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MODULE
IN

Fire technology and

Arson Investigation
(CDI 18)

EZRA RIZLE L. GRAMAJE RCRIM.

COMPILER

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Course Description:
Principles of technology of fire and its behavior. It also
emphasizes fire investigation and the role of fire fighters during fire
suppression and investigation, the study of Fire and Building Code,
and law on destructive arson including arson investigation.
The study of fire technology and investigation is divided into
two parts; the chemistry of fire, and fire investigation. The first part
covers the analysis of chemical and physical properties of fire,
characteristics of combustible matters, heat energy, oxidation and
combustion process. Origin and theory of fire, fire behavior, fire
prevention, and fire fighting. The second part deals with fire scene
investigation, arson motives, and modus operandi of fire-setters,
prima facie evidence of arson, laws relative to fire/arson
investigation, and other legal issues about arson.

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LESSON I

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Introduction
The development of methods and tools for using and
controlling fire was critical in human evolution and is believed to
have allowed early humans to spread northward from the warm
climate of either origin into the more severe environment of Europe
and Asia. The evidence of early fire use is often ambiguous because
of the difficulty in determining whether the archeological evidence is
the result of accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such evidence
include finds of occupation sites with fired or baked soils, bones or
stones that have been changed through the application of heat, and
areas containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might have
hearth structures.
The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about 1.5
million years ago. Less equivocal evidence exists for deliberate fire
use in the Paleolithic period, beginning about 500,000 years ago.
Neolithic sites have yielded objects that may have been used in fire,
making drill for producing friction, heat in wood and flints for striking
sparks from iron pyrites.
In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For example, in
Persian literature fire was discovered during a fight of a hero with a
dragon. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed the monster
and struck a rock. Light shone forth and human beings saw fire for
the first time. In Greek mythology, Prometheus was bestowed with
god like powers when he stole the god’s fire to give it to humanity.
Fire has also played a central role in religion. It has been used as a
god and recognized as a symbol of home and family in many
cultures. Fire has also been a symbol of purification and of
immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of flames of
remembrance. The Temple of Vesta in Rome was an outstanding
example of the importance of fire to the Romans. Vesta was
originally the goddess of the fire and her shrine was in every home.
We can only guess that pre-historic people may have gained
knowledge of fire from observing things in nature. So the origin of
fire before the dawn of civilization may be traced to an erupting
volcano, or a forest fire, started by lighting. No one really knows
where on the earth surface or at what stage of early history man
learned how to start a fire and how to make use of it. Yet, today,
man has had fire as:
•Source of warmth and light

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 •Protection against enemies
•cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man’s body
structure
•provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines

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 •provides heat to convert wood, metals, and bones into
domestic tools or instruments for aggression
While the application of fire has served man’s needs its
careless and wanton use exact an enormous and dreadful toll from
society in life and property. Hence, man’s understanding of fire
would enable him to develop the technology of prevention and
control to a considerable advance state (Abis).

THE BENEFITS OF FIRE

The utilization of fire as a method for cooking, warming and
chasing was one of the primary significant improvements of human
development. Fire is one of nature's most fundamental problem
solvers, and humankind has regularly utilized fire in this limit.

Fire can likewise be a significant piece of keeping up different

and sound environments. Practically every locale in the nation has
some sort of fire-subordinate plant or tree. Numerous plants have
developed variations that secure them as an animal categories
against the impacts of fire, and some are even fortified by it. At the
point when flames consume in stretches suitable to their biological
system, they devour leaf litter and other ground vegetation like
dead wood. This can trigger a resurrection of timberlands, assisting
with keeping up local plant species.
Biological systems that are reliant burning to thin the woods
overhang and develop the backwoods floor are gradually changed
without enough regular fire. Daylight subordinate local plant species
are surpassed by those that like shade and the entire environment
turns out to be less assorted, thicker from undergrowth, and
covered with dead plant material.
Fire supervisors can once again introduce fire into fire-
subordinate environments with endorsed fire. Under explicit,
controlled conditions, the advantageous impacts of regular fire can
be reproduced, fuel development can be diminished, and we can
forestall the calamitous misfortunes of uncontrolled, undesirable
fierce blaze.

WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring
between fuel and an oxidizer- typically the oxygen in the air. Such
rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and
light.

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 Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of
oxygen, or in some cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials.
The light is in the form of a flame, which is composed of glowing
particles of the burning material and certain gaseous products that
are luminous at the temperature of the burning material.

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THE START OF FIRE
All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, liquid and
gas (vapor). The atoms or molecules of a solid are packed closely
together, and that of a liquid is packed loosely, the molecules of a
vapor are not packed together at all, they are free to move about. In
order for a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be pretty well
surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids
are too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.
However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules
move about rapidly. If enough heat is applied, some molecules
break away from the surface to form a vapor just above the
substance. This vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If there is
enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition temperature
(temperature needed to burn), and if there is enough oxygen
present, the vapor will oxidize rapidly – it will start to burn.
The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the
burning process). Vapor from heated fuel rises, mixes with air and
burns. It produces enough heat to release more vapor and to draw
in air to burn that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production
increases. More heat is produced, more vapor released, more air
drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction
keeps increasing – the size of the fire increases until fuel is
consumed.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire:
FUEL (Combustible materials to vaporize and burn), OXYGEN
(Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel
vapor, air contains 28% O, 78 N, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise
the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition temperature). The
combinations of these three elements form the so- called Fire
Triangle.

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 Figure 1

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 The Fire Triangle Oxygen, Heat, Fuel
Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is
missing, a fire cannot start or if any side of the fire triangle is
removed, the fire will go off.
With the presence of the elements of fire, combustion
may take place. Before a fuel will burn, it must be changed to
its vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually results
from the initial application of heat. The process is known as
PYROLYSIS. Pyrolysis (also known as thermal decomposition)
is defined as the “chemical decomposition of matter through
the action of heat”. In this case, the decomposition causes a
change from a solid state to vapor state. If the vapor mixes
sufficiently with air and heated to high temperature,
combustion results.

3 WAYS TO EXTINGUISH FIRE (using Fire Triangle Theory)

1. Remove the fuel
2. Cut-off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)

ELEMENTS OF FIRE
Fire happens at whatever point ignitable fuel within the sight
of oxygen at an incredibly high temperature becomes gas. Flares
are the visual pointer of the warmed gas. Fire can likewise happen
from lower-temperature sources. After some time, burnable
materials, for example, seething ashes can arrive at their start
temperature.
1. Heat – a form of energy generated by the transmission of some
other form of energy, as in combustion or burning; the quality of
being hot; high temperature Heat Sources.
A heat source is responsible for the basic start of fire, and is
likewise expected to keep up the fire and empower it to spread.
Warmth permits fire to spread by drying out and preheating close
by fuel and warming encompassing air.
a. Open flame
b. Electrical circuit
c. Sparks
d. Hot surfaces

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 e. Friction
f. Ignition

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2. Oxygen – a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions
of air which is approximately 21% by volume.
Air contains around 21 percent oxygen, and most flames need
at any rate 16 percent oxygen substance to consume. Oxygen
underpins the synthetic cycles that happen during fire. At the
point when fuel consumes, it responds with oxygen from the
encompassing air, delivering heat and creating burning items
(gases, smoke, ashes, and so forth) this cycle is known as
oxidation.
Oxygen Sources
a. 21% of normal oxygen
b. 78% of nitrogen
c. 1% of other gases
Oxygen Requirements
a. 12% no fire
b. 14% flash point
c. 21% fire point

3. Fuel - any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and

produces flames.
-is any kind of combustible material. It’s characterized by its
moisture content, size, shape, quantity and the arrangement in
which it is spread over the landscape. The moisture content
determines how easily it will burn.

Fuel Sources
a. Solid – molecules are closely packed together
b. Liquid – molecules are loosely packed
c. Gas – molecules are free to moved
Common Types of Solids
a. Bulky: coal, wood, wax, grease
b. Finely divided: plastic, paper, cork, leather
c. Dust: saw dust, sugar, grain, others

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 Common Types of Liquids
a. Gasoline b. Kerosene c. Alcohol d. Paint e. Varnish
f. Lacquer

LESSON II
In order to understand how fire extinguishers work, you first
need to know a little about ignition. Sadly, it is incomprehensible in
this short introduction to totally describe all the mind confusing
compound and physical responses that occur during a fire. Anyway
this page will endeavor to present the principal hypotheses of fire
and blast.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
The fire tetrahedron is a four-sided mathematical portrayal of
the four variables fundamental for fire: fuel (any substance that can
go through burning), (heat energy adequate to deliver fume from
the fuel and cause start), oxidizing operator (air containing oxygen),
and uninhibited compound chain response (adequate exothermic
response energy to create start). The fuel/air proportion must inside
combustible cut off points, which portrays the measure of fume in
air important to engender fire. Eliminating any of these four
elements will forestall, stifle, or control the fire.
The Fire Tetrahedron (A pyramid)
For a long time the
idea of fire was
represented by the
Triangle of Combustion
and spoke to, fuel,
warmth, and oxygen.
Further fire research
discovered that a fourth
component, a substance
chain response, was a
vital part of fire. The fire
triangle was changed to
a fire tetrahedron to
mirror this fourth
component. A
tetrahedron can be
depicted as a pyramid
which is a
strong having four plane countenances. Basically every one of the
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four components must be available for fire to happen, fuel, warmth,
oxygen, and a substance chain response. Expulsion of any of these
basic components will bring about the fire being stifled.

