Farming Based Livelihood Systems

Course No: - CC 111 Credit: - 2 + 1 = 3

SEM: - I
INDEX

Lecture No Title of topic

Status of agriculture in India and different states, Income of
1&2
farmers and rural people in India.
Livelihood-Definition, concept and livelihood pattern in urban &
3&4
rural areas, Different indicators to study livelihood systems.
Agricultural livelihood systems (ALS): Meaning, approach,
5&6
approaches and framework.
Definition of farming systems and farming based livelihood
7
systems.
8&9 Prevalent Farming systems in India contributing to livelihood.

10 &11 Types of traditional & modern farming systems.

Components of farming system/ farming-based livelihood
12 & 13
systems.
Crops and cropping systems, Livestock, (Dairy, Piggery, Goatry,
14 & 15
Poultry, Duckry etc.),
Horticultural crops, Agro-forestry systems, Aqua culture
16 & 17
Duck/Poultry cum Fish, Dairy cum Fish, Piggery cum Fish etc.
Small, medium and large enterprises including value chains and
secondary enterprises as livelihood components for farmers,
18 & 19
Factors affecting integration of various enterprises of farming for
livelihood.
Feasibility of different farming systems for different agro-climatic
20 & 21
zones.
Commercial farming-based livelihood models by NABARD,
22 & 23
ICAR and other organizations across the country.
Case studies on different livelihood enterprises associated with the
24 & 25
farming.
26 & 27 Risk & success factors in farming-based livelihood systems,
Schemes & programmes by Central & State Government, Public
28 & 29 & Private organizations involved in promotion of farming-based
livelihood opportunities.
Role of farming-based livelihood enterprises in 21st Century in
30 & 31 view of circular economy, green economy, climate change,
digitalization & changing life style.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 1 & 2
STATUS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA AND DIFFERENT STATES, INCOME OF
FARMERS AND RURAL PEOPLE IN INDIA.
Livelihood system: - a means of supporting one's existence, especially financially or
vocationally; living.
Rural Livelihoods: Farming systems are a source of income and employment for millions
of people worldwide, particularly in rural areas. By providing a range of
income-generating activities, farming systems can help to alleviate
poverty and improve the livelihoods of rural communities.
Status of agriculture in India and different states: -
The agriculture sector employs nearly half of the workforce in the country.
However, it contributes to 18-19% of the GDP (at current prices in 2023).
Over the past few decades, the manufacturing and services sectors have
increasingly contributed to the growth of the economy, while the agriculture sector’s
contribution has decreased from more than 50% of GDP in the 1950s to 15.4% in 2015-
16 (at constant prices).
India’s production of food grains has been increasing every year, and India is
among the top producers of several crops such as wheat, rice, pulses, sugarcane and
cotton. It is the highest producer of milk and second highest producer of fruits and
vegetables. In 2013, India contributed 25% to the world’s pulses production, the highest
for any one country, 22% to the rice production and 13% to the wheat production. It also
accounted for about 25% of the total quantity of cotton produced, besides being the
second highest exporter of cotton for the past several years.
Despite global turmoil due to war, natural calamities, and pandemic induced
disruptions, India has maintained an annual growth momentum of 6 percent for over a
decade, and in FY2023 it recorded a robust 7.2 percent annual rate of growth. The
agricultural sector has shown a remarkable resilience under the prevailing uncertain
conditions, as is evidenced by its 3.3 percent (FY2021) and 3.5 percent (FY2022) annual
rate of growth in real prices. The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) during the past
12-year period ending FY2023 is close to 4 percent (Figure 3). The rate of growth,
however, is not uniform across the states. Figure 3 reveals the state-wise CAGR of overall
GDP and GVA in agriculture over the decade from 2011/2012 to 2022/2023. Among the
eight states of India’s North-Eastern Region, Mizoram’s progress is significant in terms
of GDP growth (10.1 percent); this is followed closely by Gujarat’s 8.5 percent growth,

