency Vector

Slope 2.367 / 0.558 = 4.000

Soil 1.113 / 0.263 = 4.000

River Proximity 0.475 / 0.113 = 4.000

LULC 0.267 / 0.065 = 4.000

Table 12: Principal Eigenvalue

4.000 + 4.000 + 4.000 + 4.000

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
λ_max 4
= 4.000

Consistency Index (CI) 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛 4.000 − 4

𝐶𝐼 = = = 0.000
𝑛−1 4−1

Random Consistency Index (RI)

For n = 4, the RI value is 0.90.

Consistency Ratio (CR)

𝐶𝐼 0.000
𝐶𝑅 = = = 0.000
𝑅𝐼 0.90

30
3.4 Validation
Due to the inaccessibility of the study area, secondary data and remote sensing methods were
used. To analyze slopes, Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) from trusted sources were compared
with global elevation data. Soil data was collected from national and international databases
and validated against existing surveys. High-resolution satellite imagery and hydrological maps
helped determine river proximity, which was verified using GIS calculations. Land use and land
cover data was extracted from satellite imagery, classified using GIS, and validated with
existing data. This multi-source approach ensured accurate assessment of irrigation potential
despite the physical limitations.

3.5 Factors that determine land suitability for irrigation

Incorporating physical parameters like slope, soil type, proximity to rivers, and land use/land
cover (LULC) for selecting sites for surface water irrigation is a widely recognized method in
irrigation site selection. Due to difficulties to get chemical properties of soil and crop detail data
in order to determine suitable site for irrigation which sites would be best for surface irrigation,
various physical aspects were taken into account, including the slope, land cover, Soil (type,
texture, drainage) and distance from water source. These parameters are commonly used in
GIS-based site selection studies for irrigation due to their direct impact on the feasibility and
efficiency of irrigation systems (Suzi, n.d.).

3.5.1 Slop Suitability

The slope gradient of the land has great influence on selection of the irrigation methods (Girma
et al., 2020). The slope suitability maps of the study area were derived from 30 * 30 m DEM.
The slope was classified based on FAO guidelines (FAO, 1999), the four slope suitability
classes were highly suitable S1 (<2%), moderately suitable S2 (2–5%), marginally suitable S3
(5–8%) and not suitable N (>8%), representing for surface irrigation respectively.

3.5.2 Soil Suitability

The most important feature of a land's suitability for surface irrigation development is the soil.
Depth, drainage, and texture classes were the most important significant of the soil throughout
the watershed, and they were all used extensively in the suitability analysis (Desalegn et al.,
2022).

31
In order to evaluate the overall appropriateness of the soil for irrigation site selection, this study
uses soil type, soil depth, soil texture, and soil drainage as indicators. These soil characteristics
were categorized based on FAO soil classification and characterization guide for agricultural
suitability by (The State of Food and Agriculture, 1990, n.d.).

3.5.3 Land cover

Another significant aspect considered is land cover. The predominant land use categories
identified in the research location include farmland, rangeland, urban, flooded vegetation, trees
and water body. Expert judgment was used to divide the land use classes into four categories
of suitability S1 (Crop land and flooded vegetation), S2 (Grazing land), S3 (Forest), and N
(Water body) that is accessed from ESRI website of 2023 data of Sentinel-2 10-Meter Land
Use/Land Cover.

3.5.4 Distance from water source

Prioritizing the areas to be irrigated with surface irrigation depends largely on how close the
lands are to rivers. To locate irrigable land near the water-shade, straight-line (Euclidean)
distances from watershed exits were determined using a DEM with 30 m × 30 m cell size.

The suitability class of a land parcel with respect to river proximity is determined by its distance
in relation to the perennial rivers (Girma et al., 2020).

The four proximities to water suitability classes were S1 (<1.5km), S2 (1.5–3km), S3 (3–5km),
and N (>5km), representing highly suitable, moderately suitable, marginally suitable, and not
suitable for surface irrigation, respectively (Sintayehu et al., 2022).

32
 CHAPTER-FOUR

4. RESULT and DISCUSSION

4.1 Irrigation suitability analysis

4.1.1 Slope suitability

Given that the surface irrigation method is being evaluated, the primary consideration is the
slope of the land. The study identified four different suitability categories for slope in the
context of surface irrigation, as illustrated in, (Figure 8). The findings indicate that 20.11%
(28081.24ha) of the total area falls within the highly suitable, 37.65% (52564.96ha) moderately
suitable, and 14.01% (19561.27ha) Marginally Suitable. However, the remaining 28.22%
(39389.71ha) of the area is categorized as not suitable for surface irrigation development.

Figure 8: Study area slop suitability map

33
4.1.2 Land cover suitability
Seven land use categories within the Azena watershed were grouped into four different
suitability classes. These reclassified classes, pertaining to the land cover of the watershed for
surface irrigation purposes, are displayed in (Figure 9). The result show that 61.02%
(85476.15ha) of the total area falls within the highly suitable, 21.5% (30131.35ha) moderately
suitable, 5.28% (7403.63ha) marginally Suitable. Therefore, the remaining 12.2% (17115.27ha)
of the area is categorized as not suitable for surface irrigation development.

Table 13: Land-cover suitability classification

Land cover Suitability Description % Area Area (ha)

class
Crop land and flooded S1 highly suitable 61.02 85476.15
vegetation
Rangeland/Grazing S2 moderately 21.5 30131.35
land suitable
Forest S3 Marginally 5.28 7403.63
Suitable
Water body, Built area N not suitable 12.2 17115.27

34
Figure 9: Study area LULC suitability map

4.1.3 Distance from water source

To identify irrigable land close to the water supply (rivers), straight-line (Euclidean) distance
from watershed main river points was calculated (Sintayehu et al., 2022). The findings
regarding the proximity to water appropriate for surface irrigation show that approximately
55.52% of the study area is highly suitable, with 29.70% being moderately suitable, 13.08%
marginally suitable, and 1.71% unsuitable (Figure 10). displays the suitability map for surface
irrigation water proximity within the watershed.

35
Figure 10: Study area proximity to river map

4.1.4 Soil Suitability

4.1.4.1 Soil Type
The major soil groups identified in the study area were Eutric Fluvisols, Humic Nitisols and
Lithic Leptosols (Figure 11). Eutric Fluvisols support efficient irrigation for crops and it is
highly suitable. Humic Nitisols retain moisture well, ideal for irrigating this type of soil is also
highly suitable for irrigation. Lithic Leptosols are challenging for irrigation due to their shallow,
rocky nature, often requiring specialized techniques for grazing and forestry this property put
it in marginally suitable situation, this result 83.05% show highly suitable and 16.95% shows
marginally suitable (Figure 12).

36
Figure 11: Study area soil type map

37
Figure 12: Study area soil suitability class
4.1.4.2 Soil Depth
One important physical property of soil that was used to determine if it was suitable for surface
irrigation advances was its depth. The soil map created used to assess soil depth (Figure 13).
The water--shade soil depth ranged from less than 10 to more than 100 cm. Additionally, as
shown in (Figure 14), the soil depth was categorized into four groups: <10, 10–50, 50–100, and
>100 cm, according to this 58.32% is highly suitable, 24.73% moderately suitable and 16.95%
shows marginally suitable.

38
Figure 13: Study area soil depth map

39
Figure 14: Study area soil depth suitability map
4.1.4.2 Soil texture
Clay (light) soils are characterized by their high water and nutrient retention, making them
suitable for moisture-loving crops. However, they can be challenging to work with due to poor
drainage and potential waterlogging. Loam soils, on the other hand, offer a balanced mix of
sand, silt, and clay, providing excellent drainage and nutrient availability. This makes loam
highly versatile and ideal for a wide range of crops, including vegetables, grains, and fruits. Its
ease of cultivation and balanced properties make it a preferred choice for general agricultural
use, ensuring optimal growth and productivity, according to this 25.51% shows highly suitable
and 74.49% indicate marginally suitable (Figure 15 & Figure 16).

40
Figure 15: Study area soil texture map

41
Figure 16: Study area soil texture suitability map
4.1.4.3 Soil Drainage
As per the FAO 2002, soil drainage is defined as the capacity of soil to eliminate excessive
water. It is categorized into well-drained, moderately well-drained, imperfectly drained, and
poorly drained, depending on the speed at which water is expelled and how long the soil remains
saturated. From the (Figure 17 & Figure 18), 83.05% Moderately Suitable and 16.95%
Marginally Suitable.

42
Figure 17: Study area soil drainage map

43
Figure 18: Study area soil drainage suitability class
4.1.4.4 Weight of Soil Suitability
The weights are often determined through expert judgment, literature review to reflect the local
context and specific requirements of the study area. Soil Type might be weighted heavily
because it fundamentally dictates nutrient availability. Soil Texture might follow closely due to
its impact on moisture retention and drainage. Soil Depth would be assigned a significant
weight as it relates to root penetration and nutrient access. Soil Drainage is also critical but may
be slightly less impactful than the others (Mendoza & Martins, 2006) (Zhu et al., 2021). Using
pairwise comparisons (Vargas & St, 2022).

• Soil Type vs. Soil Texture: Soil type is generally more influential (3:1 ratio).
• Soil Type vs. Soil Depth: Soil type is also considered more important (3:1 ratio).
• Soil Type vs. Soil Drainage: Soil type has a significant impact (3:1 ratio).
• Soil Texture vs. Soil Depth: Both are important, but texture slightly edges out (2:1 ratio).

44
 • Soil Texture vs. Soil Drainage: Texture is more critical (3:1 ratio).
• Soil Depth vs. Soil Drainage: Depth is more significant (2:1 ratio).

Table 14: Pairwise Comparison Matrix

Criteria Soil Type Soil Texture Soil Depth Soil Drainage

Soil Type 1 3 3 3
Soil Texture 1/3 1 2 3
Soil Depth 1/3 1/2 1 2
Soil Drainage 1/3 1/3 1/2 1
In analyzing soil suitability, four main factors are considered: soil type (30%), soil texture
(25%), soil depth (25%), and soil drainage (20%). Soil type plays a role in nutrient essential for
plant growth. Soil texture influences water retention and root penetration, affecting crop
productivity. Sufficient soil depth supports proper root growth and nutrient accessibility.
Adequate soil drainage prevents waterlogging and root diseases, fostering robust plant
development. By harmonizing these aspects, one can evaluate the overall suitability of soil for
different agricultural needs, guaranteeing ideal conditions for crop cultivation and
environmental sustainability according to this 8.56% of study area cover highly suitable type
of soil and 91.44% of soil type covers marginally suitable for agricultural irrigation (Figure 19).

45
Figure 19: Study area overall soil suitability map
4.2 Weight of variables for irrigation suitability
In the analysis of irrigation suitability, various factors such as slope, land use, soil condition,
and distance to rivers are assigned different levels of importance to identify the most suitable
areas. Slope influences water runoff, land use reflects current land usage, soil condition covers
essential soil characteristics, and river proximity guarantees access to water, all aiding in
effective planning for irrigation. Based on this judgment the AHP table was described below
(Abeza, 2023).

A CR of 0.000 is less than 0.1, indicating that the pairwise comparisons perfect consistent. The
relative importance of each criterion in the context of irrigation land suitability can now be these weights
in AHP analysis to evaluate and prioritize for irrigation suitability, Final Weights of each parameter is
Slope: 0.558(55.8%), Soil: 0.263(26.3%), River Proximity: 0.113(11.3%) and LULC: 0.065(6.5%)
(Figure 20).

46
The evaluation of land suitability for irrigation reveals that 16.85% of the land is highly suitable
for this purpose, boasting optimal soil characteristics, depth, and drainage that create ideal
conditions for robust agricultural output with minimal intervention. The majority, accounting
for 50.56%, is considered moderately suitable, indicating generally favorable conditions that
could benefit from enhancements like soil amendments or improved irrigation techniques to
fully realize their potential. Conversely, 32.59% of the land is deemed marginally suitable,
facing notable hurdles such as subpar soil quality or insufficient drainage, necessitating
significant alterations and careful management to achieve productivity.

Table 15: Priority Vector (Weights)

Criteria Priority Vector (Weights)

Slope (0.597+0.662+0.536+0.438) / 4 = 0.558

Soil (0.199 + 0.221 + 0.321 + 0.313) / 4 = 0.263

River Proximity (0.085 + 0.074 + 0.107 + 0.188) / 4 = 0.113

LULC (0.119 + 0.044 + 0.036 + 0.063) / 4 = 0.065

47
Figure 20: Irrigation land suitability map of study area

4.3 Discussion
This study used GIS and MCDA with AHP to evaluate the potential for surface water irrigation
in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The results showed that slope, soil, river proximity, and
LULC are the most important factors in determining irrigation potential. These factors were
assigned weights of 55.8%, 26.3%, 11.3%, and 6.5%, respectively. This paper will discuss the
implications of these findings, the distribution of land suitability categories, and the broader
context of irrigation potential in the Amhara region.

The steepness of the slopes in the Amhara region is a major factor in determining how suitable
the land is for irrigation. This is because steeper slopes can cause more runoff and soil erosion,
which can make irrigation less effective. On the other hand, gentler slopes hold water better
48
and distribute it more evenly, making them more ideal for irrigation. The fact that slope was
given such a high weight in the study shows that a large portion of the land in the Amhara
region has uneven topography, and therefore slope needs to be carefully considered when
planning irrigation projects. This finding aligns with previous studies that emphasize the
importance of topography in irrigation suitability assessments (Gebrehiwot, 2015).

Soil, accounting for 26.3% of the total weight, is the second most critical factor. Characteristics
like soil type, drainage, texture, and depth play a crucial role in water infiltration, retention, and
root penetration. Well-drained soils with suitable texture are ideal for irrigation, as they prevent
waterlogging and ensure crops receive adequate water. The significant weight assigned to soil
in this study underscores the variety of soil types in the region and their differing suitability for
irrigation. This is consistent with research by (Hurni et al., 2010), which emphasizes the role of
soil characteristics in agricultural productivity.

The proximity to rivers, assigned a weight of 11.3%, represents another significant

consideration. Being near water sources guarantees a dependable water supply for irrigation
purposes, thereby minimizing the necessity for elaborate infrastructure to convey water.
Regions situated closer to rivers tend to be more appropriate for irrigation, owing to the
straightforward access to water. The assigned weight for this factor suggests that, although river
proximity is important, it is not as vital as slope and soil characteristics. This finding is
supported by studies such as those by (A. Tesfaye et al., 2014), which highlight the importance
of water source proximity in irrigation planning.

Land Use and Land Cover (LULC), assigned the lowest weight of 6.5%, represents the present
state of land utilization and vegetation. Although LULC plays a significant role in
comprehending the current land cover and its capacity for transformation into irrigated
agriculture, its impact is not as pronounced as that of other factors. This diminished weight
indicates that the land cover in the region may be relatively consistent or that other elements
are more pivotal in assessing the suitability for irrigation. This aligns with findings by (D.,
2013), which indicate that while LULC is important, it often plays a secondary role to
topography and soil in irrigation suitability assessments.

The classification of land into three suitability classes—highly suitable (16.85%), moderately
suitable (50.56%), and marginally suitable (32.59%)—offers a comprehensive overview of the

49
irrigation potential within the region. The limited extent of highly suitable land indicates that
the best irrigation locations are scarce and should be prioritized for development efforts. The
predominant area classified as moderately suitable suggests that, with proper management and
infrastructure enhancements, a substantial part of the region can be effectively harnessed for
irrigation purposes. Although the marginally suitable land is not optimal, it may still be feasible
for irrigation with considerable investment and modifications.

The study finds focusing on areas with gentle slopes in the Amhara region for irrigation
development due to the importance of slope. Improving soil drainage and texture can make
moderately suitable areas more effective for irrigation. Building irrigation infrastructure near
rivers can reduce costs and ensure a stable water supply. Changes in land cover are less crucial,
providing flexibility in land use planning.

50
 CHAPTER-FIVE

5. CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
Depending on the situation, these factors are classed as very suitable, moderately suitable,
marginally acceptable, and currently not suitable (FAO, 1999, n.d.). The results of this
evaluation are critical for guiding future agricultural planning and resource management. The
areas that are highly suitable, encompassing 16.85% of the land, offer excellent opportunities
for irrigation projects. These regions typically have gentle slopes, fertile and moderately well-
drained soils, and are situated near water sources, making them ideal for sustainable agriculture
practices. The moderately suitable areas, representing 50.56% of the land, also show promise
for irrigation. However, additional interventions such as soil enhancement and efficient water
management practices may be necessary to maximize their productivity. Overcoming these
challenges can help optimize the utilization of moderately suitable lands. On the other hand,
the marginally suitable areas, accounting for 32.59% of the land, present more formidable
obstacles for irrigation. These areas might have steeper slopes, poorer soil quality, or less
favorable access to water sources. While they may not be optimal for irrigation, targeted efforts
to improve soil conditions and water management could still make these areas suitable for
specific types of crops or alternative agricultural activities. Ultimately, the assessment of
irrigation land suitability offers a thorough understanding of the agricultural potential within
the study area. By focusing on highly suitable lands and addressing the limitations of
moderately and marginally suitable areas, it is possible to boost agricultural output and
contribute to sustainable development. Future endeavors should emphasize detailed field
assessments, engagement with stakeholders, and the adoption of best practices to ensure the
successful implementation of irrigation projects in the region.

51
5.2 Recommendation
It is crucial to concentrate on the 16.85% of land that is most suitable for irrigation. Immediate
irrigation projects should target these areas, employing advanced methods to optimize water
utilization. By encouraging the growth of high-value crops that flourish in these ideal
environments, productivity can be further boosted. As for the 50.56% of land that is moderately
suitable, it is essential to invest in practices that enhance soil quality, such as incorporating
organic material and soil enhancers. Implementing effective water management systems and
promoting crop rotation will be good in overcoming potential obstacles and preserving soil
fertility.

The 32.59% of land classified as marginally suitable, targeted actions are essential. This
includes implementing measures to prevent erosion on steep slopes and exploring alternative
agricultural practices such as agroforestry or pasture to enhance the viability of these areas. It
is important to conduct detailed on-site studies to understand specific limitations and identify
potential solutions. Moreover, tailored strategies should be employed, such as terracing and
contour farming for slope management, improving soil fertility through specific amendments,
establishing infrastructure to improve water access in remote locations, and integrating land use
planning to balance agricultural growth with environmental preservation. These suggestions
aim to optimize land utilization and promote sustainable development within the region.

52
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