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 The four components are oxygen to continue burning,
adequate warmth to raise the material to its start temperature, fuel
or ignitable material and hence an exothermic substance chain
response in the material. Every one of the four sides of the fire
tetrahedron represent the Fuel, Heat, Oxygen and Chemical Chain
Reaction. Hypothetically, fire quenchers put out fire by removing
at least one
components of the fire
tetrahedron.
The image albeit
oversimplified, is a
decent similarity,
how
to
hypothetically quench a
fire, by making an
obstruction utilizing froth
for example and forestall
oxygen getting to the
fire. By applying water
you can bring down the
temperature beneath the
start temperature or in a
combustible fluid fire by
eliminating or redirecting
the fuel. At last meddling
with the substance tie
response
by wiping up the free extremists in the compound response utilizing,
BCF and other halon dousers, it additionally makes a dormant gas
boundary. Anyway this sort of quencher is being eliminated and
later on other dousing operators might be discovered utilizing this
guideline. The 2D figure inverse speaks to a 3D model of a
tetrahedron.

The combustion process is typically connected with the

oxidation of a fuel within the sight of oxygen with the discharge of
warmth and light. Oxidation, in the severe substance sense, implies
the loss of electrons. For an oxidation response to happen, a
decreasing specialist the fuel, and an oxidizing operator, normally
oxygen must be available. As warmth is included, the start source,
the fuel atoms and oxygen particles gain energy and become
dynamic. This sub-atomic energy is moved to other fuel and oxygen
particles which makes a chain response. A response happens where
the fuel looses electrons and the oxygen picks up electrons. This

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exothermic electron move emanates heat as well as light. In the
event that the fire is in a fire mesh/or heater we allude to this cycle
as a controlled fire, and it is a structure ablaze we allude to this
cycle as an uncontrolled fire.

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FOUR ELEMENTS OF COMBUSTION
The elements of combustion are very similar to the
construction of a tetrahedron: All triangular components must come
together before a fire can occur. Therefore, the goal of a fire safety
program is to keep these elements apart. Since oxygen is present in
nearly all-industrial work situations we must separate or control the
heat and fuel sources to reduce the chances of a chain reaction.
1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) – are those materials the yield
oxygen during the process of a chemical reaction. The oxygen
in the air in the surrounding area is considered as the primary
oxidizing agent.
2. Fuel – is the material or substance being burned in the
combustion process. In scientific terms, the fuel in the
combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent.
3. Heat- energy component, it also supports the combustion
process.
4. Self-sustaining chemical reaction – causes pyrolysis or
vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of
ignition vapor gases.

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and

remembering the combustion process because it has room for
the chain reaction and because each face touches the other
three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the
fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates how
flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the
chain reaction. In this sense, the chain reaction face keeps the
other three faces from falling apart.
The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of
combustion. The modes of combustion are either Flaming
mode or Surface mode (Glowing– represented by the fire
triangle). A condensed phased combustion is called glowing
combustion
A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called
explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it
produced a
detonation

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LESSON III

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Identify properties of and changes in matter as physical or
chemical

Physical property is an attribute of issue that isn't related with

an adjustment in its compound organization. Natural instances of
physical properties incorporate thickness, shading, hardness,
liquefying and breaking points, and electrical conductivity. We can
watch some physical properties, for example, thickness and
shading, without changing the physical condition of the issue
watched. Other physical properties, for example, the liquefying
temperature of iron or the frosty temperature of water, must be
seen as issue goes through a physical change. A physical change is
an adjustment in the state or properties of issue with no going with
change in its synthetic structure (the characters of the substances
contained in the issue). We watch a physical change when wax
liquefies, when sugar breaks down in espresso, and when steam
consolidates into fluid water (Figure 2). Different instances of
physical changes incorporate charging and demagnetizing metals
(as is finished with normal antitheft security labels) and crushing
solids into powders (which can in some cases yield perceptible
changes in shading). In every one of these models, there is an
adjustment in the physical state, structure, or properties of the
substance, however no adjustment in its compound organization.

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 Figure 2.

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Figure 2. (a) Wax undergoes a physical change when solid wax is heated
and forms liquid wax. (b) Steam condensing inside a cooking pot is a physical
change, as water vapor is changed into liquid water.
The difference in one kind of issue into another sort (or the
failure to change) is a chemical property. Instances of synthetic
properties incorporate combustibility, harmfulness, corrosiveness,
reactivity (numerous sorts), and warmth of ignition. Iron, for
instance, joins with oxygen within the sight of water to frame rust;
chromium doesn't oxidize (Figure 2). Dynamite is hazardous in light
of the fact that it detonates effectively; neon presents practically no
danger since it is exceptionally inert.

PROPERTIES OF FIRE
A. The Physical properties
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or
liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas
composed to the volume of dry air at the same temperature
and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the
surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal
agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at
which the substance must be heated in order to initiate
combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open
container at which vapors are evolved fast enough to support
combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid
forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites (mixture with in the
explosive range).

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature

must be raised until ignition point is reached. Thus, before a
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 fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be
exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the
temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases
highly combustible vapors known as FREE RADICALS
(combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen).

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 During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:
•The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire
point,
• Decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is
converted to vapor,
• Decomposition produces combustible vapors that
rise to the surface of the fuel (free radicals)
•Free radicals undergo combustion.

B. The Chemical Properties

1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is
absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy
(heat) thus they produce substances with less energy than the
reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change
in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent
(air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the
same as actual burning (rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with
intense heat) gases. It is a combustion product and a
manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

LESSON IV

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
⦿ Fire gases - chemical composition of the fuel, percent of
oxygen present, and the temperature of the fire.
⦿ Flame - The luminous body of a burning gas. It is the
manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas phased
combustion.
⦿ Heat - a form of energy generated by the transmission of some
other form of energy.
⦿ Smoke - a visible product of incomplete combustion, a mixture
of oxygen, nitrogen, CO, CO2 and finely divided particles
released from the burning material.

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Fire Gases
As a result of combustion, the following areproduced:

⦿ CO
⦿ CO2
⦿ Hydrogen gas
⦿ Nitrogen
⦿ Other poisonous gases
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN), Hydrogen Chloride
(HCL)

Types of Flames:
a. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel
1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the
bottom of a vessel being heated due to incomplete
combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete
combustion of fuel and has relatively high temperature.

b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type
laboratory burner where hydrocarbon (any substance
containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is
forced through a nozzle into the atmosphere which
diffuse in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a
flammable mixture. The candle flame is an example of
CRIMINOLOGY diffusion flame governed purely by
molecular diffusion, and the flame of the oxyacetylene
torch. (Diffused – dispersed, widely spread)

c. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth
path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady,
irregular flows. As physical size, gas density or velocity

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 is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become
turbulent.

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FIRE ELEMENTS
As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as
having three components: fuel, heat, and oxygen. This triad
was illustrated by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the
most basic terms, a chemical relationship. The additional
component needed to explain flaming combustion is a
chemical chain reaction shown in the fire tetrahedron.

THE FUELS
FUELS (Combustible Materials) – fuel is matter and
matter
exist in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas. Solids melt
to become liquids, and these may vaporize and become
gases. The basic rule is that at high enough temperature all
fuels can be converted to gases. And each of the physical
states exhibits different physical and chemical properties that
directly affect a fuel’s combustibility. For example, gasoline as
a liquid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the liquid
that burn. Likewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is not
flammable, but gives of flammable vapors (free radicals).
FUEL is also a material that provides useful energy.
Fuels are used to heat and cook food, power engines, and
produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are
artificially created. Such natural fuels are coals, petroleum,
and natural gases obtained from underground deposits that
were formed million years ago from the remains of plants and
animals. They are called fossil fuels, which account for about
90% of the energy people use today.
Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain
types of rock and sand, and biomass.
Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the
air. But some – especially chemical fuels used in rockets –
need special oxidizers in order to burn. Nuclear fuels do not
burn but release energy through the fission (splitting) of fusion
(joining together) of atoms.

Classification of Combustible Materials

1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that
are usually made of organic substances such as wood and
wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
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 materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable
liquids such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, and liquid
petroleum products, etc.

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 3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials
such as materials used on electrical wiring and other electrical
appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances
such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and
potassium.

General Categories of Fuel

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic,
natural or synthetic, and metallic solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid
fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases
that are capable of ignition.

The Solid Fuels

The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth.
Its burning rate depends on its configuration. For example,
solid fuels in the form of dust will burn faster than bulky
materials.

Types of Flammable solids

a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary
accepted combustibles: wood, paper and so on. The vapors
released by their chemical decomposition support flaming
combustion. This exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the
vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a
flame.

b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to

ignite. A common example is charcoal. Chemical
decomposition does not occur because there are no
pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are released. The
glowing combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-
solid reaction.

The following are group of solid fuels:

1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic
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 matters like wood, garbage and animal manure that can be
used to produce energy. For example, heat produced by
burning nutshells, rice and oat hulls, and other by-products of
food processing. They are often used to operate plant
equipment.

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 Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products:

a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it

bur is to
n.

b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood is

more difficult to ignite and burn than dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a longer
time to ignite than those materials that are good conductors of
heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials don’t
easily ignite and needs direct contact with flame than highly
combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of oxygen, the
rate of burns increases, and more heat is produced and fuel is
consumed more completely.
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster
it reaches ignition point and it varies depending on the other
factors above.

2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are

combustible. A fiber is a very fine thin strand or thread like
object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers. And textiles are
machine woven or knitted fabric.

Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut fiber,
Cotton – seed fiber, pulp – wood fiber) , from animals (wool,
silk, protein fibers – leather), from minerals (asbestos)
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose fibers,
cellulose acetate, non- cellulose, and inorganic fibers like fiber
glass, steel

Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers

a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic fibers
are generally highly combustible materials especially if they
are dry. Mineral fibers and synthetic inorganic fibers are
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 normally fire resistant materials.

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 b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with organic
fibers are supportive to continued burning of fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its
resistance to ignition, thus delaying its ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the
smaller the space it contains, and thus it takes a longer period
to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame
retardant have higher resistance to ignition.
Fabric Ignition
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of
measuring the tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once
source of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the
probability that it will cease to burn once the flame is
removed is also high. Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition
temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because
they do not ignite easily. Also, they do not continue burning
after the source of heat or flame is removed.
3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class
A except those materials of or containing cellulose nitrate.
Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they
are also calledpyroxylin.
Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly
of organic substances or high molecular substances. They are
solid in the finished state although at some stage of
manufacture plastics can be made to flow into a desired
shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or
both.
4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the
partial decomposition of matter under varying degrees of
temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal
gas, water gas, and many coal compounds. They are also used
to heat buildings and to provide energy for industrial
machinery.
The forms of coal are lignite or brown coal, sub-
bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite. Bituminous coal
is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It
contains more carbon and produces more heat than either
lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal best suited for
making coke. Anthracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal.
It contains more carbon and produces more heat than other
coals. However, anthracite is difficult to ignite and burns
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 slowly.
5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps
called bags and used as a fuel chiefly in areas where coal and
oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut
formed in blocks, and dried; the dried blocks are then burned
to heat homes.

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The Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some
synthetic liquids are also produced. Petroleum is also called
crude oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil,
and kerosene.
Other fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to
distillate oil and residual oils. Distillate oils are light oils, which
are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. Residual
oils are heavy, and used to provide energy to power utilities,
factories and large ships.
Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable
liquids. In the process of vaporization, flammable liquids
release vapor in much the same way as solid fuels. The rate of
vapor is greater for liquids than solids, since liquids have less
closely packed molecules. In addition, liquids can release
vapor over a wide range, example, gasoline starts to give
vapor at –40°C (-45 °F).
This makes gasoline a continuous fire hazard; it
produces flammable vapor at normal temperature.

General Characteristics of Liquids

1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there
is free movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of
indefinite expansion, unlike gas.

2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels

1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point of
37.8 °C (100°F) and a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psia
(2068.6 um) at
37.8 °C.
2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at or
above 37.8
°C (100°F).

Burning Characteristics of Liquids

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 Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which
burn, the case of ignition as well as the rate of burning can be
related to the physical properties such as vapor pressure,
flash point, boiling point, and evaporation rate.

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 1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above
the liquid surface at the stored temperature have rapid rate of
flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature
have slower rate of flame propagation. The chemical
explanation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat sufficiently
the liquid surface to form flammable vapor-air moisture before
the flame will spread through the vapor.

Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and Burning of Liquids

•wind velocity - temperature - heat of combustion -
latent heat of evaporation - atmospheric pressure
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a
substance from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to gas.
Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to
liquid or liquid to a solid.

The Gas Fuels

Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid
movement and random motion. They have no definite shape
or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their
container.
There are both natural and manufactured flammable
gases. Gas fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to
provide energy for homes, businesses, and industries.
Examples of gas fuels are acetylene, propane, and butanes.
Some properties of gas fuels are: • compressibility –
expandability - permeability (open to passage or penetration)
- diffusion (intermingling of molecules)
Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential
in changes in volume. Diffusion is the uniform distribution of
molecules of one substance through those of another.
Permeability means that other substances may pass through
or permeate a gas.

Characteristics of Gas Fuels

1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at
constant random motion in a straight line
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 3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the
wall of the container and are relatively far from one another.

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Classification of Gases:
1. Based on Source
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook
food, and provides energy for industries. It consists chiefly of
methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural gas is usually
mixed with compounds of foul-smelling elements like sulfur so
gas leaks can be detected.
Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion
of natural gas, become liquids when placed under large
amount of pressure. When pressure is released, they change
back to gas. Such fuels, often called Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG) or liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), are easily stored and
shipped as liquid.
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid fuels
is used chiefly where certain fuels are abundant and others
are scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted
to gas through heating and various chemical procedures.

2. According to Physical Properties

a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal
temperature inside its container; exist solely in the gaseous
state under pressure. The pressure depends on the pressure
to which the container is originally charged and how much gas
remains in the container. However, temperature affects the
volume and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature
inside its container, exist partly in the liquid state and partly in
gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid
remains in the container. The pressure basically depends on
the temperature of the liquid although the amount of liquid
also affects the pressure under some condition. A liquefied
gas exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result of
heating.
c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exist in its
container at temperature far below normal atmospheric
temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and
correspondingly low to moderate pressure. Examples of this
gas are air, carbon monoxide, ethylene, fluorine, helium,
hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.

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 3. According to Usage
a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for burning
with air to produce heat, utilize as power, light, comfort, and
process. Most commonly used gases are natural gas and the
LPG (butane and propane).
b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number
of gases used for industrial processes as those in welding and
cutting (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (freon, ammonia,
sulfur dioxide); chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen,
ammonia, chlorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine).
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as
anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous oxide); respiratory therapy
(oxygen).

Burning of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State.
Only the proper intermixed with oxygen and sufficient heat is
needed for ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, always
produce a visible flame, they do not smolder.

Chemical Fuels
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid
form, create great amounts of heat and power. They are used
chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist
of both a fuel and an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the
chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as
nitrogen tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant
is ignited, the oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel needs to
burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.

Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or
fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most commonly used
nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy.
When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they
release tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used
mainly to generate electricity. They also power some
submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced
through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
• Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms
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 • Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom

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LESSON V

THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due

to molecular activity.
In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part
of a substance to another or from one body to another by
virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit;
it always flows from substance at a higher temperature to the
substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of
the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided
the volume of the bodies remains constant. Heat does not flow
from lower to a higher temperature unless another form of
energy transfer work is always present.
The study of energy is rooted in the subject of
thermodynamics, a very logical science that carefully defines
energy, heat, temperature and other properties.
Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot
to a cold region. Thermal energy is a property of matter
directly associated with the concept of temperature.
Heat and Temperature
Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is
the measurement of the relative amount of heat energy
contained within a given substance.
Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in
degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin
scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and is given in
British thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat
required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit:
1 Btu heats 1 lb of water 1 °F
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 lb
8.33 Btu heat 1 gallon of water 1 °F
Temperature
Is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation
of molecules; the hotness or coldness of something.
Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature
and commonly expressed in
°C, °F, and °K.
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 Although it is very easy to compare the relative
temperatures of two substances by the sense of touch, it is
impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the
temperature by subjective reactions. Adding heat to a
substance, however, not only raises its temperature, causing
it to impart a more acute sensation of warmth, but also
produces alterations in several physical properties, which may
be measured with precision.

Specific Heat
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat
required raising the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
one-degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance
is maintained at a constant volume or is subjected to a
constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat
at constant volume.
Latent Heat
A number of physical changes are associated with the
change of temperature of a substance. Almost all substances
expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The
behavior of water between 0° and 4°C (32° and 39° F)
constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of
a substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas,
and phase changes in pure substances occur at definite
temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from
solid to gas is referred to as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid
as melting and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the
pressure is constant, the process occurs at constant
temperature. The amount of heat to produce a change of
phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of
sublimation, melting and vaporization exist. If water is boiled
in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature
does not rise above 100°C (212°F), no matter how much heat
is added. For example, the heat that is absorbed without
changing the temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is
not lost but expended in changing the water to steam and is
then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when
the steam is condensed to form water (Condensation).
Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated,
its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The
latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces
holding the particles of ice together and is stored as energy in
the water.

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Temperature Scales
Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:
1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling
point of 100°C. It is widely used throughout the world,
particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking
countries for purposes other than scientific works and based
on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point
of water is 32°F and the boiling point is 212 °F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used
thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero is defined as
absolute zero of temperature, that is, - 273.15 °c, or – 459.67
°F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing
absolute zero as its lowest point in which each degree of
temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit
scale. The freezing point of water under this scale is 492 °R
and the boiling point is 672 °R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of
31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale
with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin
scale and thermodynamic principles. The international scale is
based on the property of electrical resistively, with platinum
wire as the standard for temperature between –190 ° and
660°C.

Heat Production
There are five ways to produce heat:
1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of
rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of
friction. The rubbing of two sticks together to generate
enough heat is an example.
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing,
shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor wire connections,
too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current
flowing through an improperly sized wire are other sources of
electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its
molecular activity is greatly increased producing heat.
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 5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting
or fusing of atomic particles (Fission or fusion respectively).
The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant
produces steam to turn steam turbines.

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Heat Transfer
The physical methods by which energy in the form of
heat can be transferred between bodies are conduction and
radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of
matter, is called convection.
Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat:
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular
activity with in a material or medium, usually a solid. Direct
contact is the underlying factor in conduction. Example, if you
touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a first result of
conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your hand.
In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other
structural members such as walls and floors may conduct
enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.
Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a
circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat transfer by
convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in
structures. The supper- heated gases evolved from a fire are
lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can and do
initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high fireball that
accompanies the incident is referred to as a firestorm and is
an example of convected heat.
Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much
like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the speed, as does visible
light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for
the exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire.
Heat waves travel in a direct or straight line from their source
until they strike an object. The heat that collects on the
surface of the object or building in the path of the heat waves
is subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.
Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or
portions of bodies exchanging heat, but radiation does not
require contact or the presence of any matter between the
bodies. Convection occurs when a liquid or gas is in contact
with a solid body at a different temperature and is always
accompanied by the motion of the liquid or gas. The science
dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies is called heat
transfer.

Agent (Oxygen): The 3rd Element

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 Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless,
tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the most abundant of all
elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth
of its volume, and in

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 combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very
active, being able to combine with nearly all other elements,
and is essential to life processes and to combustion.
The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air.
Air composes 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1 % inert gas
(principally Argon). 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce
fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen is
insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash
point, and 16-21% oxygen can support fire point.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering
the principle of thermal balance and thermal imbalance.
 Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the
pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the pattern is
undisturbed.

 Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal

movement of fire due to the interference of foreign
matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire
investigator in determining the exact point where the
fire originated.

Dangerous Behavior of Fire

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:
1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning
of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the form of
explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a
room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors
maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from
the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur,
which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated
radical gases produced when there is incomplete combustion
of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is
initiated by a spark or flash produced when temperature rises
until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of
radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire
that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance
in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards
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 with in a few seconds.

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 3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the
fire resists extinguishment operations and become stronger
and bigger instead.
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may
happen when the metal post that is completely covered with
dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering
the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent
chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed
by an explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the
following characteristics are observed: normal room
temperature, the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-
800 °F, ceiling temperature is about 200 °F, the pyrolysis
products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small
quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfides maybe present.
2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following
characteristics: accelerated pyrolysis process take place,
development of convection current: formation of thermal
columns as heat rises, temperature is 800-1000 °F at the
base of fire, 1200-1600 °F at ceiling, pyrolytic decomposition
moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame) leaving
burnt patterns (fire fingerprints), occurrence of flashover.
3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following
characteristics: oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing
the flame to vanish and heat to develop in layers, products of
incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly
carbon monoxide with an ignition temperature of about 1125
°F, ceiling temperature is 1000- 1300 °F, heat and pressure in
the room builds up, building/room contains large quantities of
superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen, when
sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.

Classification of Fires
Based on Cause
1. Natural causes – such as
• Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction
that results to spontaneous combustion due to auto-ignition of
organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined
space until ignition temperature is reached.
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 • Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current
with a great magnitude, producing tremendous amperage and
voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better
electrical conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or
indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other
transmission lines, causing an induced line surge. It can also
cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel
or metal rod covered with dust, the dust will suddenly burn
thus resulting to an explosion.
A lightning may be in the form of:
 Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting
combustible materials

 Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a

property or literally blowing apart an entire structure,
produces electrical current with tremendous amperage
and very high temperature.
• Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave
mirror, concentrating the light on a combustible material
thereby igniting it.

2. Accidental Causes – such as

• Electrical accidents in the form of:
 Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections
between two points at different potentials (charge)
in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
 Arcing – the production of sustained luminous
electrical discharge between separated
electrodes; an electric hazard that results when
electrical current crosses the gap between 2
electrical conductors.

 Sparking – production of incandescent particles

when two different potentials (charged
conductors) come in contact; occurs during short
circuits or welding operations.

 Induced Current – induced line surge – increased

electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced
current; sudden increase of electrical current
resulting to the burning of insulating materials,
explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical
appliances.

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  Overheating of electrical appliances – the increase
or rising of amperage while electric current is
flowing in a transmission line resulting to the
damage or destruction

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 of insulating materials, maybe gradual or rapid,
internal or external.
• Purely accidental causes
• Negligence and other forms of human error
3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)
If in the burned property, there are preparations or
traces of accelerant, plants and trailers, then the cause of fire
is intentional.
Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used
to facilitate flame propagation.
Plant – the preparation and or gathering of
combustible materials needed to start a fire.
Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in
order to spread the fire.

Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)

1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire
resulting from the burning wood, paper, textiles, rubber and
other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the type of fire
caused by ordinary combustible materials.
2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable
and or combustible liquids such as kerosene, gasoline,
benzene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon
deviations.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live
electrical wires, equipment, motors, electrical appliances and
telephone switchboards.
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the
combustion of certain metals in finely divided forms. These
combustible metals include magnesium, potassium, powdered
calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium.

LESSON VI

FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and
property. It is one of the most important emergency services
in a community. Fire fighters battle fires that break out in
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 homes, factories, office buildings,

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 shops, and other places. Fire fighters risk their lives to save
people and protect property from fires.
The people who work as fire fighters also help others
who are involved in many kinds of emergencies besides fires.
For example, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped
in cars or vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such
disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes.
Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques,
fires often destroyed whole settlements. When a fire broke
out, all the people in the community rushed to the scene to
help. Today, fire fighting organizations in most industrialized
nations have well-trained men and women and a variety of
modern fire fighting equipment.

History of Fire Fighting

Most fire services around the world were formed after a
major fire made people realize that lives and property would
have been saved if they had had a proper body of people
trained to fight fires. One of the first organized fire fighting
forces was established in Rome, about 500
B.C. The first fire fighters were Roman slaves who, under the
command of the city's magistrates, were stationed on the
walls and the gates of Rome. These units were called Familia
Publica. However, this system was not very effective, probably
because the slaves had no choice in whether they fought fires
or not. In A.D. 6, after an enormous fire devastated Rome, the
Emperor Augustus created the vigiles, a fire fighting force of
7,000 men that was divided into seven regiments. Like many
of today's fire services, the vigiles had the power to inspect
buildings to check for fire risks, and could punish property
owners whose negligence led to fires. The vigiles' fire fighting
equipment included pumps, squirts, siphons, buckets, and
ladders. Wicker mats and wet blankets were used for rescue
and salvage work. The Romans developed advanced fire
fighting equipment. But when the empire fell, much of this
technology was lost for centuries.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, European cities
and towns became disorganized and nobody coordinated fire
fighting. Some people even thought that prayer was the best
way to control fires. Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved.
In many cities people were required to put out their cooking
and home fires at night. In some towns, thatched roofs were
forbidden and night watchmen were employed to raise the
alarm if they discovered a fire.
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 Organized fire services in Europe were usually only
formed after hugely destructive fires. The Great Fire of London
in 1666 led to the development of fire insurance industries in
England. These companies marked their insured properties
with metal badges called fire marks

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 and formed private fire brigades to protect those properties.
Each company's brigade attended only those premises
bearing the company's own fire mark. There was much
competition, and occasionally rival fire brigades even
obstructed each other in their fire fighting efforts. It was not
until the 1800's that London insurance companies began to
cooperate and a single London Fire Engine Establishment was
formed. The new service fought fires in any premises within
the London area.
Serious blazes also caused death and destruction
elsewhere in Europe, and rulers began to realize that it was
necessary to have organized forces to deal with fires. In
France, groups of citizens kept watch for outbreaks of fire, and
regulations controlled rescue operations. In the 1600's, a
number of serious fires spread terror throughout Paris. The
king of France bought 12 pumps, and a private fire service
was established. In 1750, the company of firemen was mostly
taken over by the army, but fires continued to ravage the city
and fire fighting efforts were not always effective. In 1810, the
Emperor Napoleon attended a ball at the Austrian Embassy. A
candle set the curtains ablaze, and the fire spread quickly,
causing a dreadful panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered the
creation of the Battalion de Sapeurs Pompiers and the French
Fire Brigade was born.
Better equipment for getting water to fires and for
fighting fires was developed in the 1500's. Tools included
syringes, which squirted water, but most people relied on
bucket brigades, relays of men passing buckets of water. The
problems with bucket brigades were that many men were
needed, it was very tiring work, and it was not very efficient--
buildings often burned to the ground. In 1672, an uncle and
nephew in Amsterdam, both called Jan van der Heide,
invented a flexible hose, which could be joined together to
form a long pipe. Later, the same men invented a pump to
deliver water through the hose, and fire fighting became much
more efficient. In many places around the world, fire pumps
were first drawn to fires by horses or even by people. Warning
bells enabled people to get out of the way when the pumps
were rushing to a fire. The German company Daimler invented
the first petrol-driven pump in 1885, but the pump still had to
be taken to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire engines were
introduced in the early 1900's, but many countries were slow
to change from horse-drawn pumps. Although today's fire
services have a range of modern equipment, fire can be just
as dangerous now as it was thousands of years ago.

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The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4,
Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) to
be responsible

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 for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and
to enforce the laws on fire.

Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the

various methods used by the bureau to stop, extinguish and
control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life
and property. It has the following objectives: To prevent
destructive fire from starting, To extinguish (stop or put out)
on going destructive fire, To confine a destructive fire at the
place where it began, To prevent loss of life and property
when fire starts.

Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various

safety measures utilized to stop harmful or destructive fires
from starting.
The laws related with the fire prevention and fire
protection in the Philippine setting includes PD # 1185, Fire
Code of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # 1096,
Building Code of the Philippine (19
February 1977).
The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-
trained fire fighters. In fighting fires, they bring with them
ladders and pumps. Additional specialist vehicles can provide
turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms, extra water, foam, and
specialist appliances for hazardous incidents.
In some countries, such as the United States, fire-
fighting units are divided into engine companies and ladder
companies. Engine companies operate trucks called engines,
which carry a pump and hoses for spraying water on a fire.
Ladder companies use ladder trucks, which carry ladders of
various lengths. Ladder trucks also have a hydraulically
extended ladder or elevating platform to rescue people
through windows or to spray water from a raised position.
Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of
fires. Each type requires a different plan of action to put it out.
For example, the methods used to fight a building fire differ
greatly from those used to fight a forest or grassland fire.

Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control

Fire protection and control is affected by the
accumulation of fire hazards in a building or area.
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 Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may
cause increase in the probability that fire will occur or
which may obstruct,

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 delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations
and the safeguarding of life and property.
Conditions of Fire Hazards
1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of
combustible or explosives in the building not designed
to store such materials.
2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.
3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated
opening for fire fighters.
5. Dangerous accumulation of rubbish waste and other
highly combustible materials.
6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of
grease in the kitchen.
7. Building under repair
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of
combustible materials

Fire Fighting Operations

Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression
activities. In general the following procedures should be
observed:
1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves
developing and defining systematic course of actions
that maybe performed in order to realize the objectives
of fire protection: involves the process of establishing
the SOP in case fire breaks out.
2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning
or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process knowing
the emergency situation. It involves mental evaluation
by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the highest
probability of success.
3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring
people, livestock, and property away from the burning
area to minimize damage or destruction that the fire
might incur in case it propagates to other adjacent
buildings.
4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the
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 burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible
manner.

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 5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing
(extricating), thus saving, people and other livestock
from the burning building and other involved properties,
conveying them to a secure place
6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is
the activity of securing other buildings near the burning
structure in order to prevent the fire from the extending
to another building.
7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting
the fire at the place (room) where it started : the
process of preventing fire from extending from another
section or form one section to another section of the
involved building.
8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely
conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the
process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the
involved building with normal air from outside
atmosphere.
9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the
properties from preventable damage other than the fire.
The steps are a) remove the material outside the
burning area, and b) protecting or cover the materials
by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with water
proofing).
10. EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of
putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general
methods of fire extinguishments.
11. OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed
check of the structure and all materials therein to
eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash; involves
complete extinguishments of sparks or smouldering
(glowing) substances (embers) to prevent possibilities of
re-ignition or rekindling.
12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final
stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry
conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of
fire.

What is a Sprinkler System?

A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes
installed throughout a building. The pipes carry water to
nozzles in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the nozzles
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 directly above the fire to open and spray water.
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to
enforce the local code. The officials check the operating
condition of the fire protection systems. They note the number
and location of exits and fire extinguishers. The inspection
also covers housekeeping practices and

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 many other matters that affect fire safety. Fire inspectors
may also review plans for a new building to make sure it meets
the safety code.

What is a Smoke Detector?

Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a
small amount of smoke enters their sensors. Smoke detectors
are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the
home. Fire protection experts recommend at least one
detector for each floor of a residence.
Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable
fire extinguishers in their homes. A person must be sure,
however, to call the fire fighting service before trying to
extinguish a fire. It is also important to use the right kind of
extinguisher for the type of fire involved.

The Fire Extinguishment Theory

The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to
extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the supply of any or all
of the elements of fire.” Fire can be extinguished by reducing/
lowering the temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by
stopping the chemical chain reaction.

4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment

1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction
- Cooling the temperature of the fire environment:
usually done by using water.
- Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point
where it does not produce sufficient vapors that burn.
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal
- Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which may be
done by stopping the flow of liquid fuel, preventing the
production of flammable gas, removing the solid fuel at
the fire path, allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is
consumed
3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution
- Reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning
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 area, by introducing inert gases, by separating oxygen from
the fuel
4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition

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 - Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and
halon, interrupt the production of flame resulting to rapid
extinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only on
burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering
mode of combustion.

What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?

1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the
best agent in cooling the burning solid materials; water has a
quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a
burning material below its ignition temperature; (Fire
extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and special
solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded
stream extinguisher, should be used for this type of fire.)
2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen
exclusion). This type of fire is put or controlled by foam,
loaded stream, and carbon dioxide, dry chemical and
vaporizing liquid.
3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting
extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to always de-
energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be
used to put out these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.
4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents
marked specifically for metals. GE type, meth LX, Lith X, Meth
L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires
5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.

Fire Extinguishers
A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made
of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gasses for stopping
fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose
of putting out fire (particularly small fire ) before it
propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place
to place.
It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited
size.

What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of
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 fight Class A and Class B fires except class C fires.
2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that
contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to fight class A, B, and C
fires

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 3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical
powder intended to fight all classes of fires.
4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium bicarbonate and a
foam- stabilizing agent in a larger compartment and a solution
of aluminumsulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the
two solutions forms a stabilized foam of carbon dioxide
bubbles.
5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate
mixed with water; a small bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended
inside (near the top) in such a way that when the extinguisher
is turned up-side-down, the acid mixes with sodium
bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is formed by the reaction which
results to the building of pressure inside the extinguisher; this
pressure forces the water solution out from the container
through a hose.
6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting
liquid, generalization carbon tetrachloride or
chlorobromethane; operation is by manual pumping or using a
stored pressure; the stream of liquid that is expelled is
vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a smothering
blanket. This type is usually used in fires involving flammable
liquids or electrical equipment.
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning
liquids and fires in live electrical equipment; used mainly to
put out Class C fires.

What are examples of extinguishing agents?

1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-
Ammonium Phosphate
( NH H PO )
2. BCF-HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane
3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic foam-
forming liquid designed for use with fresh water.
4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick
smothering action to the flames, reducing the oxygen and
suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates without leaving
any contamination or corrosive residue.

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What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?
Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire
extinguishers manufactured or sold in the Philippines must be
labelled or marked to show at least the following:
1. Date of original filling
2. Chemical Contents
3. Type of extinguisher
4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage
5. Name and address of the manufacturer
6. Name and address of the dealer.
What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?
Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the
following types of fires extinguishers are prohibited for
manufacture or sale:
1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert
the container before the extinguisher’s operation
2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution,
unless and air-aspiring nozzle is provided
4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon
tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any
concentration of formulation
5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one
kilogram extinguishing agent
6. Glass bulb, “grenade” type, or “bomb” type of
vaporizing liquid extinguishers which have to be thrown
to the fire or are mounted on specific location and which
operate upon the melting of a fusible link.
7. Thematic special hazards single station extinguishers
with extinguishing capability of less than four and a half
(4.5) cubic meters 8. Other types which maybe
hereinafter prohibited.
What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire
extinguishers?
From the same legal basis above, the following are
declared prohibited acts concerning the use of fire
extinguishers:

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 1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire extinguishers
2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a extinguishing
agent other than what the unit was designed to contain

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 3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the hazard
4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, Section
104
5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers
6. Using/installing two or more thematic special hazard
vaporizing liquid units in rooms with volume greater
than the nominal capability of one unit.
7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers which
do not indicate the actual pressure of the interior of
vessel such as, but not limited to use of uncalibrated
gauges, not providing or blocking the connection
between the gauge and the interior, or fixing the
indicator/needle to indicate a certain pressure.

What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?

The general operating procedures in using a fire
extinguisher may be modified by the acronym PASS.
P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps
the handle from being pressed. Press the plastic or thin wire
inspection band.
A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose
assemblies are dipped to the extinguisher body. Released it
and then point at the base of the fire.
S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to
discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The handle can be
released to stop the discharge at any time.
S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame
to disperse the extinguishing agent.
flash of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out
before leaving the burned area.

Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:
1. Communication Systems
They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak
of a fire. Most fire alarms are telephoned to the fire
department. Many countries have introduced a simple, 3-digit
number as the telephone number to call in emergencies.
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 This number can be dialled from almost any

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 telephone and from most pay phones without a coin.
Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency
line is 166.
2. Fire Vehicles
Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The
main types are (1) engines, (2) ladder appliances, and (3)
rescue vehicles.
Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump
that takes water from a fire hydrant or other source. The
pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through
hoses. Engines carry several sizes of hoses and nozzles. Many
also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line, which is
wound on a reel. The booster line is used chiefly to put out
small outdoor fires.
Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder
appliances-- turntable ladders and hydraulic platforms.
A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension
ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder can be raised as
high as 30 meters, or about eight storeys.
A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that
can hold several people. The platform is attached to a lifting
device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting device
consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) or an
extendable boom made of several sections that fit inside each
other. The boom on the largest vehicles can extend 46
meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the boom and is
used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump in a
nearby engine generates the pressure needed to spray the
water.
Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable
ladders of various types and sizes. They also carry forcible
entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry into a building
and to ventilate it to let out smoke. Common forcible entry
tools include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.
Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with
many of the same kinds of forcible entry tools that ladder
appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also carry additional
equipment for unusual rescues. They have such tools as
oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic
jacks, for lifting heavy objects. They may also carry other
hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, fire fighters can
apply a large amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze
them together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to
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 free people trapped in cars and other vehicles after an
accident. Many rescue vehicles also carry small hand tools,
such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for
rescuing people from water or high places. In addition, they
carry medical supplies and equipment.

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 Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and
hazardous materials units. Airport crash tenders are engines
that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is
ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that
involve jet fuel or certain metals. In addition to the above fire
fighting equipment, fire fighters are also required to use
protective clothing.
Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against
flames, falling objects, and other hazards. They wear coats
and trousers made of fire-resistant material. Other clothing
includes special boots, gloves, and helmets. Fire fighters also
use a breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling smoke and toxic
gases.
Fire Prevention and Public Safety
As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the
many safety measures used to keep harmful fires from
starting. Fires not only cause extensive damage to valuable
property, but also responsible for large numbers of deaths.

BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION

In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the
main government agency responsible for the prevention and
suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and
other structures, forest, land transportation vehicles and
equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major
seaports, petroleum industry installation, plane crashes and
other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire
Code and other related laws. It has the major power to
investigate all causes of fires and necessary, file the proper
complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over
the case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).
Why Fires should be investigated?
The very reason why fires should be investigated is to
determine the cause of the fire in order to prevent similar
occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire
is arrived at only after a thorough investigation. Since basic
investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of
the fire, an understanding of the chemistry of fire and its
attendant behavior should be a concern for successful
investigation.
Who are qualified to investigate fires?
A fire investigator should have the following traits:
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 1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.
2. He should have an insight of human behavior.

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 3. He should have a first-hand knowledge of the
chemistry of fire and its behavior
4. He should be resourceful.
Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?
Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the
following reasons:
1. Fire destroys evidence
2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and
committed is discreet.
3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.
What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?
Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire
investigators. Hence, they are valuable sources of information.
They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of the police before,
during and after the fire has been placed under control. The
information taken from them may be categorize as:
1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival
at the
scene
2. Information available to the firemen at the scene
3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.

LESSON VII

Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation

ARSON defined
Arson is the intentional or malicious destruction of
property by fire. It is the concern of fire investigation to prove
malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be proved,
otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is
accidental, hence criminal designs must be shown. Fire cause
by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by
accident or negligence does not constitute arson.
What is Destructive Arson?
Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as
amended, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall be
imposed upon any person who shall burn:
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 1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, consequent to
one single act of burning, or as a result of simultaneous
burnings, or committed on several or different
occasions.
2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted
to the public in general or where people usually gather
or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not
limited to official governmental function or business,
private transaction, commerce, trade workshop,
meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a
definite purpose such as but not limited to hotels,
motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops
or terminals, regardless of whether the offender had
knowledge that there are persons in said building or
edifice at the time it is set on fire and regardless also of
whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or
airplane devoted to transportation or conveyance, or for
public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any
appurtenances thereto, which are devoted to the service
to public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose
of concealing or destroying evidence of another
violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing
bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from
insurance.
Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated
qualifying circumstances, the penalty of reclusion to death shall
likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by
two or more persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether
their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or the
building merely constitutes an overt act in the commission or
another violation of law.
The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be
imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or
firework factory, ordinance, storehouse, archives or general
museum of the government.
2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of
inflammable or explosives materials.
If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized

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under this Article, death results, the mandatory penalty of death
shall be imposed (sec. 10, RA 7659).

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What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?
1. Kind and character of the building burned
2. Location of the building
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not.

What are other forms of arson?

Other forms of arson refer to those enumerated under Article
321 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended like the following:
1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse,
hut, shelter, or vessel in port, knowing it to be occupied
at the time by one or more person.
2. Building burned is a public building and value of
damage exceeds six thousands pesos (P6000.00).
3. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to
destroy evidence kept therein to be used in instituting
prosecution for punishment of violators of law,
irrespective of the amount of damage.
4. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to
destroy evidence kept therein to be used in legislative,
judicial or administrative proceeding, irrespective of the
damage, if the evidence is to be used against defendant
of any crime punishable under existing law.

Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)

Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or
any other property, under circumstances clearly excluding all
danger of the fire spreading, value of the property not exceed 25.00
pesos.

Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)

The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:
1. Explosion
2. Discharge of electric current
3. Inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
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 4. Taking up the rails from a railway track
5. Malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving
trains
6. Destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any
other communication system 7. by using any other agency or
means of destruction as effective as the above
Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson (Read
Case
of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil. 502) (Article 325, RPC)
Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively Owned By
the Offender

This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:

1. Defraud or cause damage to another or
2. Damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even if
such
purpose is absent
3. Thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.
Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson
Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson
1. If committed with intent to gain:
2. If committed with the benefit of another:
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the
owner or occupant of the property burned:
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of
the building or establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials
are stored within the building not necessary in the business of
the offender nor for house hold use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or
combustible substances or materials soaked therewith or
containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or
electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire, or ashes
or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or
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 premises of the burned building or property.

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 4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more
than its actual value at the time of the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance
policy more than two fires have occurred in the same or other
premises owned or under the control of the offender and / or
insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects
insured and stored in a building or property had been
withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of
business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was
made before the fire in exchange for the desistance of the
offender or the safety of the person or property of the victim.

Arson Investigation
What Constitutes Arson?
1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes
place. In other words, there must be burning or
changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed,
its identity changed.
2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the
act was done purposely and intentionally.
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the
commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is
done and involves the will.
Why is arson very hard to investigate?
-Arson is one of the most difficult offenses to investigate
because the arsonist can be able to set a fire and escape
undetected. The fire can consume the scene and destroy much
physical evidence of the offense. Harder forms of evidence are often
buried in debris and grossly altered in appearance.

What Constitutes Burning?

- The mere fact that a building is scorched or discolored by
heat is not sufficient nor will bare intention or even an attempt to
burn a house amount to arson, if no part of it is burned.

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 - Yet, if there is actual ignition of any part of the building,
arson is committed, although there be no flame or the fire
immediately goes out of itself.
- To burn means to consume by fire and in the case of arson,
if the wood is blackened but no fibers are wasted, there is no
burning, yet the wood need not be in flame or blaze, and the
burning of any part, however, small is sufficient to constitute arson,
and if the house is charred in a single place so as to destroy the
fibers of the wood, it is sufficient to constitute arson.

What is Attempted Arson?

- In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a fire
before the crime is committed. No hard and fast rule is laid down by
the law as to the requirements for attempted arson. The peculiar
facts and circumstances of a particular case should carry more
weight in the decision of the case. Thus, a person intending to burn
a wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in gasoline and
places them beside the wooden wall of the building. When he is
about to light a match to set fire to the rags, he is discovered by
another who chases him away.
- The crime committed is attempted arson, because the
offender begins the commission of the crime directly by overacts
(placing the rags soaked in gasoline beside the wooden wall of the
building and lighting a match) but he does not perform all the acts
of execution (the setting of the fire to the rags) due to the timely
intervention of another who chases away) the offender.

What is Frustrated Arson?

- In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to some rags
and jute sacks soaked in kerosene oil and placed near the partition
of the entire soil of an inhabited house, should not be qualified as a
consummated arson, in as much as no part of the house had begun
to burn, although fire would have started in the said partition had it
not been extinguished on time. The crime committed was frustrated
arson.

What is Consummated Arson?

- The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the house and
said house was partially burned. The crime was consummated
arson, notwithstanding the fact that the fire afterwards extinguished
for once it has been started, the consummation of the crime of
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arson does not depend upon the extent of the damage caused.

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 - Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes the
consummated crime of setting fire to a building even if no part of
the building was burned.

Methods of Proof in Arson

- Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove
arson was committed, Corpus Delicti must be shown and identify of
the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime)
is the fact of that crime was committed. The following must show it:
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct
testimony of complaint, firemen responding to the crime,
other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also
indicate location.
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and
intentionally done. The presence of incendiary devices,
flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that
the fire is not accidental.
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from the
building before the fire, ill-feeling between the accused and
the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to
put off fire and such other indications.

Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator should seek at the Fire
scene are the following:

1. Unusually rapid spread of the fire.

2. Where it originated?
3. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires break-out within
a building, the fire is certainly suspicious.
4. Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other
inflammable liquids are indicated by their characteristics and
oftentimes, arsonists are trapped because of this tell tale signs.
5. Articles that seem, by all accounts, to be unfamiliar to the scene,
for example, jars, candles, matches, explosives, electrical machines,
for example, irons, warming components, tickers, radios,
flammables, trailers, and so on
6. Roasting example may show fire attributes. The way that the fire
benefits from flammable while engendering itself, shows that the
singe will by and large be most profound from where the fire begins.
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At the point when a fire is stifled rapidly, the burning is just
somewhat beneath the surface. Fire consuming for a more drawn
out timeframe will show a single that is profound

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and articulated. These realities are generally obvious in the singing
of wood as a fire consumes. The roasting from fire on woods
resembles the stow away of a dark crocodile. Fire doused rapidly on
wood will show an enormous alligatoring design that has not enter
the wood to any degree. Fire consuming for a significant stretch of
time on wood will show little alligatoring design however the roast
will dive deep into the wood. The course of fire can likewise be
thought about with singing. The uncovered side of burnable will
have a more profound singe than the unexposed side.
7. Proof of persuasive section or absence of same might be
significant relying upon the conditions at the hour of the fire. On the
off chance that the agent decides there was no persuasive section
and finds that the structure was made sure about before disclosure
of the fire, he can sensibly speculate there is probability that the
individual who sets the fire entered the structure with a key.
Entryways and windows giving indications of constrained section
may highlight fire related crime went before by thievery or illegal
conflagration by somebody without a key to the premises.

What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?

The arson investigator must have to inquire on the
following a) point of origin of fire b) motives of arsonist c)
prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.

1. Point of origin of fire

Initially, the important point to be established is the
point of origin of fire. In other words, at what particular place
in the building the fire started? This may be established by an
examination of the witness, by an inspection of the debris at
the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of fire. The
fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the
fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls
leaving a bunt pattern.
Witnesses must be questioned as to:
1. His identity
2. What attracted his attention?
3. Time of observation
4. His position in relation to the fire at the
time of observation
5. Exact location of the blaze
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 6. Size and intensity

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 7. Rapidity of spread
8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this
9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness
Note fire setting mechanism
1. Matches
2. Candles
3. Electrical system
4. Mechanical means
5. Chemical methods
Motive of Arsonist
To understand the motives of arsonist, the
arson investigator have to note the following
that fires are set by:

Persons with Motives

a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer
b. Employees or such other person who have a
grievance (Fire revenge)
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
People without motives
a. Those who are mentally ill
b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros and the Psychos

Motives of Arsonist
1. Economic Gain
a. Insurance fraud – benefiting
b. Desire to dispose merchandise – loss of market
value being out of season, lack of raw materials,
over supply of merchandise can be a big reason
for arson.

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 c. Existing business transaction that the arsonist
would like to avoid such as impending liquidation,
settlement of

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 estate, need for cash, prospective business failure,
and increase rentals
d. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Assured
like insurance agents wishing business with the
assured, business competitors planning to drive
others, person seeking job as personnel
protection, salvagers and contractors wishing to
contact another building

2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a

crime or committing a crime, arson was used as means.
3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to
another due to hatred, jealousy and revenge.
4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as
saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to intimidate
management or employer.
5. Pyromania
A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse
to burn anything without any motivation. They do not
run away from the fire scene since they love watching
fire burning.

Types of Pyromania
a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons
b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and
pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make some
rescue works to appear as “hero”
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts.
2. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences)
The development of prime suspects - this involves
identification results from the full development of leads, clues
and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the
development of expert testimony, the following technique
may serve the investigation:
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence:
a. Protection of the scene
b. Mechanics of search
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 c. Collection and preservation of evidences

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 d. Laboratory aids
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants
of premises, owner of building or other person
having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who
discovered the fire, and the one who turned the
first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance
3. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson
These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the
scene will suspects arson or they may be so well concealed
that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will
be required.
1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a
set fire under certain circumstance. A fire of considerable
size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is
suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-concrete
building.
2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out
within a building. The fire is certainly suspicious.
3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but
they are exception. The observation of the smoke must be
made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion, the value of the smoke is lost,
because the smoke will not indicate the material used by
the arsonist
a.) When white smoke appears before the water from the fire
hose comes in contact with the fire, it indicates humid
material burning. Example – burning hay, vegetable
materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor).
b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing
lacrymation and coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large
flames it
indicates petroleum products and rubber.
d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04,
HN03, or HCI.
e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:
• Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar,
rubber, plastics, etc.
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 • Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
• White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products

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 • Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
• Purple-violet flame – potassium products
• Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or Manganese products •
Bright
reddish yellow flame – Calcium products
8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good indication
of the intensity of the fire, an important factor in
determining incendiarism.
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000
degrees centigrade, a real bright read about 100 degrees
centigrade. Red flames indicate of petroleum. Blue flame
indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.
10. Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will determine
the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the character as
residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks
have often been of assistance in determining the possibility
of a fire having more than one place of origin.
11. Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the
type of alarm, the time received and the time of arrival of
the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed a
normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after an
examination of the material burned the building and the
normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element
and the degree of headway by the flames become
important factors to determine factors to determine
possible incendiarism.
12. Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires
burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire
makes normal progress through various types of building
materials, combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation
and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an
experienced investigator can determine whether a fire
spread abnormally fast.
13. Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the
color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some accelerant
has been added to the material normally present in a
building and the investigator must look for further evidence
pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of
such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.
14. Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other
inflammable liquids which are often used as accelerant is
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 characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped
because of this tell-tale sign. Most of fire – setters are
inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain
and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.

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 15. Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their house
on fire frequently remove objects of value either materially
or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments
oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or
replace valuable merchandise without of style articles.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 ABATEMENT - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire
hazard.
 ADMINISTRATOR – any person who acts as agent of the owner
and manages the use of a building or establishments.
 ARSON - intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.
 BLASTING AGENT – any material or mixture consisting of
fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.
 CELLULOSE NITRATE OR NITRO CELLULOSE – a highly
combustible and explosive compound produced by the
reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.
 CELLULOSE NITRATE PLASTIC (PYROXYLIN) - any plastic
substance, materials or compound having cellulose nitrate as
base.
 COMBUSTIBLE/FLAMMABLE OR INFLAMMABLE - Descriptive of
materials that are easily set on fire.
 COMBUSTIBLE FIBER – any readily ignitable and free burning
fiber such as cotton, rags, waste clothes, papers, kapok, hay,
straw, Spanish moss and other similar materials commonly
used in commerce.
 COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID - any liquid having a flash point at or
above
37.8 degrees Celsius or 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
 COMBUSTION – a chemical process accompanied by the
evolution of heat and light. More accurately, it is the rapid
oxidation of fuel so as to produce flame (burning gases), heat,
and light.
 CORROSIVE LIQUID – any liquid which causes fire when in
contact with organic matter or with certain chemicals.
 CURTAIN BOARD - a vertical panel of non-combustible or fire
resistive materials attached to and extending below the
bottom chord of the roof trusses, to divide the underside of
the roof into separate compartments so that heat and smoke
will be directed upwards to a roof vent.
 CRYOGENIC - descriptive of any material which by its nature
or as a result of its reaction with other elements produces a
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 rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.
 DAMPER - A normally open device installed inside an air duct
system which automatically closes to restrict the passage of
smoke or fire.

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  DISTILLATION - the process of first raising the temperature to
separate the more volatile from the less volatile parts and
then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to
produce as nearly purified substance.
 DUCT SYSTEM - a continuous passageway for the transmission of
air.
 DUST - a finely powdered substance which, when mixed with
air in the proper proportion and ignited will cause an
explosion.
 ELECTRICAL ARC - an extremely hot luminous bridge formed
by passage of an electric current across a space between two
conductors or terminals due to the incandescence of the
conducting vapor.
 EMBER - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has
partially burned, and is still oxidizing without the
manifestation of flames.
 FINISHES - materials used as final coating of a surface for
ornamental or protective purposes.
 FIRE -A series of chemical reactions. It is often defined as the
visible, active phase of combustion.
It is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction
occurring between fuel and an oxidizer- typically the
oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases
energy in the form of heat and light.

The active principle of burning characterized by the heat

and light of combustion.
 FIRE ALARM - any visual or audible signal produced by a
device or system to warn the occupants of the building or the
fighting element of the presence or danger of fire to enable
them to undertake immediate action to save life and property
and to suppress the fire.
 FIRE ANALYSIS - the process of determining the origin, cause
and responsibility as well as the failure analysis of fire or
explosion.
 FIRE CAUSE - the circumstances or agencies that bring a fuel
and an ignition source together with proper air or oxygen.
 FIRE DOOR - a fire restrictive door prescribed for openings in
fire separation walls or partitions.
 FIRE HAZARD - any condition or act which increases or may
cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire
or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with
firefighting operations and the safeguarding of life and
property.
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  FIRE LANE - the portion of a roadway or public way that should
be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for the
expedient operations of firefighting units.
 FIRE POINT/FLAME POINT - the lowest temperature at which
liquid fuel produces a flammable vapor in sufficient quantity
such that if a source of ignition is introduced, the vapor will
ignite and is usually a few degrees above the flash point.

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  FIRE PROTECTIVE AND FIRE SAFETY DEVICE - any device
intended for the protection of buildings or persons to include
but not limited to build in protection system such as sprinklers
and other automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat,
smokeand combustion products and other warning system
components, personal protective equipment such as fire
blankets, helmets, fire suits, globes and other garments that
may be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves
during fire.
 FIRE SAFETY CONSTRUCTIONS - refers to design and
installations of walls, barriers, doors, windows, vents, means
of egress etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or
structure in order to minimize danger to life, from smoke, fire,
fumes or panic before the building is evacuated.
 FIRE SPREAD - the movement of fire from one place to another.
 FIRE TRAP - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will
burn easily or because it lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.
 FIRE ALARM - Any visual or audible signal produced by a
device or system to warm the occupants of the building or
firefighting elements of the presence or danger of fire to
enable them to undertake immediate action to save life and
property and to suppress the fire.
 FIRE HAZARD - Any condition or act which increases or may
cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire,
or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with
firefighting operations and the safeguarding of life and
property.
 FLASH FIRE - a fire that spreads with extreme rapidity such as
the one that race over dust, over the surface of flammable
liquids or through gases.
 FLASH POINT - The minimum temperature at which any
material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an
ignitable mixture with air; the lowest temperature at which
liquid fuel produces a flammable vapor.
 FORCING - a process where a piece of metal is heated prior to
changing its shape or dimensions.
 FUEL – a material or substance being oxidized or burned in the
combustion process; material such as coal, gas, or oil that is
burned to produce heat or power.
 FUEL LOAD - the total quantity of combustible contents of the
building, spaces or fire area, including interior finish and trim
expressed in heat units or the equivalent weight in wood.
 FULMINATE - a kind of stable explosive compound which
explodes by percussion.
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  HAZARDOUS OPERATION/PROCESS - any act of
manufacturing, fabrication, conversion etc., or produces
materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.

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  HEAT RELEASE RATE - is a measure of the amount of energy a
specific type of fuel can contribute to the heat flux in a fire.
 HEAT TRANSFER - the mechanism in which fire can spread
from its origin to other sources of fuel.
 HORIZONTAL EXIT - passage way from one building to another
or through or around a wall in approximately the same floor
level.
 HOSE BOX – a box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves, and
other equipment are stored and arranged for firefighting.
 HOSE REEL – a cylindrical device turning on an axis around
which a hose is wound and connected.
 HYPERGOLIC FUEL - a rocket or liquid propellant which
consists of combinations of fuels and oxidizers which ignite
simultaneously on contact with each other.
 IGNITION/AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE - the temperature at
which a fuel will ignite on its own without any additional
source ignition.
 IGNITION TEMPERATURE – Temperature at which a flammable
material will ignite whether it be gas, liquid, or solid.
 INDUSTRIAL BAKING AND DRYING - the industrial process of
subjecting materials to heat for the purpose of removing
solvents or moisture from the same and, or to fuse certain
chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of
materials being treated.
 JUMPER - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to
bypass a safety device in an electrical system.
 OCCUPANCY - the purpose for which a building or portion
thereof is used or intended to be used.
 OCCUPANT - any person actually occupying and using a
building or portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with
the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of
the latter.
 ORGANIC PEROXIDE - a strong oxidizing organic compound
which release oxygen readily. It causes fire when in contact
with combustible materials especially under conditions of high
temperature.
 OVERLOADING - The use of one or more electrical appliances
or devices which draw or consume electrical current beyond
the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.
 OWNER - the person who holds the legal right of possession or
title to a building or real property.
 OXIDIZING MATERIAL - a material that readily yields oxygen in
quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.
 POINT OF ORIGIN - the exact physical location where a heat
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 source and fuel comes in contact with each other and a fire
begins.
 PRESSURIZED OR FORCED DRAFT BURNING EQUIPMENT - type
or burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to
discharge into the combustion chamber and /or which
includes fans or other

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EZRA RIZLE L. GRAMAJE 115
 provisions for the introduction of air above normal
atmosphere pressure into the same combustion chamber.
 PUBLIC ASSEMBLY BUILDING - any building or structure where
50 or more people congregate, gather or assemble for any
purpose.
 PUBLIC WAY - any street, alley or other strip of land
unobstructed from the ground to the sky, dedicated for public
use.
 PYROPHORIC - descriptive of any substance that ignites
spontaneously when exposed to air.
 REFINING - a process where impurities and, or deleterious
materials are removed from a mixture in order to produce a
pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial
distillation and electrolysis.
 REKINDLE - a return to flaming combustion after incomplete
extinguishment of a fire reigning at some time after being put
out.
 SPALLING - chipping or pitting of concrete or masonry surfaces.
 SELF-CLOSING DOORS - automatic closing doors that are
designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the spread of
fire.
 SMELTING - melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds
so as to separate impurities from pure metals.
 SPRINKLER SYSTEM - An integrated network of hydraulically
designed piping installed in a building, structure or area with
outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically
discharges water when activated by heat or combustion
products from a fire.
 STANDPIPE SYSTEM - A system of vertical pipes in a building
to which fire hoses can be attached on each floor, including a
system by which water is made available to the outlets as
needed.
 THERMAL INERTIA - the ease at which a material can be ignited.
 VAPOR DENSITY - the density of the vapor relative to the
density of air and is calculated by dividing the molecular
weight of the gas by that of air.
 VERTICAL SHAFT - An enclosed vertical space of passage that
extends from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top
of the building.
 VESTIBULE - a passage hall or ante chamber between the
outer doors and the interior parts of a house or building.
 RA 9514 - Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008 (Dec.
19, 2008).
 PD 1185 - known as the fire code of the Philippines, was
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 enacted into law 1977, repealed by RA no. 9514.
 RA 9263 - Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail
Management and Penology Professionalization Act of 2004.

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Other Terminologies:
 Flashover - occurs when a room or other area is heated
enough that flames sweep over the entire surface.
 Propagation of Fire - means the spread of fire. As a
substance burns, fire propagation will be increased by
the transmission of heat by nearby materials.
 Intensity of Fire - means “how hot the fire is burning.”
There are factors to determine the intensity of fire: the
type of fuel being burned and the percentage of oxygen
present.
 Magnitude of Fire - the size of a fire and it is governed by
the surface area of fuel exposed to the air.

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FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION Page
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