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 and Karnataka’s 7.5 percent growth. In terms of agricultural GVA, Andhra Pradesh takes
the lead with 8.57 percent CAGR, followed by Mizoram at 8.45 percent and Tripura at
6.02 percent. These figures are indicative of the economic dynamism and agricultural
prowess of these states. Among the states, Kerala has a negative CAGR in agriculture at
-1.14 percent. A number of other states (Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Uttar
Pradesh) have demonstrated consistent growth in both GDP and agricultural GVA.
Indian agriculture is on a high growth trajectory. One of the factors that has
contributed to higher income growth is diversification toward allied activities. At the time
of independence, the crop sector dominated; in the subsequent decades, however,
especially after the 1980s, acceleration was seen in the share of livestock. The crop
sector’s share in agricultural GVA decreased from 79.3 percent in Triennium ending (TE)
1952 to 54.8 percent in TE 2022 while the share of livestock has almost doubled from 16
to 30 percent over the same period. The contribution of fisheries to total value of
agricultural output has also increased from 0.6 percent in TE 1952 to 6.6 percent in TE
2022. The share of forestry in total agricultural GVA remains low.
Within the crop sector, the share of horticulture has increased from 10.8 percent
in TE 1952 to 33.5 percent in TE 2022 (Figure 5). India can boast of achieving food
security at the national and household levels and in recent years it can also be considered
to have attained nutrition security. Due to rising per capita income, growing urbanisation,
and a rapid increase in the integration of the domestic economy with the world economy,
consumers are diversifying toward more nutrient-rich diets and the agricultural sector is
able to meet their demand. Though the share of the crop sector in total income has been
declining, it remains the principal source of income generation. The crop and livestock
sectors complement each other and thus generate a strong synergy. As evident from
Figure 6, the fisheries subsector is prominent in coastal areas and forestry is important in
hilly regions. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, and Karnataka place significant
importance on crops, which constitute a 38.53, 66.58, and 60.73 percent share in their
respective agricultural GVA totals. Within the crop sector, horticulture emerges as a
significant contributor, as illustrated in Table A2 in the Appendix. In states such as Sikkim
(87.3 percent), Kerala (43.4 percent), Himachal Pradesh (41.7 percent), and Meghalaya
(41.5 percent), horticulture makes a noteworthy contribution to the agricultural GVA.
Relative to other states, livestock’s share of agricultural GVA is high in Haryana (43.73
percent) and Punjab (35.26 percent). Fishing and aquaculture activities are notable in
Sikkim and Goa with 87.10 percent and 26.98 percent share in GVA, respectively.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 Forestry holds significant importance in the north eastern states, especially in Mizoram
and Assam. Table 1 presents the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) in each of the
agricultural subsectors for the period 2011/2012 to 2022/2023 across states and union
territories. Notably, a positive and high rate of growth in GVA crops can be observed in
Madhya Pradesh (5.84 percent), Karnataka (4.76 percent), and Andhra Pradesh (4.37
percent); livestock GVA, on the other hand, shows a much higher rate of growth in
Madhya Pradesh (13.48 percent), Assam (12.74 percent), and Tripura (12.99 percent). A
few states exhibit a decline in the annual rate of growth of crop cultivation, including
Kerala (-2.36 percent) and Nagaland (-10.33 percent). Fishing and aquaculture exhibit
promising growth in Meghalaya (15.00 percent), Odisha (11.05 percent), and
Chhattisgarh.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 3 & 4
LIVELIHOOD-DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND LIVELIHOOD
PATTERN IN URBAN & RURAL AREAS, DIFFERENT INDICATORS TO
STUDY LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS.

Livelihood: - a means of supporting one's existence, especially financially or vocationally;

living.
Rural Livelihoods: Farming systems are a source of income and employment for millions
of people worldwide, particularly in rural areas. By providing a range of
income-generating activities, farming systems can help to alleviate
poverty and improve the livelihoods of rural communities.

Livelihood is the basic concern for all living beings. It is one of the basic rights
of humans. Livelihood is the primary condition for human survival. Livelihood is both the
means and ends in life. It is the means for happy and successful life. As an end, it is the chief
motivator for the youth. Career and occupation are synonyms to livelihood. Livelihood can
be operationally defined as an economically and socially meaningful and productive
engagement or occupations in life. There are occupations in the organized and unorganized
sectors, public and private sectors, and government and non-governmental sectors.
Occupations are generally classified as service, business, agriculture and allied occupations,
trades and crafts. Service can be in corporate sector, and government, semi-government and
non-governmental sectors. Service can be regular or temporary. Self-employment or setting
up of own small-scale business or enterprise is another important occupation in the
unorganized sector. It is the primary objective and purpose of education and training.
There is marked difference between rural, urban and tribal livelihood. There is
maximum variety and novelty with regard to urban livelihood options, while there are
limited options with regard to rural and tribal livelihood. Livelihood options in the urban
areas are often regular, skilled, highly specialized, organized, formal, flexible, industrial and
economically more productive than those in the rural areas. Urban options are mostly in the
secondary (industrial and manufacturing) and tertiary (service and trade) sectors. Livelihood
options in the rural areas are primarily agriculture and allied occupations. They are often
seasonal, irregular, unorganized, informal, and economically less productive than those in
the urban areas. Rural urban migration can be explained as movement of people from rural
areas to urban areas in search of better livelihood options.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 There is little difference between life and livelihood in the tribal areas. Tribal
livelihood options are traditional and often fixed. Tribal occupations are generally nomadic
and pastoral. Their livelihood options are related to food gathering while the rural livelihood
options are related to food production. Several nomadic and pastoral communities get
settled with agriculture and allied occupations in rural areas and become rural communities.
Tribal communities generally live in harmony with nature. Their life cannot be separated
from their occupations. Their economic life seldom rises from subsistence level to
commercial level. They do not produce anything surplus so that they would increase their
wealth, personal income or profit. Wealth generation is not their priority.
Rural livelihood
Rural livelihood is the engagement of rural population in various economically
productive occupations. The hallmark of rural livelihood is agriculture and allied occupations.
Major livelihood activities for rural population are cultivation of food and cash crops, fish
farming, cattle rearing, dairying, food processing, wood industries, organized plantation
activities such as rubber, tea, cashew, coffee, cardamom, pepper etc. It can be seen that there is
a gradual and increasing urbanization and industrialization of rural livelihood. There are several
emerging occupations in the rural sector, such as, rural transportation, rural communication, rural
health and education sector, rural infrastructure, export oriented organic farming, horticulture,
floriculture etc. Increasing the rural and urban connectivity, such as, rurban projects offers new
avenues of rural livelihood.
There is close connection and collaboration between rural and urban livelihood.
Knowingly or unknowingly, we are following an urban model of economic development. While
the government announces the smart city project, we should not forget that new towns and cities
emerge from developed villages. Every village is in a process of transformation to city. There is
constant rural urban as well as urban rural migration of skilled as well as unskilled people.
Therefore, there is a common consideration for non-agricultural occupations in both rural and
urban areas. In the context of urbanization of rural areas, division of non-agricultural occupations
in the rural and urban sectors is arbitrary and unreasonable. What can be called typically rural
livelihood is the agricultural and allied occupations.
Accepting the basic premise that, rural livelihood is what rural populations do, rural
livelihood can broadly be grouped into agricultural and non-agricultural activities. Non-
agricultural activities are similar to what urban populations are engaged in. Agricultural and
allied occupations are typical of rural livelihood. There is a large number of people who are
engaged in agriculture and allied activities like cattle rearing, fish farming, dairying etc. Landless

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
people constitute the vast majority of rural mass who are engaged in agriculture and allied
occupations. When we discuss about rural livelihood we should exclusively think about the
agriculture and allied occupations.
Rural livelihood is related to rural development. Rural livelihood is just one key
component of rural development. Rural development considers all the agricultural and non-
agricultural livelihood options. In ideal situations, rural and urban development considerations
are similar or ideally developed villages are similar to the ideally developed cities and towns. It
is a challenge to distinguish rural and urban development factors. When we consider rural
livelihood independent of rural and urban development, we need to concentrate on purely
agricultural and allied occupations, the factors influencing their promotion and the consideration
for the sustainable rural livelihood.

Factors of rural livelihood: -

1. Personal factors: - Most important factor in rural livelihood is personal interest and
motivation. The recent trend in India is a fascination for urban livelihood. Seldom can
we find educated and qualified manpower engaged in agricultural and allied occupations.
Unless the rural population is sincerely interested in continuing cultivation, dairying,
cattle rearing, fish farming and other allied occupations, rural livelihood options cannot
be protected and promoted. These occupations constitute the primary economic activity.
People show a gradual trend of shifting from primary sector to secondary and tertiary
sectors of occupations. This shift is generally considered as sign of economic progress.
In order to protect a nation’s economic stability, we need to reverse this false trend.
2. Social factors: - Social factors constitute the demographic, gender, family, educational,
caste and class factors. Often the rural livelihood is not the matter of personal choice, but
a social obligation. One’s social and demographic factors influence their particular
livelihood options. There are traditional and household occupations, caste based
occupations and socially imposed rural occupations in the agricultural and allied sectors.
Government and civil society organizations have to take special care in dealing with these
social factors that influence rural livelihood. There are both positive and negative impacts
of social factors. Positively, these factors provide with social stability and collective
responsibility. Negatively they conflict with individual aspirations, interests, abilities,
talents and motivations. Maintaining a judicious balance between social change and
social stability is the most challenging task in dealing with rural livelihood.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 3. Economic factor: - Inheritance of wealth and the land resources in the rural areas is an
important factor in rural livelihood. There is a vast majority of landless agricultural
labourers who are engaged in rural livelihood options. They fluctuate between rural and
urban livelihood seasonally. Since most of the agricultural operations are seasonal by
nature, they have no other option that shifting from one occupation to another. Since they
seldom own rural resources such as land and cattle, they have limited opportunity in the
agriculture allied engagements. They prefer to migrate seasonally to urban areas and
engage in non-agricultural, unskilled occupations such as construction, domestic labour,
daily wager, and casual labour in the industrial and manufacturing houses. Securing
productive assets to the rural mass is a challenge for the civil authorities dealing with
rural livelihood.
4. Cultural factors: - Cultural factors in the rural areas are mainly concerned with caste
factors. Other cultural factors are linguistic and regional considerations. These factors
have indelible impact on one’s livelihood options in the rural areas. Cultural factors play
the same role as that of social factors with regard to rural livelihood. Rural livelihoods
for many are culturally determined and the individuals have limitations in the choice of
a desired occupation. The government and civil society organisations have challenging
task to deal with all the cultural factors that interfere with the people’s livelihood options.
5. Religious factors: - Religion is another important cultural factor which has significant
influence upon rural livelihood. Certain occupations are considered meritorious from
certain religious perspectives and certain others are considered undesirable. Religion
sometimes interferes with the personal, social and national interests and the civil agencies
as well as the government face great challenge to deal with such religious forces while
dealing with rural livelihoods.
6. Geographical factors: - Geographic factors include the type of soil, availability of water,
distance from the sea and the height from the sea level. All these factors affect all the
agricultural and allied activities. They are the major considerations while dealing with
rural livelihood. The government and non-government agencies working in the rural
sector have to take due consideration of all these geographical factors while designing
new projects for protecting and promoting rural livelihood options. Conservation of soil
and water is the chief geographical consideration in the context of rural livelihood.
7. Climatic factors: - Climatic factors include the possibility of monsoon rainfall, wind,
cyclone or flood conditions, severity of winter and summer etc. Climatic conditions are
related to geography of a particular village. Therefore, geographical and climatic factors

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 are often considered together and they have significant impact on rural livelihood.
Climatic conditions are often beyond human control and we need to adapt to such
conditions. Rural livelihood options have to take due consideration of all the climatic
forces. For example, the cropping pattern, rotation of crops and farming schedules have
to be in accordance with the climatic factors.
8. Ecological factors: - Ecological factors refer to the environmental impacts of rural
livelihood. It is related to the sustainability of the rural livelihood. Rural livelihood
should not affect the ecological balance or endanger the environment. They should not
pollute, water, air and soil resources. People need to engage in such economic activities
that would protect the environment or inflict minimum damage to the natural resources.
From ecological perspective, tribal livelihood options are most ecofriendly and the urban
livelihood options are the least ecofriendly. Rural livelihoods are sometimes ecofriendly
and sometimes ecologically harmful. Deforestation, soil erosion and water contamination
(due to the use of pesticides) are often cited as harmful impacts of agricultural and allied
activities. Farmers need to be taught about organic farming and the ways and means to
practice rural livelihoods in harmony with nature. This is related to the sustainable rural
livelihood.
livelihood pattern in urban area
Different indicators to study livelihood systems
1. Food security: - Food is vital for human survival. The increasing population, unequal
developments and climatic variability have detrimental impacts on the availability of
adequate food to all. The term ‘food security’ was first used in the international
development literature of the 1960s and 1970s, and was referred to the ability of a country
or region to assure adequate food supply for its current and projected population
(Ramachandran, 2013). The World Food Summit, 1996 defines food security as ‘when
all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy
life’ (FAO, 1996). This was a comprehensive definition for food security which brings
into focus the linkage between food, nutrition and health (Ramachandran, 2013). Food
security measurements generally include food consumption behaviour, dietary diversity,
food frequency and proportion of expenditure on food (Vhurumuku, 2014).
2. Water security: - There is immense importance of water in human life. But in last few
decades a huge water crisis has been observed world over due to over exploitation of
underground sources, excess and unsafe use in industrial and other areas and climatic

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 irregularity. Considering the crux of the problem, United Nations declared International
Decade for Action ‘Water for Life’ 2005-2015 (UNDESA. 2005). UN-Water (2013)
defines water security as the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to
adequate quantities of acceptable quality of water for sustaining livelihoods, human
wellbeing and socio-economic development for ensuring protection against water-borne
pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystem in a peace and
political stability. According to Millennium Development Report (United Nations, 2015),
in 2015, 91 per cent of the global population is using an improved drinking water source,
compared to 76 per cent in 1990.
3. Housing & sanitation security: - Housing & sanitation are essentials for a healthy living
and forms a vital part of ensuring human dignity. Every human need adequate shelter that
not merely stands for a roof over one’s head but also it refers to adequate privacy,
adequate space, physical Forum for Development Studies 5 accessibility, adequate
security, adequate lighting, heating and ventilation, adequate basic infrastructure to all of
which should be available at affordable cost (GOI, 2008, p. 07). The adequate housing
must have houses that are built of pucca material, at least have two rooms, an electricity
connection, a source of water inside the house or immediately outside it, and a
functioning latrine (Singh et al., 2013). Access to adequate housing has, on different
occasions and in different forums, been recognized as a human right (United Nations,
1949, 1991, 2009).
4. Education security: - Education is a prerequisite in modern human life as it makes
people resourceful and human resource constitutes the ultimate basis for a wealth of
nations. