Frames of Power: The Role of

British Officers and Missionaries in

Colonial Photography in Kerala

First Degree
Programme in History
Under CBCS System
2022-2025

Fatima Mata National College (Autonomous), Kollam

 Frames of Power: The Role of
British Officers and Missionaries in
Colonial Photography in Kerala
Project Submitted to the Fatima Mata National College [Autonomous], Kollam,
Affiliated to the University of Kerala in Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts

Name of the Candidates Candidate Code

FATHIMA I. U2224016
FATHIMA NIZAR. U2224017
JINI CHRISTY U2224025
JOSNA JOY U2224026
SHEHNA.S U2224036
ADITHYA KRISHNAN A U2224041
SIDDHARTH BABU U2224052

Course code – 19UHY645

 DECLARATION

"We hereby declare that the project entitled “Frames of Power: The Role of British

Officers and Missionaries in Colonial Photography in Kerala” is a record of the research work

carried out by us at the Department of History, Fatima Mata National College, Kollam, under

the guidance of Dr. Vinil Paul. It has been submitted to Fatima Mata National College

[Autonomous], Kollam, affiliated with the University of Kerala, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts, First Degree Programme in

History under the CBCS System.”

Name of the Candidates Candidate Code

FATHIMA I. U2224016
FATHIMA NIZAR. U2224017
JINI CHRISTY U2224025
JOSNA JOY U2224026
SHEHNA.S U2224036
ADITHYA KRISHNAN A U2224041
SIDDHARTH BABU U2224052

Department of History
Fatima Mata National College
[Autonomous]
Kollam
 CERTIFICATE

"This is to certify that the project titled 'Frames of Power: The Role of British Officers

and Missionaries in Colonial Photography in Kerala' is a record of research work carried out by

Fathima I, Fathima Nizar, Jini Christy, Josna Joy, Shehna S, Adithya Krishnan A, and Siddharth

Babu at the Department of History, Fatima Mata National College, Kollam, under my guidance.

It has been submitted to Fatima Mata National College [Autonomous], Kollam, affiliated with

the University of Kerala, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor

of Arts, First Degree Programme in History under the CBCS System."

Augustin P Dr Vinil Paul

HoD, Department of History Supervisor
Fatima Mata National College, Department of History
Autonomous Fatima Mata National College
Kollam Autonomous, Kollam
 Content

Chapter 1 – Introduction
Review of literature
Objectives
Methodology
A)Archival Research:
B)Comparative Analysis and Postcolonial Critique Sources
Chapterisation

Chapter 2- Framing Kerala- Early Colonial Photography

Introduction - A Brief History of the Camera- The Evolution of the Camera
A Brief History of the Camera in India British rule in Kerala
A) Documenting Landscapes
B) Recording Monuments and Architecture
C) Representing the “Exotic Otherness” Conclusion

Chapter 3- Faith and Power: Protestant Christian

Missionaries and Colonial Photography
Introduction
London Mission Society -1806
Church Missionary Society -1816
Basel Evangelical Mission -1839
Conclusion

Chapter 4- Documentation or Domination?

Photography and Colonial Development Projects
Scientific Racism and Racial
Hierarchies Collaboration with
Scientists and Anthropologists
Conclusion.

Chapter 5 -Conclusion

Reference
 1

Chapter 1
Introduction
This study will examine how British officers and missionaries in Kerala used photography
as a tool to document, represent, and influence the societal, cultural, and developmental changes
during the colonial period. By analyzing the ways in which photographs were produced,
circulated, and consumed, we will explore the complex relationship between visual representation
and power, focusing on how these images both reflected and shaped colonial ideologies and the
lived experiences of the people of Kerala. The advent of photography in the 19th century coincided
with the height of European colonial expansion, providing a powerful new medium for
documenting and interpreting the world. In colonial India, photography became an instrumental
tool for British officers and missionaries, who used it not only to record the landscapes, people,
and cultures they encountered but also to assert control, shape narratives, and influence societal
transformations. Kerala, with its unique cultural heritage, lush landscapes, and strategic
importance, became a focal point for such colonial documentation. This study, seeks to explore
how photography was employed as a tool of representation and influence during the colonial
period. By examining the visual archives produced by British officers and missionaries, this
research investigates the ways in which photography was used to document Kerala’s societal,
cultural, and developmental changes, while simultaneously reinforcing colonial ideologies and
power structures. Through an analysis of these images, the study aims to uncover the complex
interplay between photography, colonialism, and cultural representation, shedding light on how
the camera became both a lens to observe and an instrument to shape the realities of colonial
Kerala.
The colonial period in Kerala, like much of British-controlled India, was a time of
profound transformation, with the British authorities and Evangelical protestant missionaries
playing pivotal roles in shaping the region’s social, cultural, and political landscape. Among the
many tools employed by the British to assert control and influence, photography emerged as a
powerful medium for documenting and representing the world through a colonial lens. As a
technological innovation introduced by the British, photography was quickly harnessed by British
officers and colonial missionaries in Kerala for a variety of purposes—ranging from the
documentation of landscapes, architecture, and people to the representation of the colonial mission
itself. This visual medium not only provided a means of preserving a “record” of the region but
also played an integral role in shaping the perceptions and ideologies surrounding Kerala in the
eyes of the British and the wider world. The use of photography by British officers and
missionaries was multifaceted. For the officers, it served as a tool to showcase the supposed
 2

triumphs of British administration, illustrating their control over the land and its people.
Meanwhile, missionaries utilized the medium to highlight their religious, social, and educational
efforts, presenting an image of Kerala as a space in need of moral and cultural reformation.
Through carefully staged photographs, these colonial agents sought to construct narratives that
justified British rule and propagated a worldview that framed the colonizers as civilizing forces.

Review of literature

In “Visual Literacy: Cultural Aesthetics and Visual Signifiers of Early Studio Photographs
of Kerala,” Sujith Kumar Parayil explores how early photo studios in Kerala transcended mere
documentation to become spaces where cultural aesthetics and societal norms intersected. 1 The
article examines how these studios democratized visual representation, allowing individuals to
craft their identities through choices in posture, attire, and backdrop. Parayil argues that this fusion
of photography with traditional art forms helped Kerala transition into modern visual culture under
colonial influence. Introducing the concept of “cultural technologies of the self,” he highlights
how both the photographer's perspective and the subject's self-presentation were shaped by
colonial modernity. While acknowledging the democratizing role of photo studios, Parayil’s
analysis could benefit from a deeper exploration of socio-economic factors, such as class and caste,
that influenced access to these spaces. Overall, the article provides a comprehensive look at how
early studio photography in Kerala reflected and shaped cultural identities. "Visuality of
Ethnography: Texts and Contexts" by Dr. Sujith Kumar Parayil, published in Tapasam: A
Quarterly Journal for Kerala Studies (2010),2 examines the relationship between visual
representation and ethnographic practice, focusing on Kerala’s cultural landscape. Dr. Parayil, an
expert in visual culture and media studies, explores how early studio photography in Kerala was
not just a technological adoption but a cultural phenomenon shaped by local aesthetics, social
norms, and colonial modernity. He argues that indigenous photographers actively reinterpreted
European technologies to align with Kerala’s cultural context, challenging the idea of technology
as neutral. Parayil highlights the photographic studio as a performative space where subjects
negotiate agency, transforming photographs into sites of personal and subjective expression. The
article also discusses the concept of 'presence' in photographs as a reclaiming of moments,
reflecting broader social dynamics and cultural memory. Through an interdisciplinary lens,

1
Sujith Kumar Parayil, Visual Literacy: Cultural aesthetics and visual Signifiers of early studio photographs of Kerala,
Malayalam Research Journal, December 2019, Vol 12(3), pp.4642-4670.
2
Sujithkumar Parayil, "Visuality of Ethnography: Texts and Contexts," Tapasam: A Quarterly Journal for Kerala
Studies, vol. 5, no. 1-4, 2009, pp. 22-81.
 3

Parayil’s work offers a nuanced understanding of the interplay between visual narratives, cultural
history, and ethnographic practice, making it a significant contribution to visual culture studies.

The Camera as Witness: A Social History of Mizoram, Northeast India by Joy L. K.

Pachuau and Willem van Schendel (2015) is a groundbreaking work that uses photography to
explore the social, cultural, and political history of Mizoram.3 The authors analyze a vast collection
of photographs, many from private archives, to trace the region’s transformation from the late 19th
century to the present. They highlight the role of British colonialism and Christian missionaries in
introducing photography, while emphasizing how the Mizo people adapted it to express their
identities and aspirations. The book covers themes like cultural change, the impact of Christianity,
political movements, and Mizoram’s integration into India, offering a unique visual
historiography. It is celebrated for its interdisciplinary approach, combining history, anthropology,
and visual studies, and for bringing attention to a historically underrepresented region. "Four
Nineteenth-Century Pictorial Images from Africa in the Basel Mission Archive and Library
Collections" is a chapter authored by Paul Jenkins, featured in the book Missionary Encounters:
Sources and Issues, edited by Robert A. Bickers and Rosemary Seton.4 In this chapter, Jenkins
examines four significant pictorial images from the Basel Mission's 19th-century African
collections, providing insights into the historical context and the role of visual media in missionary
activities. The book Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues is a compilation of scholarly
essays that explore various aspects of missionary work, including its impact, methodologies, and
the sources used in missionary research.

The article “Do Malayalis Know Such a Photo History?” by Vinil Paul and Sajan Mani,
published in Mathrubhumi Weekly, explores colonial-era photographs of Malayali people, their
historical context, and the anthropological studies conducted in Kerala, particularly by European
researchers such as German racial anthropologists who documented indigenous communities
through photography and anthropometric studies.5 During the colonial period, photography
became a key tool in constructing narratives about race and caste, as British and German scholars
engaged in anthropological research that later influenced racial and political theories. These
studies, often rooted in “scientific racism,” were used to classify and categorize communities

3
Joy L. K. Pachuau and Willem van Schendel, Witness: A Social History of Mizoram, Northeast India, Delhi :
Cambridge University Press, 2015.
4
Paul Jenkins, Four Nineteenth-Century Pictorial Images from Africa in the Basel Mission Archive and Library
Collections, Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues, edited by Robert A. Bickers and Rosemary Seton, Richmond:
Curzon Press, 1996, pp. 92-110.
5
Vinil Paul and Sajan Mani, Malayalikkariyumo ingnae oru chithracharithram, Mathrubhumi Weekly, 19-25 March
2023,pp.12-24
 4

based on race, caste, and ethnicity, reinforcing colonial notions of superiority and aiding
administrative control. The article examines Kerala’s socio-political landscape, including caste
dynamics and resistance, while highlighting how colonial-era photographs and studies portrayed
tribal and marginalized communities. Figures like Egon von Eickstedt, a German racial
anthropologist, used photography and body measurements to classify Kerala’s communities, with
their work influencing colonial governance and even later being appropriated by the Nazi regime
to support racial ideologies. These photographs, far from being neutral records, were part of a
broader colonial strategy to establish racial hierarchies and perpetuate stereotypes, circulating
widely in Europe and shaping perceptions of Kerala’s society and culture. Ultimately, the article
underscores how colonial-era studies and images serve as historical evidence, offering insights
into Kerala’s past, its cultural diversity, and the enduring impact of colonial narratives on its
communities.

Objectives

The objectives are designed to address gaps in existing scholarship on colonial

photography, particularly in the context of Kerala. By combining historical, cultural, and
postcolonial approaches, the research will provide new insights into how photography was used
to document, represent, and influence Kerala’s society during the colonial period. The following
objectives are framed to address the historical, cultural, and ideological dimensions of colonial
photography; while also exploring its impact on Kerala’s society and the responses it elicited from
local communities.

1. To Analyze the Introduction and Evolution of Photography in Colonial Kerala.

2. To Examine the Ideological Frameworks of Colonial Photography.

3. To Explore the Role of Missionary Photography in Religious and Social Transformation.

4. To Assess the Role of Photography in Colonial Development Projects.

Methodology

The research employs an interdisciplinary methodology to comprehensively analyze the

role of British officers and missionaries in colonial photography in Kerala. By integrating
 5

approaches from history, visual anthropology, postcolonial studies, cultural studies, and sociology,
the study aims to provide a nuanced understanding of how photography functioned as a tool of
documentation, representation, and power during the colonial period. The methodology for this
research is designed to critically analyze the role of British officers and missionaries in using
photography as a tool for documentation, representation, and influence in colonial Kerala. The
study adopts an interdisciplinary approach, combining historical analysis, visual anthropology,
and postcolonial theory to interrogate the power dynamics embedded in colonial photographic
practices. The primary sources for this study include colonial-era photographs, albums, and reports
housed in archives such as the British Library, missionary society records, and private collections.
These visual materials will be supplemented by textual sources like colonial administrative
records, missionary journals, and travelogues to contextualize the photographs within the broader
colonial framework. The photographs will be analyzed using visual anthropology and semiotic
methods to decode their symbolic, cultural, and ideological meanings. This involves examining
the composition, framing, and subject matter of the images to understand how British officers
and missionaries constructed narratives of Kerala’s society, culture, and development.

Sources

This research primarily relies on visual and textual sources from three key repositories: the
Basel Mission Digital Archives, the Kerala State Archives Online Platform, and the CMS (Church
Missionary Society) Missionary Journals. These sources provide a rich and diverse collection of
materials that are central to understanding the role of British officers and missionaries in colonial
photography in Kerala. The Basel Mission, a Protestant Christian missionary society based in
Switzerland, played a significant role in Kerala’s socio-religious landscape during the colonial
period. The Basel Mission Digital Archives house an extensive collection of photographs, reports,
and documents related to their activities in Kerala. The archives contain a wealth of photographs
depicting missionary activities, local communities, churches, schools, and landscapes. These
images offer insights into how missionaries used photography to document their work and
represent Kerala’s society.6
The online platform provides access to digitized materials that are crucial for this study. The
archives include photographs taken by British officers documenting infrastructure projects,
ethnographic surveys, and landscapes. These images reflect the colonial administration’s focus on
governance, development, and control. The archives contain visual and textual records of Kerala’s

6
https://www.bmarchives.org/items/browse (31 Jan. 25. 9.45 am)
 6

caste groups, customs, and festivals, offering a glimpse into how colonial authorities categorized
and represented local cultures. Photographs of roads, railways, plantations, and other projects
illustrate the colonial narrative of “progress” and “modernization. The Church Missionary Society
(CMS) was one of the most prominent missionary organizations active in Kerala during the
colonial period. Their journals and reports provide detailed accounts of their activities, often
accompanied by photographs. The journals include photographs and descriptions of missionary
work, such as church-building, education, and healthcare initiatives. These materials highlight the
role of photography in promoting missionary efforts to European audiences. These sources offer
diverse perspectives on colonial photography, encompassing both administrative and missionary
uses of the medium.

Chapterisation

Introduction chapter of this study will explain the overview of the study, its significance,
and the role of photography in colonial Kerala. Review of Literature of this chapter tried to critical
examination of existing scholarship on colonial photography, visual anthropology, and Kerala’s
history. In the objective part we explain the key aims of this research, including understanding the
intersection of photography, colonialism, and cultural representation. Methodology and Sources
is another part of this study. We discussed the type of archival materials, photographic collections,
and analytical frameworks used in the study. Finally, we gave a brief outline of the structure and
rationale behind the organization of chapters.

Framing Kerala – Early Colonial Photography is the title of the second chapter. In this
chapter, we explain the history of Camera and also give an introduction of Photography in Kerala:
Tracing the arrival of photography in the region, the technological context, and its early
practitioners will develop in this chapter. British Officers as Photographers is the core theme of
this chapter. How British officers used photography to document landscapes, monuments, and the
“exotic” otherness of Kerala is the main research question of this chapter.

Protestant missionary vision is the major themes of the third chapter. How missionaries
used photography to document conversions, church activities, and Christian education, portraying
them as symbols of modernity and progress is the important question of this chapter. Also, this
chapter explore the role of photography in shaping perceptions of Dalit Christians and other
marginalized groups, often depicting them as “uplifted” through missionary efforts.

Documentation or Domination? Photography and Colonial Development Projects is the

 7

fourth chapter of this study. This chapter will examine how photography was used to document
infrastructure projects such as roads, railways, and plantations, emphasizing colonial efficiency
and progress. Also, analysis of depictions of local customs, attire, and festivals, often framed
through a colonial lens that exoticized or othered Kerala’s cultural practices.

Chapter five is the conclusion of the study.

 8

Chapter 2
Framing Kerala- Early Colonial Photography

Introduction: A Brief History of the Camera

The camera is a sophisticated device designed to capture and record visual images, either
still or moving, through the manipulation of light. At its core, a camera consists of several essential
components: a lens, a shutter, and a sensor or film. In traditional film cameras, light passes through
the lens and briefly exposes a light-sensitive film, creating a latent image. This image, initially
invisible, is chemically developed into a negative, which can then be transferred onto light- sensitive
photo paper to produce a tangible photograph. In contrast, digital photography operates on a
different principle. Light passes through the lens and is captured by a digital sensor composed of
millions of photodetectors. These photodetectors convert light into electrical signals, which are then
processed to form a digital image composed of pixels. Digital photography has revolutionized the
field by enabling instant image review, editing, and high-resolution output, making it more
accessible and versatile than its analog counterpart.
A camera is fundamentally a tool that utilizes light to create images. Light is central to
human perception—without it, there would be no color, contrast, or depth. A camera achieves its
purpose by integrating various disciplines: optics (the lens), mechanics (the shutter and body),
chemistry (in film cameras), and electronics (in digital cameras). In analog or film cameras, images
are captured on light-sensitive photographic film, while digital cameras rely on electronic sensors.
These two technologies interpret light differently, resulting in distinct visual outcomes— ranging
from the grainy, textured aesthetic of film to the sharp, detailed precision of digital imagery.

The Evolution of the Camera

The history of the camera is a testament to human ingenuity and the relentless pursuit of
capturing reality. Its origins can be traced back to ancient observations and experiments with light
and optics. 470–391 BC: The Chinese philosopher Mozi provided one of the earliest explanations
of optical image projection. He theorized that the inversion of images in a camera obscura occurred
because light travels in straight lines. This foundational insight laid the groundwork for future
advancements in optical technology. 1021 AD: Ibn Al-Haytham, often referred to as the "father of
optics," made significant contributions to the understanding of the camera obscura. This device, a
dark, lightproof box with a small aperture, allowed light to enter and project an inverted image
inside. Initially used for studying solar phenomena and aiding architectural designs, Al-Haytham
referred to it as Al-Bayt al-Muthlim.
 9

1545: The camera obscura gained further prominence when Gemma Frisius, an astronomer
and mathematician, illustrated it in his book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica. His work helped
establish the camera obscura as a critical tool in the development of optical instruments.
1685: Johann Zahn, a German author, proposed one of the earliest designs for a portable, handheld
reflex camera in his book Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium. His ideas marked a
significant step toward the modern camera.7
1826: The first permanent photograph, view from the Window at Le Gras, was created by French
inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. Using a technique called heliography, Niépce exposed a pewter
plate coated with bitumen to light through a camera obscura. The exposure time for this image was
approximately eight hours, and it remains preserved at the University of Texas at Austin.
1829: Louis Daguerre refined Niépce's work, developing the daguerreotype process. This involved
using a copper plate coated with silver and sensitized with iodine. After exposure, the plate was
developed with hot mercury vapor, reducing exposure times to around 15 minutes. Around the same
time, Henry Fox Talbot introduced the calotype, an early photographic method that produced
negatives, enabling multiple prints from a single exposure.
1840: In March 1840, Alexander Wolcott opened what is widely regarded as the world's first portrait
studio. Later that year, Wolcott and John Johnson Sr. received the first American patent for a
daguerreotype mirror camera. This innovation used a concave mirror instead of a lens, reducing
exposure times from 30 minutes to just 5 minutes.
1871: The invention of dry plate photography by Richard Maddox marked a significant milestone.
Unlike the wet plate process, which required immediate development, dry plates could be stored
and transported, offering greater convenience without compromising quality. This advancement
paved the way for portable cameras and the eventual use of film rolls. Additionally, the reduced
exposure times led to the development of mechanical shutters.8
The camera, as a tool of documentation and representation, played a significant role in the
colonial project, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Colonial powers utilized
photography to assert control, construct narratives, and legitimize their dominance over colonized
regions, including Kerala. The camera became an instrument of power, enabling colonizers to
visually capture, categorize, and disseminate images of colonized peoples, landscapes, and cultures.
These images often reinforced colonial ideologies, portraying colonized societies as exotic,
primitive, or "in need of civilizing," thereby justifying imperial rule. The camera is not merely a

7
Camera Zone, History of Camera | Evolution of Camera | World's First Camera Obscura, 20 February 2021,
https://youtu.be/cvy7Qlp4A2k?si=KePp2aDxVa2e1L2
8
Brian Coe, The Birth of Photography: The Story of the Formative Years 1800-1900, London: Spring Books,
1989.p.13.
 10

technological device but a powerful tool for recording and interpreting history. Since its invention,
photography has served as a visual archive, capturing moments, events, and societal changes with
a level of detail and immediacy that written records alone cannot achieve. Historical photographs
provide invaluable insights into the past, offering glimpses of everyday life, cultural practices, and
significant events. In the context of colonialism, the camera became a means of documenting and
shaping history. Colonial photographs often served as propaganda, reinforcing the superiority of the
colonizers and the subjugation of the colonized. However, these images also inadvertently preserved
aspects of indigenous cultures, traditions, and environments that might otherwise have been lost or
erased.

A Brief History of the Camera in India

The introduction of the camera to India coincided with the expansion of British colonial rule in the
mid-19th century. Photography arrived in India shortly after its invention in Europe, with the first
known photographs taken in the 1840s. The British colonial administration quickly recognized the
potential of photography as a tool for documentation, governance, and propaganda. Early
photographic efforts in India focused on capturing landscapes, architectural monuments, and
ethnographic studies of Indian communities, often framed through a colonial lens that emphasized
exoticism and difference. One of the earliest known photographers in India was Dr. John Murray,9
who documented the architecture of Agra and Delhi in the 1850s, including the Taj Mahal. The
British also established photographic societies, such as the Bombay Photographic Society in 1854,
to promote the medium among colonial officials and enthusiasts. The camera became instrumental
in recording India's diverse cultures, traditions, and landscapes, but these images were often used
to reinforce colonial stereotypes and justify imperial rule.

9
Although trained as a medical doctor, Dr. John Murray excelled as a photographer. The Scottish-born doctor was
introduced to photography around 1849, while in the Medical Service of the Army of the East India Company. Stationed
near the Taj Mahal in Agra, he evidently developed a considerable interest in the Mughal architecture of the region.
Throughout the forty-year period that Murray lived and worked in India, he systematically recorded many famous
buildings in and around Agra and the northern state of Uttar Pradesh.
 11

Fig -1 - The Tomb of Etmad-ood-Dowlah - Agra., around 1865. -Dr. John Murray (British, 1809 - 1898),
photographer and Joseph Hogarth (English, active 1850s - 1860s).10

This historical photograph depicts the Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah in Agra, India, often
referred to as the "Baby Taj." Built between 1622 and 1628 by Nur Jahan in honor of her father,
Mirza Ghiyas Beg, this Mughal-era mausoleum is renowned for its intricate marble inlay work and
Persian-influenced architectural style. The tomb features four corner towers, delicate lattice screens,
and a central structure without a dome. As a precursor to the Taj Mahal, it stands as a significant
example of Mughal architecture. The surrounding garden, designed in the Persian-style charbagh
layout, enhances the tomb’s grandeur. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Indian
photographers began to adopt the medium, using it to document their own realities and challenge
colonial narratives. Pioneers like Lala Deen Dayal (1844–1905),11 one of India's first professional
photographers, gained prominence for his portraits of Indian royalty, colonial officials, and
architectural landmarks. His work marked a shift toward Indian agency in photography, blending

10
https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/106RE2 [02 January 2025, 11.05 am]
11
Lala Deen Dayal 1844 – 1905; famously known as Raja Deen Dayal was an Indian photographer. His career began
in the mid-1870s as a commissioned photographer; eventually he set up studios in Indore, Mumbai and Hyderabad. He
became the court photographer to the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad, Mahbub Ali Khan, Asif Jah VI, who awarded him the
title Raja Bahadur Musavvir Jung Bahadur, and he was appointed as the photographer to the Viceroy of India in 1885.
He received the Royal Warrant from Queen Victoria in 1897.
 12

technical skill with a nuanced representation of Indian society.

The camera was introduced to Kerala in the mid-19th century, primarily through British
colonial officers, ethnologists, anthropologists, and Protestant missionaries. These groups used
photography as a tool to document and study the region's landscapes, architecture, and diverse
communities, often framing their work within the broader colonial agenda of control and knowledge
production. British colonial officers were among the first to bring cameras to Kerala, using them to
document administrative activities, infrastructure projects, and natural resources. Photographs of
Kerala's lush landscapes, backwaters, and plantations were often used to showcase the region's
economic potential and to promote colonial exploitation. Additionally, images of traditional Kerala
architecture, such as temples, palaces, and colonial buildings, were captured to highlight the region's
cultural heritage while reinforcing the colonial narrative of "discovery" and dominance.
Ethnologists and anthropologists, influenced by colonial interests, used photography to categorize
and study Kerala's diverse communities. They focused on capturing images of tribal groups, caste-
based occupations, and religious practices, often portraying these communities through a lens of
exoticism and primitivism. These photographs were circulated in academic and colonial circles,
contributing to the construction of racial and cultural hierarchies that justified colonial rule.
Protestant missionaries also played a significant role in introducing the camera to Kerala. They used
photography to document their missionary activities, including the establishment of schools,
churches, and hospitals. Missionaries often photographed converts, religious ceremonies, and social
reforms, using these images to garner support and funding from their home countries. At the same
time, their photographs inadvertently preserved aspects of Kerala's social and cultural life during
the colonial period. Basically, it’s a colonial product.

British rule in Kerala

The British were deeply interested in Kerala, drawn by its spices and natural resources. Their
influence began in the mid-17th century and lasted around 200 years until India's independence.
Despite resistance, the British quickly suppressed revolts. Kochi and Travancore were prominent
kingdoms, with Malabar coming under British control by 1806.12 While Kochi and Travancore
remained princely states under treaties (1791 and 1795, respectively), the British introduced
significant social, cultural, and infrastructural changes, including abolishing slavery, building
railways, roads, and schools, and improving healthcare through missionary efforts. Kerala's
modernization owes much to this period, which also saw the rise of social reform movements.

12
William Logan, Malabar Manuel, Madras: Superintendent Government Press, 1887; C.A. Innes, Malabar and
Anjengo, Madras: Superintendent Government Press, 1908.
 13

During colonial rule in India, forest policies prioritized resource exploitation over conservation,
with ownership centralized under the state. In Kerala, this led to widespread deforestation, wetland
conversion into paddy fields and plantations, soil degradation, water pollution, biodiversity loss,
and climate change. The British introduced forest acts like the India Forest Act (1878) and Madras
Forest Act (1882) to exploit timber and resources.13 Agricultural changes included converting
forests and wetlands into cash crop plantations, causing ecological disruption, soil erosion, and
displacing indigenous communities. These policies profoundly impacted Kerala's environment and
biodiversity.
The British used censuses and surveys to understand Indian society, highlighting differences
from Western values by collecting data on caste, religion, profession, and age. This data collection
significantly influenced colonial administration. In cartography, the British established the Survey
of India in 1767 to create detailed maps of the subcontinent, including Kerala. These maps, focusing
on terrain, rivers, and forests, aided colonial resource extraction and administration. The first census
in India (1872) included Kerala, systematically recording population size, density, distribution, and
socio-economic characteristics. Data on caste and community helped categorize and control the
local population. Ethnographic studies by the British documented Kerala's cultures, customs, and
traditions, focusing on caste, tribal hierarchies, rituals, and practices. While these efforts
strengthened colonial control and resource exploitation, they also disrupted traditional systems and
reinforced social inequalities. British officers in colonial India, including those stationed in Kerala,
used photography as a tool to document various aspects of the land, people, and culture during the
19th and early 20th centuries. Photography served multiple purposes for these officers, from
scientific documentation to reinforcing colonial ideologies. This practice was part of a broader
colonial project of knowledge production, where photography served both administrative and
ideological purposes.

D) Documenting Landscapes
British officers often used photography to document Kerala’s landscapes—lush hills,
tropical forests, rivers, and coastal areas. These images were typically used in colonial reports,
exhibitions, and books to present the region’s exotic and picturesque beauty to a European audience.
The photographs reinforced the idea of Kerala as a “tropical paradise” or a “utopia,” which in turn
made it more appealing to potential British settlers, tourists, or investors. Photographs of Kerala’s
natural resources, such as its forests, rivers, and plantations, helped the British identify areas for
economic exploitation, including timber, spices, and rubber. Colonial powers documented forests,

13
Vinil Paul, Mrigaya Keralathinte Nayattu Charithram, Kottayam: DC Books, 2023.
 14

rivers, and plantations in their colonies for a variety of reasons, all of which served their broader
political, economic, and ideological goals. By documenting these resources, colonial powers could
better exploit them to generate wealth and fuel their industries back home. Accurate documentation
helped colonial authorities assert control over the land and its resources. Knowing the location and
extent of forests, rivers, and plantations allowed them to establish systems for extraction and labor
management, often ensuring that local populations were forced to work in those sectors under harsh
conditions. The documentation also had a "scientific" aspect, with explorers, cartographers, and
naturalists mapping out the landscapes of the colonies. Rivers, especially, were often crucial for
transportation and trade routes. Documenting the flow and navigability of rivers helped ensure the
smooth movement of goods, soldiers, and resources across vast territories. Similarly, plantations
were strategic for creating dependency on the colony’s resources by the colonial power and
maintaining economic dominance over the colony. Colonial powers portrayed their documentation
and management of natural resources as part of a "civilizing mission," claiming to bring order,
progress, and development to "untamed" landscapes. These images were circulated in Europe to
reinforce the idea of the colonies as valuable and thriving possessions of the empire, bolstering
national pride and support for colonial endeavors.

Fig 2 - Watter fall Malabar14 Fig 3- Road, Tellicherry15

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Fig 4 - The Coast Road – Tellicherry16 Fig 5- Ficus religiosa or sacred fig17
Fig -2 - Another striking black-and-white photograph portrays a dramatic waterfall cascading down
a rugged cliffside. Multiple streams of water create a misty, ethereal effect as they descend,
contrasting beautifully with the dark, textured rock formations. The interplay between the smooth,
flowing water and the rough terrain adds depth and movement to the scene, capturing both the power
and tranquility of nature.
Fig- 3 a black-and-white photograph showcases a rural landscape with a dirt road running through
it. Tall palm trees and simple thatched-roof huts line the area, indicating a tropical or subtropical
setting. Carts and bicycles along the road hint at local modes of transportation. The scene exudes a
quiet, timeless atmosphere, offering a glimpse into village or countryside life from an earlier era.
Fig 4 - This black-and-white historical photograph, credited to the Royal Geographical Society,
captures a scenic coastal landscape. The image features lush palm trees and a fortified walkway
overlooking the sea, evoking a sense of colonial-era charm. A few individuals can be seen strolling
along the path, while a horse-drawn carriage appears in the distance. The ocean stretches toward
the horizon, with rocky outcrops dotting the shoreline. The setting suggests a tropical fort or coastal
settlement, rich in historical and geographical significance.
Fig 5- A vintage photograph depicts a large Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree) standing prominently
in front of a traditional building. The setting appears to be historical or colonial-era, likely in South
or Southeast Asia. Steps leading to a waterbody or platform suggest the site may hold religious or
cultural significance. People are gathered under the tree, contributing to a sense of community and
reverence. Handwritten text at the bottom, reading "Jugenbaum / Ficus religiosa / Jalatakar,"
identifies the tree's species and possibly its location.

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D) Recording Monuments and Architecture

British photographers documented Kerala’s temples, churches, and palaces, often framing
them as relics of a bygone era. This was part of a larger colonial effort to construct a historical
narrative that positioned British rule as the pinnacle of civilization and progress. Monuments like
the Vadakkumnathan temple in Thrissur, Jewish synagogues in Kochi, and ancient Hindu temples
were photographed to emphasize their "exotic" and "mystical" qualities, often ignoring their cultural
and religious significance to local communities. These were often presented as relics of a “pre-
colonial” past, highlighting the region’s heritage while also reinforcing the idea that British
colonialism brought "progress" and "modernity." The architectural styles, particularly the temples
with their intricate carvings, were sometimes framed in ways that emphasized their "otherness" and
"exotic" qualities, reinforcing a colonial narrative of the Orient as a mystical, ancient civilization in
need of British guidance and order.

Fig 6 Ponnani Mosque, Malabar.18 Fig 7 Jewish Synagogue, Cochin.19

18
https://www.bmarchives.org/ - 28 January 2025
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https://collections.maa.cam.ac.uk/photographs/ - 22 January 2025
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Fig 8 Thrissur Vadakkum Nadha Temple.20

Fig 9 Dolmen, Bison valley, Travancore.21

Fig- 6 is an old photograph of a Muslim Mosque and also traditional multi-tiered building
with intricate wooden architecture. The structure features a sloping roof, decorative balconies, and
a distinctive dome-like element at the top. A group of people is seen standing on the steps at the

20
https://collections.maa.cam.ac.uk/photographs/ - 22 January 2025
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https://collections.maa.cam.ac.uk/photographs/ - 22 January 2025
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entrance, adding historical and cultural context to the image. The architectural style suggests it may
be a temple or a heritage building from South or Southeast Asia.
Fig 7 -Synagogue Interior: This black-and-white photograph captures the interior of a synagogue,
viewed through an arched doorway. The central focus is the ornately designed Torah ark (Aron
Kodesh), adorned with intricate decorations and surrounded by hanging lamps. A set of wooden
chairs is arranged in a semi-circle, suggesting a space for prayer or study. The photograph conveys
a sense of historical and cultural significance, likely depicting an older synagogue with traditional
architectural elements.
Fig 8- Kerala Temple Complex: This black-and-white photograph showcases a traditional temple
complex, likely from South India, surrounded by large trees. The main temple building has a
distinctive sloped, tiered roof with intricate wooden architecture, characteristic of Kerala-style
temples. A sacred tree stands in front of the temple, with a raised platform around its base where
people are gathered. To the right, there is another structure with arched openings, possibly serving
as a temple hall or ancillary building. The temple courtyard appears well-maintained, enclosed by
a white wall, and the overall atmosphere evokes a serene and spiritual setting.
Fig 9- Ancient Dolmen: This black-and-white photograph depicts an ancient dolmen, a type of
megalithic tomb typically consisting of large stone slabs arranged to form a chamber. The image
shows two dolmens, each with a massive capstone supported by upright stones, set in a natural
environment with dense vegetation in the background. The dolmens appear weathered, indicating
significant age, and are likely part of a prehistoric burial or ritual site.

Representing the “Exotic Otherness”

.Photographs of the people of Kerala often portrayed them in a way that reinforced the idea
of the ‘other.’ The British often captured images of local people in traditional attire, performing
rituals, or engaging in everyday activities, which were framed to highlight cultural practices that
appeared unfamiliar or "primitive" from a colonial perspective. These images were used in
exhibitions and publications, helping to construct a racial and cultural divide between the British
colonizers and the colonized people of Kerala, emphasizing their difference from European norms.
British officers used photography to portray the people of Kerala as "exotic" and "other." 22 They
focused on traditional attire, customs, and rituals, often staging scenes to fit colonial stereotypes of
primitiveness or exoticism. Ethnographic photography was used to classify and study local

22
Sujith Kumar Parayil, Visuality of Ethonography: Texts and Contexts, Tapasam, Vol 5, July 2009- April 2010,p.23.
 19

communities, such as the Nairs, Ezhavas, and tribal groups, as part of a broader colonial effort to
understand and control the population. The photographic record of castes and tribes in India was
part of a positivist system of classification, which mainly focused on the physical characteristics of
the subject, as an index of its cultural and social characteristic. These photographs were assumed to
reflect reality and 'empirical truth.

Fig 10- Fishing Community.23 Fig 11 Muslim Family 24

Fig 12 Nair Family 25 Fig 13 Asari Family 26

Colonial photographers often took family photos of indigenous people as part of

ethnographic documentation, reinforcing colonial ideologies. These images served to present
indigenous families in ways that fit colonial narratives, either humanizing them to justify control or

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depicting them as ‘exotic and primitive’. Photography was used to construct colonial stories, often
staged or manipulated to align with the colonizers' agendas, whether to show indigenous people as
needing civilization or as curiosities. Additionally, these photos were commercially exploited, sold
to tourists or collectors, and sometimes used by missionaries to showcase the supposed benefits of
colonialism. Ultimately, these images were tools of power, shaping perceptions and reinforcing the
racial dynamics of the time.

Conclusion
The use of photography by British officers in Kerala was a powerful tool in the construction
of colonial narratives that both documented and distorted the region's landscapes, monuments, and
people. By framing Kerala’s natural beauty, cultural heritage, and indigenous populations in a way
that highlighted their "otherness," these photographs reinforced colonial ideologies of superiority
and the supposed need for British rule. The imagery created through this lens not only served as a
form of scientific documentation but also acted as a tool of propaganda, shaping perceptions of the
colony for both domestic and international audiences. Ultimately, photography in colonial Kerala
became more than just a means of capturing reality—it was a means of shaping and controlling how
the world saw Kerala and its people, reinforcing the colonial mission under the guise of objective
representation.
Photography played a crucial role in scientific and anthropological studies, enabling the
British to classify and analyze Kerala’s flora, fauna, and people through a Eurocentric framework.
While these images contributed to the global understanding of Kerala’s biodiversity and cultural
heritage, they also perpetuated stereotypes and hierarchies that marginalized local knowledge and
traditions. The colonial gaze, as reflected in these photographs, often reduced Kerala’s vibrant
cultures and ecosystems to objects of curiosity, study, and control. Ultimately, this historical legacy
reminds us of the need to approach visual documentation with awareness and sensitivity, ensuring
that it serves as a tool for understanding and empowerment rather than domination and erasure.
 21

Chapter- 3
Faith and Power: Protestant Christian Missionaries and Colonial
Photography

The relationship between Protestant Christian missionaries and colonial photography during
the 19th and early 20th centuries is a complex and multifaceted one, reflecting the intersections of
religion, imperialism, and visual culture.27 As agents of both spiritual and cultural transformation,
Protestant missionaries played a significant role in the colonial project, and photography became a
powerful tool in their efforts to document, promote, and justify their work. Protestant missionaries
were often deeply embedded in the colonial enterprise, operating within the frameworks of
European imperialism. While their primary goal was to spread Christianity, their activities
frequently aligned with the political and economic interests of colonial powers. Missionaries
established schools, hospitals, and churches, which not only facilitated religious conversion but also
served as instruments of cultural assimilation. In this context, photography became a means of
documenting and legitimizing their efforts. Missionaries used cameras to capture images of their
missions, converts, and the "heathen" societies they sought to transform. These photographs were
circulated in Europe and North America to garner support for missionary work, often reinforcing
colonial ideologies of racial and cultural superiority.
Missionaries often portrayed the process of conversion as a transformative experience, not
just in a spiritual sense, but also in a social and cultural context. Photography became a powerful
medium for illustrating this narrative. Images of individuals, particularly those from marginalized
communities, such as Dalits or other lower-caste groups in India, were used to show their transition
from their traditional, “uncivilized” ways to the “uplifted” state they supposedly reached through
Christianity. Photographs of baptism ceremonies, church services, and educational activities were
framed as symbols of this transformation. The conversion to Christianity was often depicted as a
gateway to modernity, civilization, and social progress, with the photograph acting as a visual
representation of this dramatic shift. In the case of Dalit Christians and other marginalized groups,
the role of photography went beyond mere documentation; it actively shaped how these individuals
were perceived in broader society. The missionary lens frequently depicted them in a way that
highlighted their elevation from a life of poverty, ignorance, and subjugation into a more dignified,

27
T. Jack Thompson, Light on Darkness? Missionary photography of Africa in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2012; Paul Jenkins, Much More Than Illustrations of What We Already Know:
Experiences in the Rediscovery of Mission Photography, International Bulletin, Vol. 26, No.4 October 2002; Joseph
W. Ho. Developing Mission: Photography, Filmmaking, and American Missionaries in Modern China, Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 2022.
 22

modern existence. The missionaries’ efforts to uplift these communities were visually represented
as a success story—showcasing not only religious transformation but also social and economic
progress. For instance, photographs often showed Dalit converts in clean, Western-style clothing,
attending schools, and participating in church activities. These images were intended to show that,
through the Christian mission, they had received the “blessings” of modernization. However, this
portrayal also reflected the colonial mindset of the missionaries, who viewed their mission as a
civilizing force. While these photographs may have been used to highlight the positive outcomes of
Christian conversion, they often inadvertently reinforced the idea that these marginalized groups
were inferior before their conversion and were now "improved" or "uplifted." The emphasis on
outward appearances, such as clothing and cleanliness, could be seen as a way to visually
communicate a "before and after" narrative of social mobility and cultural superiority. In the history
of Kerala, a dozen missionary movements played an active role, among which the London
Missionary Society (LMS), Church Missionary Society (CMS), and Basel Mission Society were the
most prominent. These groups collected numerous photographs during their work in the region. The
following section of this study will provide a brief overview of the history and contributions of these
three missionary organizations.

London Mission Society -1806

The first Protestant missionary society to initiate its work in Kerala was the London
Missionary Society (LMS), which began its efforts in 1806. Prior to the arrival of the London
missionaries in Travancore, the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) had
sent a native evangelist named Yesudian to the region. However, due to strong opposition from
upper-caste Hindus, Yesudian was unable to establish any churches in Travancore. The London
Missionary Society, originally known as "The Missionary Society," was founded in England on
September 21, 1795, as a non-denominational organization. William Tobias Ringeltaube, the
founder of the Travancore LMS mission, began his work on April 13, 1806.28 He received
significant support from Col. C. Macaulay, the British Resident at the Court of Travancore and
Cochin, who secured a passport for Ringeltaube and even offered to cover his travel expenses.
Ringeltaube arrived in the southern frontier of Travancore, primarily in Tamil-speaking areas,
which are now part of Tamil Nadu.
The LMS mission in Travancore began with the conversion of a man named Maharasan
from the Paraya caste in South Travancore. After his conversion, Maharasan adopted the name

28
J. W. Gladstone, Protestant Christianity and People's Movements in Kerala, A Study of Christian Mass Movements
in Relation to Neo-Hindu Socio-religious Movements in Kerala, 1850-1936, Trivandrum: Seminary Publication,
1984.p.34.
 23

Vethamanikam and became the first native priest in the LMS mission. Vethamanikam belonged to
a relatively prosperous section of the Paraya community, which owned cultivable land and family
properties. His ancestors had migrated from Tanjore to escape oppression. Following Ringeltaube's
death in 1816, Vethamanikam took over as the leader of the South Travancore mission. In 1818,
LMS missionaries Charles Mead and R. Knill arrived in South Travancore and began spreading the
gospel among Tamil-speaking communities.29 During its first two decades, the LMS focused
primarily on converting members of the Nadar caste, showing little interest in working among lower
castes. The missionaries divided their mission centers into two divisions based on language: Tamil
and Malayalam. The Malayalam mission began in Kollam (Quilon) in March 1821 under John
Smith, as the capital, Trivandrum, was not open to missionary efforts due to strong opposition from
the Travancore government and Brahmins, who feared pollution from Europeans and native
Christians. The Trivandrum mission station was later established by John Cox in 1838. Over time,
many Pulayas and Parayas joined the LMS mission, leading to a "mass movement" and the
establishment of numerous Dalit chapels.

When the London missionaries began their work in Travancore, the practice of slave trade
was still active. Ringeltaube, the first LMS missionary in Travancore, did not take significant steps
to address caste-based slavery. Instead, his focus on converting Parayas caused tension among upper
castes. One LMS missionary noted that the conversion of large numbers of lower-caste individuals
deterred members of other castes from considering Christianity. The arrival of the second group of
LMS missionaries, including Charles Mead, his wife, R. Knill, and C. Mault, marked a turning point
in the mission's history and the social landscape of Travancore. Charles Mead, in particular, played
a pivotal role in establishing new mission stations and was regarded as the "Father of the South
Travancore Mission." The missionaries recognized the need for strong public opinion and British
bureaucratic support to combat caste slavery and introduced institutions such as schools and
seminaries. In South Travancore, female missionaries established girls' schools, particularly for
slave girls, with the earliest schools being founded between 1819 and 1823. These efforts
significantly contributed to the social and religious transformation of the region.
The main aim of the LMS movement was spreading Christianity and providing education,
healthcare, and social services in various parts of the south Travancore. The LMS played a
significant role in the colonial era, particularly in the 19th century, as it sent missionaries to many
regions that were then under European colonial rule. Colonial photography, which became

29
R. N. Yesudas, A People's Revolt in Travancore: A Backward Class Movement for Social Freedom, Trivandrum:
Kerala Historical Society, 1975.p.40.
 24

prominent in the 19th century, was often used by colonial powers and missionary organizations to
document and promote their activities in the colonies. In the case of the London Missionary Society,
photography was used to portray the missionary work being done and to present a particular image
of the indigenous populations in the areas where missionaries were active. Photography was used
to document the work of missionaries, such as the establishment of schools, churches, and hospitals.
It often presented missionaries as benevolent figures who were "civilizing" or "educating" the native
populations. This imagery was part of a larger colonial narrative that justified European intervention
and control by portraying indigenous cultures as primitive or in need of European guidance. The
LMS and other missionary organizations commissioned photographs of indigenous people,
sometimes in traditional clothing, to highlight the perceived difference between European and
indigenous societies. These images could be used to show the supposed benefits of missionary work,
showing individuals in the process of "conversion" or adopting European ways of life. However,
these images were often dehumanizing or presented indigenous people in a static, exoticized
manner, reinforcing colonial stereotypes.

Fig-14- This black-and-white historical photograph captures a large group of people outside a
traditional thatched-roof structure. The crowd, consisting of men, women, and children, appears
engaged in various activities, with some lined up and others interacting casually. A person in a
striped outfit stands near the entrance of the building. In the background, towering trees offer shade,
and a horse-drawn carriage is visible on the right
 25

Fig 15- This historical photograph captures the Mannyakala congregation in the Quilon (Kollam)
district, possibly featuring missionary Parker. The image shows a group of local men, women, and
children gathered in front of a traditional thatched-roof hut. The missionary, dressed in Western
clothing, stands among them. The lush vegetation surrounding the scene hints at a rural setting. This
photograph captures a moment of cultural exchange during the missionary period in India.

Fig 16- This black-and-white historical photograph depicts a group of schoolgirls in Trivandrum
engaged in activities like sewing or embroidery. The girls are dressed in traditional attire and seated
outdoors or in a semi-open area, likely within a missionary school compound. The caption at the
bottom reads, "Some of the Schoolgirls at ‘’Trevandrum” suggesting the image was taken during
 26

the colonial era. It offers a glimpse into the education and vocational training of girls during that
time.

The London Missionary Society (LMS) played a transformative role in Travancore,

particularly in South Travancore, where its efforts to spread Christianity were accompanied by
significant social and educational initiatives. The mission's work among marginalized communities,
such as the Parayas and Pulayas, not only facilitated religious conversion but also contributed to the
dismantling of caste-based oppression and slavery.30 Through the establishment of schools, chapels,
and other institutions, the LMS sought to empower lower-caste individuals, particularly women and
children, by providing access to education and social services. The use of photography by the LMS
and other colonial-era missionary organizations served as a powerful tool to document and promote
their activities. These images often portrayed missionaries as benevolent figures engaged in
"civilizing" and "educating" indigenous populations, reinforcing colonial narratives of European
superiority. While these photographs highlighted the perceived benefits of missionary work, they
also perpetuated stereotypes by exoticizing and dehumanizing native cultures. Despite this, the
LMS's legacy in Travancore remains significant, as its efforts laid the groundwork for social and
religious change, challenging entrenched systems of inequality and offering new opportunities for
marginalized communities. The interplay between missionary work and colonial photography
underscores the complex dynamics of cultural exchange and power during the colonial era.

Church Missionary Society (CMS- 1816)

The Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.), founded in 1799 by Evangelical Anglicans in
England, emerged as a significant force in global missionary work during the 19th century. One of
the C.M.S.’s earliest and most notable missions was in India, particularly in the southern region of
Travancore. The society's work in this area was significantly influenced by Rev. Claudius
Buchanan, a chaplain of the East India Company who had visited Kerala in 1806. Buchanan’s
observations of the Syrian Christian community, detailed in his book Christian Researches (1812),31
highlighted the need for a "Mission of Help" to strengthen ties between the Syrian Church and the
Church of England. His advocacy laid the groundwork for the C.M.S.'s involvement in the region.
In 1816, the C.M.S. officially began its mission in Travancore and Cochin, with Thomas Norton as

30
Robin Jeffrey, Decline of Nair Dominance, New Delhi: Manohar, 2014; Vinil Paul Adima Keralathinte Adrishya
Charithram, Kottayam: DC Books, 2021.
31
Claudius Buchanan, Two discourses preached before the University of Cambridge, on commencement Sunday, July
1, 1810 : And a sermon preached before the Society for Missions to Africa and the East; at their tenth anniversary, July
12, 1810, Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1811.
 27

its first missionary. Norton arrived in Cochin on May 8, 1816, and soon settled in Alappuzha on the
recommendation of John Munro, the British Resident of Travancore. Recognizing the educational,
biblical, and social needs of the Syrian Christian community, John Munro32 actively sought C.M.S.
assistance to empower the local population through education and religious instruction.
The Travancore mission was unique in its focus on the Syrian Christian community, aiming
to spread Protestant ideas among them. Norton's efforts were supported by the Travancore Rani,
who sanctioned the construction of a C.M.S. church in Alappuzha and provided teak timber free of
charge. Norton's primary objectives included learning Malayalam, translating the Bible into the
local language, and establishing churches and schools. He made significant progress in these areas,
laying the foundation for a successful mission. However, the initial cordial relationship between the
C.M.S. missionaries and the Syrian Christians gradually deteriorated. By 1836, conflicts over
reforms and doctrinal differences reached an impasse, leading to a formal separation between the
Anglican missionaries and the Syrian Church. Despite this rupture, the C.M.S.'s early work in
Travancore left a lasting impact, particularly in the fields of education and Bible translation.

In 1817, Norton opened his first school at the Alleppey Mission Compound with 40 students,
despite rumors that he intended to convert the children and send them to England. In November
1816, Benjamin Bailey and his wife arrived from England, staying with the Nortons until March
1817. Bailey, passionate about literary work, established the first Malayalam press in Kottayam. He
translated the Bible and the English Common Prayer Book into Malayalam and produced two
Malayalam dictionaries, achievements that significantly modernized the region. His contributions,
particularly in making the Scriptures available in the vernacular, brought immense benefits to the
Malayalam-speaking population. The political climate in Travancore during this period was
conducive to missionary activities, bolstered by the backing of the Evangelical party in England.
This favorable environment facilitated the establishment of C.M.S. missions in both Travancore and
Cochin, leading to a focused effort to promote Christianity and improve the lives of the local people.
The C.M.S. undertook various initiatives, including education, healthcare, and social reform, which
significantly contributed to the region's overall development. In summary, the C.M.S. played a vital
role in revitalizing the Syrian Church in Travancore through advocacy, education, and social
support, leaving a lasting impact on the community's spiritual and social fabric.
The Church Missionary Society (CMS) played a transformative role in addressing social
issues in Travancore (present-day Kerala) during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Beyond their

32
General John Munro (June 1778 – 25 January 1858) of the H.E.I.C.S was a Scottish soldier and administrator who
served as Resident and Diwan of the States of Travancore and Cochin between 1810 and 1819.
 28

primary goal of spreading Christianity, the missionaries established schools, hospitals, and
vocational training centers, promoting education, healthcare, and economic development,
particularly for marginalized communities like lower castes and women. They actively challenged
caste discrimination, untouchability, and gender inequality, advocating for social reforms and
empowering oppressed groups. Their efforts in education and healthcare significantly improved
public welfare, while their advocacy contributed to the abolition of slavery and other oppressive
practices. Despite controversies, the CMS missionaries left a lasting legacy of social upliftment,
modernization, and empowerment in Travancore.
Missionary photography, as practiced by CMS missionaries, was not a neutral medium. It
was deeply ideological, shaped by the missionaries' worldview and their desire to present their work
in a favorable light. Photographs of Travancore and Cochin peoples often emphasized their
"savagery" or "backwardness," contrasting these images with those of "civilized" Christian
converts. This visual dichotomy served to justify the missionary project, portraying it as a
benevolent endeavor to uplift and redeem "lost" souls. At the same time, these images were often
staged and manipulated to fit the missionaries' narratives. Subjects were posed in ways that
conformed to European notions of piety, modesty, and order, erasing the complexity and diversity
of their cultures. This selective representation reinforced stereotypes and contributed to the
dehumanization of colonized peoples, reducing them to objects of pity or curiosity rather than
individuals with agency and dignity. Photography played a crucial role in missionary propaganda,
serving as a visual medium to communicate the successes and challenges of their work to audiences
back home. Missionary societies published photographs in magazines, books, and lantern slides,
using them to raise funds and recruit new missionaries.33 These images often depicted missionaries
as heroic figures, braving harsh conditions to bring light to the "dark corners" of the world. At the
same time, they highlighted the "need" for continued support, portraying non-Christian societies as
desperate and degenerate. The emotional impact of these photographs cannot be overstated. They
evoked a sense of moral obligation among Western Christians, appealing to their sense of duty and
compassion. By framing their work as a divine mission to save souls, missionaries used photography
to mobilize financial and ideological support for the colonial project. The use of photography by
CMS missionaries raises important ethical questions about power, representation, and consent.
Many of the individuals photographed had little control over how their images were used or
disseminated. These photographs often perpetuated colonial hierarchies, reinforcing the idea that

33
The Church Missionary Society (CMS) published several journals and periodicals to document and promote their
missionary activities, share news from the field, and engage supporters. The Church Missionary Gleaner, The CMS
Awake, The Church Missionary Intelligencer, The Church Missionary Review, The Juvenile Instructor etc.
 29

Western Christianity was the only path to salvation and civilization. Moreover, the focus on
conversion and cultural assimilation obscured the violence and exploitation inherent in colonialism,
presenting it as a benevolent and necessary process.

Basel Evangelical Mission (1839)

The Basel Mission was a Protestant Christian missionary society that took photographs
during its work in Africa, Asia, and India. The Basel Mission's photographic archives are a valuable
resource for research in many academic fields, including history, anthropology, and geography.
Basel is a city in Switzerland, situated near the borders of Germany and France. During the early
19th century, when the region faced the threat of invasion from the dictatorial French ruler,
Napoleon Bonaparte, a group of devout men made a vow to dedicate their lives to charitable work
if their city was spared from war. When their prayers were answered, these men founded the Basel
Evangelical Mission (BEM) in 1815, committing themselves to global humanitarian efforts. In
1833, following revisions to the British Government's East India Company Act, which allowed non-
British missionary groups to establish operations in India, three Basel missionaries arrived in the
coastal town of Calicut on August 21, 1834.34 The Basel Mission primarily operated in the Kannada
and Tulu-speaking regions of South Kanara and Coorg, the Malayalam-speaking Malabar, and parts
of Bombay Karnataka, where Kannada and Marathi cultures were influential. In this blog, we
highlight the charitable activities the Basel Mission carried out in North Kerala. Upon their arrival
in India, the Basel missionaries encountered a society where lower-caste individuals were oppressed
by agricultural bondage, debt, and social ostracism imposed by higher-caste landlords. The
missionaries, who treated all people equally, attracted many from the lower castes to their mission
activities. Understanding that education was key to spreading their Christian message and creating
social change, the Basel missionaries focused on education as a means to challenge the caste system
and empower individuals. They believed that education could bring transformation to society and
help foster a strong, confident Christian community. To achieve this, they established vernacular
elementary schools in every station they settled in. These institutions were open to all, regardless of
caste or religion, promoting inclusivity and social equality. The Basel Mission made significant
contributions to the Malabar region, and one of its most notable figures was Dr. Hermann Gundert,
a German missionary and scholar. Gundert played a pivotal role in the growth of the Basel Mission's
educational and linguistic activities in Malabar, which is now part of Kerala. Dr. Hermann Gundert
arrived in the Malabar region in 1839, where he became an influential figure in both religious and

34
Jaiprakash Raghaviah, Faith and Industrial Reformation Basel Mission in Malabar and South Canara, New Delhi:
Gyan Books, 2018.p.15.
 30

educational fields. Gundert, who was proficient in several languages, quickly immersed himself in
the study of Malayalam, the language spoken in the region, and became deeply involved in the
educational initiatives of the Basel Mission. One of Gundert’s most significant contributions was
the compilation of the first Malayalam-English dictionary. Published in 1872, this dictionary
became an invaluable resource for the development of the Malayalam language and its literature.
Gundert's scholarly work also included the translation of the Bible into Malayalam, making
religious texts more accessible to the local population.
The Basel Mission Archive offers a glimpse into the interactions between Basel
missionaries, predominantly Swiss or German, and communities in West Africa, India, and China
between 1850 and 1950. The collection includes photographs and texts that reflect various aspects
of these encounters, set within the historical context of the mission’s founding in 1815. It explores
the backgrounds of the missionaries, their social influences, and their use of photography in mission
work. The materials are categorized into political, economic, social, religious, cultural, and
technological exchanges, although these themes often overlap. The archive also includes
comparisons of missionary experiences across Africa and Asia, shedding light on their broader
influence in these regions.
The catalogued collection of historical photographs in Basel is regarded as a valuable
reference standard for research on regions of the non-western world, particularly Malabar, for which
it contains a significant number of images. This collection's importance is based on the assumption
that the Basel Mission’s engagement with photography in the 19th century aligned with a broader,
albeit innovative, 19th-century consensus regarding the significance and appeal of photography as
a medium for documenting and communicating African, Asian, and Latin American contexts to the
colonial metropolitan centers. Additionally, it is believed that the survival of this collection can be
attributed to the Basel Mission's institutional stability, which has allowed the organization to retain
its photographic holdings since it first began incorporating photography into its communications.
The Basel Mission’s experimentation with photography in India and Ghana coincided with the
construction of the modern mission house in Basel, completed in 1860.
In this context, the Basel Mission collection can be seen as a well-preserved "fossil,"
providing significant insights into a largely forgotten historical landscape. The collection serves as
a guide to what may still be preserved in other regions, pointing to potential photographic holdings
in various parts of the world that have yet to be uncovered and catalogued. Experience in Basel
demonstrates that it requires a trained eye to identify 19th-century photographs within general,
unorganized collections. Large, un-catalogued museum collections, provincial museums and
archives in Europe lacking resources to explore materials beyond their local boundaries, and old
 31

family homes of ancestors who were travellers, traders, officials, or missionaries all hold the
potential to uncover similar visual sources that may shed light on the history of 19th-century
Malabar, akin to the findings in the Basel Mission House.

Fig 17- School for Nayer girls in Calicut, 1912.35

Fig 18- Women teachers who live in the Boarding House 1912.36 Fig 19 Kitchen work in Calicut
Girls' Boarding School 1912.37
This black-and-white photograph shows a group of women dressed in traditional Indian
attire, likely teachers, posing in an outdoor setting. A chalkboard in the background reads, "The
Teachers of the Boarding House," implying that they are educators linked to a school or institution.
Some women hold books or framed pictures, highlighting their focus on education and learning.
The setting appears to be a school or residential educational institution, possibly in colonial-era
India. This black-and-white photograph shows a group of five people, including women and a child,
performing traditional tasks outdoors in a rural or colonial setting. Two women are pounding
something in a wooden mortar, while another woman and a young girl stand nearby. A seated man,
possibly a student or scribe, writes on a slate or wooden board. In the background, a building with

35
https://www.bmarchives.org/items/show/54075
36
https://www.bmarchives.org/items/show/66649
37
https://www.bmarchives.org/items/show/67385
 32

columns suggests the presence of a school, community center, or colonial-era structure. The attire
and setting point to a historical context, likely from the late 19th or early 20th century.
The Basel Mission’s legacy in Malabar and beyond is not only marked by its humanitarian
and educational efforts but also by its pioneering use of photography to document and communicate
the mission’s work. The photographic archives offer invaluable insights into the cultural, social,
and religious exchanges of the 19th century, particularly in regions like Malabar. Through their
commitment to education, social equality, and cultural preservation, the Basel missionaries left a
lasting impact that continues to be explored through the careful study of these historical materials.
The Basel Mission's archives remain an essential resource for understanding the complex
intersections of colonialism, religion, and social change.

Conclusion
The intersection of Protestant Christian missionaries and colonial photography highlights
how visual culture was employed to further both religious and imperial objectives. Missionaries
used photography to document, promote, and legitimize their work, shaping perceptions of
colonized peoples and their cultures. These images were instrumental in garnering support for
missionary endeavors, yet they also perpetuated damaging stereotypes and reinforced colonial
hierarchies. Today, the legacy of such photography underscores the power of visual representation
in shaping narratives and emphasizes the need to critically assess its ethical and cultural
implications. Engaging with this history allows for a deeper understanding of the intricate
relationship between faith, power, and identity during the colonial era, as well as its lasting impact.
Missionary photography also played a significant role in the broader colonial project by framing
Christianization and Western education as indicators of progress. Through their images,
missionaries positioned themselves as agents of social transformation, promoting a vision of
modernity aligned with European ideals, often equated with Christianity. These photographs
reinforced the notion that Western Christianity was the gateway to a more "civilized" existence for
indigenous populations, thereby advancing colonial agendas. Yet, this representation of
marginalized groups as "uplifted" often obscured the complexities of their realities. While the
images depicted individuals in more "modern" or "acceptable" contexts, they frequently omitted the
struggles, resistances, and ambiguities inherent in the process of conversion. As a result, missionary
photography simplified the diverse and multifaceted lives of these communities, presenting a linear
narrative of progress that aligned with colonial and Christian ideologies, while erasing the nuances
of their experiences. In summary, the third chapter examines how Protestant missionaries utilized
photography to visually narrate stories of conversion, education, and social upliftment.
 33

Simultaneously, they positioned Christianity as a transformative force in the lives of the oppressed,
framing it as both a spiritual awakening and a driver of social change. However, this representation
often overlooked or oversimplified the lived realities of those being "uplifted," highlighting the need
for a more nuanced understanding of this historical visual legacy.
 34

Chapter 4-
Documentation or Domination? Photography and Colonial
Development Projects

The use of photography by British officers in Kerala during the colonial period was deeply
intertwined with the broader imperial project of domination, control, and the construction of
knowledge. This practice was not merely about capturing images but was part of a systematic effort
to document, classify, and interpret the region’s natural and human diversity through a colonial and
Eurocentric framework. The practice of measuring human bodies by colonial officers, often referred
to as anthropometry, was a key component of the colonial project and was deeply rooted in the
scientific, racial, and ideological frameworks of the 19th and early 20th centuries. This practice was
not random or incidental but was part of a broader effort to classify, categorize, and control
colonized populations.

Scientific Racism and Racial Hierarchies

Many British officers in Kerala were not just administrators but also amateur scientists,
explorers, and anthropologists. They saw themselves as contributors to the Enlightenment project
of accumulating and systematizing knowledge. Photography became a crucial tool in this endeavor,
allowing them to visually record the “race,” “customs,” and “traditions” of the indigenous
population. These images were often accompanied by detailed written descriptions, physical
measurements, and ethnographic notes, which were used to create taxonomies of people and
cultures. The British colonial project was deeply rooted in the desire to categorize and classify the
world according to European standards. Photography, alongside other tools like anthropometry (the
measurement of human bodies), was used to create a pseudo-scientific understanding of Kerala’s
people. This process often reduced complex cultures and identities into simplistic, stereotypical
categories, reinforcing the idea that the local population was “primitive” or “backward” and in need
of British guidance and civilization.
Colonial officers, often working with anthropologists and scientists, used body
measurements to classify people into distinct racial categories. They believed that physical traits,
such as skull size (craniometry), facial features, limb proportions, and skin color, could determine
racial "types" and hierarchies. These measurements were used to support pseudoscientific theories
of racial superiority and inferiority, with Europeans often placed at the top of the hierarchy. By
"proving" that colonized peoples were biologically inferior or "primitive," colonial officers and
 35

scientists justified the domination and exploitation of these populations. The idea was that
Europeans, as the "superior race," had a moral and scientific obligation to "civilize" and govern

"lesser" races. Colonial officers were often involved in anthropological research, which
sought to document the physical and cultural characteristics of indigenous populations. Measuring
bodies was seen as a way to create a "scientific" record of human diversity. These measurements
were often accompanied by photographs, written descriptions, and ethnographic notes, which were
used to construct detailed taxonomies of "races" and "tribes." Anthropologists and colonial officers
compared the physical traits of different groups to identify patterns and differences. This
comparative approach was used to reinforce stereotypes and create rigid categories of identity, often
ignoring the fluidity and complexity of human cultures. The practice of measuring bodies was part
of a broader effort to impose European ways of understanding the world on colonized societies.
European scientific methods and theories were presented as universal truths, while indigenous
knowledge systems were dismissed or ignored.

Collaboration with Scientists and Anthropologists

British officers frequently collaborated with anthropologists, botanists, and other scientists
to document Kerala’s flora, fauna, and human populations. These collaborations were part of
broader studies aimed at understanding the region’s natural and cultural diversity. However, these
studies were often conducted through a Eurocentric lens, which prioritized European frameworks
of knowledge and interpretation. For example, indigenous practices and beliefs were frequently
misrepresented or exoticized, while European ways of life were portrayed as superior. The
photographs taken by British officers were not neutral records but were deeply ideological. They
were used to construct and reinforce narratives of British superiority and the supposed necessity of
colonial rule. By portraying Kerala as a land of exotic beauty and untapped resources, these images
helped justify British intervention as a “civilizing mission.” The photographs often romanticized
the landscape and its people, presenting them as picturesque and timeless, while ignoring or
distorting the realities of colonial exploitation and the struggles of the local population. The
photographs taken in Kerala were widely circulated through colonial exhibitions, scientific journals,
and books. These images played a significant role in shaping how Kerala was perceived both within
the British Empire and internationally. They contributed to the creation of a visual narrative that
depicted British India as a land of mystery and potential, waiting to be “discovered” and
“developed” by the British. This narrative not only reinforced the idea of British cultural and racial
superiority but also served to legitimize colonial rule. The way Kerala and its people were
 36

photographed had lasting consequences. By framing the region and its inhabitants through a colonial
lens, these images often minimized or erased the agency and complexity of local cultures. The
romanticized depictions of Kerala’s landscape and people obscured the harsh realities of colonial
exploitation, such as land dispossession, forced labor, and cultural erasure. At the same time, these
images contributed to the exoticization of Kerala, shaping how the region was viewed by outsiders
for decades to come.

Fig 20 Black Jew, Cochin Fig 21 Paniya Women, Malabar

This historical anthropometric photograph is from the "Expedition Riebeck," a German

expedition. It shows a man named "Isaak" from the "Schwarzer Hut" group, taken in Cochin (now
Kochi, India) on December 8, 1881. The image appears to document physical characteristics such
as skin tone, eye color, and hair texture, typical of a colonial-era ethnographic study. The yellow
background includes handwritten notes detailing the subject's age, skin color, and other attributes,
providing further context for the study.
The following images is a best example of the scientific racism. The black-and-white
photograph depicts a colonial-era anthropometric study. A German researcher, likely named Eagon,
is wearing a pith helmet and glasses while using a measuring instrument to examine the physical
features of an indigenous man. Another individual, presumably an assistant, records data in a
 37

notebook. The background suggests a rural or forested setting, with other indigenous people visible.
The image reflects the historical scientific practices of racial classification and physical
anthropology that were prevalent during that period.

Fig 22- German Anthroplogist Eagon, Malabar, 1928.

Conclusion
The practice of measuring human bodies by colonial officers was far more than a scientific
curiosity—it was a deliberate and systematic tool of colonial domination. Rooted in the
pseudoscientific theories of racial hierarchy and Enlightenment ideals of classification, this practice
sought to reduce complex, diverse human populations into rigid, quantifiable categories. By doing
so, colonial powers not only reinforced their own sense of superiority but also legitimized their
exploitative and oppressive rule as a "civilizing mission." The measurements and classifications
imposed by colonial officers were not neutral acts of documentation; they were deeply ideological,
serving to objectify, dehumanize, and control colonized peoples. These practices disrupted
indigenous identities, reinforced stereotypes, and created a legacy of cultural and psychological
subjugation that continues to resonate in post-colonial societies. The exoticization and racialization
of colonized populations through anthropometry and photography shaped global perceptions of
these communities, often distorting their realities and erasing their agency.
 38

Chapter 5
Conclusion
Colonial photography in Kerala served as a multifaceted tool for British imperial interests, aiming
to document, classify, and often exoticize the region’s landscapes, architecture, and diverse communities.
Introduced in the mid-19th century, photography became instrumental in portraying Kerala’s rich cultural
tapestry and natural beauty through a colonial lens. The British utilized photography to capture Kerala’s
architectural marvels, such as temples and palaces, presenting them as evidence of India’s ancient grandeur
juxtaposed against its contemporary ‘decline.’ This visual narrative reinforced the colonial justification for
their ‘civilizing mission.’ Additionally, photographs of Kerala’s varied landscapes, from its serene
backwaters to lush plantations, were disseminated to highlight the region’s exotic allure, catering to European
audiences’ fascination with the ‘picturesque’ and the ‘sublime. Ethnographic photography played a
significant role in classifying and often stereotyping Kerala’s diverse populace. By capturing images of
various castes, tribes, and communities in staged settings, the British aimed to create a visual taxonomy that
emphasized social hierarchies and cultural differences. These representations often stripped subjects of their
individuality, presenting them as mere exemplars of their ethnic or social groups, thereby reinforcing colonial
ideologies of racial superiority and control. This study has explored the multifaceted role of colonial
photography in Kerala, revealing its significance as a tool for documentation, classification, and cultural
representation under British imperial rule. Through an examination of early colonial photography,
missionary endeavors, and the visual documentation of development projects, the research has illuminated
how photography was not merely a neutral medium but a powerful instrument of colonial ideology. It served
to exoticize, categorize, and control Kerala’s landscapes, architecture, and diverse communities, reinforcing
the British narrative of civilizational superiority and the necessity of their “civilizing mission.
The first chapter provided an overview of the study, emphasizing the intersection of photography,
colonialism, and cultural representation. It highlighted the importance of critically analyzing colonial visual
archives to understand how power dynamics shaped the portrayal of Kerala’s social and cultural fabric. The
review of literature underscored the gaps in existing scholarship, particularly in the context of Kerala, and
set the stage for this research’s contribution to the fields of visual anthropology and colonial history. Chapter
two, Framing Kerala – Early Colonial Photography, traced the introduction of photography to the region and
its adoption by British officers as a means to document Kerala’s architectural marvels and natural landscapes.
These images, often framed through a colonial lens, presented Kerala as a land of exotic beauty and ancient
grandeur, while simultaneously emphasizing its perceived decline under indigenous rule. This visual
narrative served to justify colonial intervention and control.
In chapter three, Protestant Missionary Vision, the study explored how missionaries utilized
photography to document their activities, portraying Christian conversions and education as symbols of
modernity and progress. However, this chapter also revealed the problematic ways in which marginalized
groups, such as Dalit Christians, were depicted as “uplifted” through missionary efforts, reinforcing colonial
 39

hierarchies and erasing their agency. Chapter four, Documentation or Domination? Photography and
Colonial Development Projects, examined the role of photography in documenting infrastructure projects
like roads, railways, and plantations. These images were often used to showcase colonial efficiency and
progress, while local customs and festivals were exoticized or othered, further entrenching colonial
ideologies. The chapter highlighted the dual nature of photography as both a tool of documentation and a
mechanism of domination. This study has demonstrated that colonial photography in Kerala was not merely
a passive record of the region’s landscapes and people but an active participant in the construction of colonial
narratives. By framing Kerala through a lens of exoticism, hierarchy, and progress, photography played a
crucial role in legitimizing British rule and shaping perceptions of the region both within India and abroad.
This research underscores the need for a critical engagement with colonial visual archives, recognizing their
power to both reveal and obscure historical truths. Future studies could further explore the agency of local
communities in shaping their own representations and the enduring legacy of colonial imagery in
contemporary perceptions of Kerala. Ultimately, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the
complex interplay between photography, colonialism, and cultural representation, offering new insights into
the visual history of Kerala and its place within the broader narrative of British imperialism.
 40

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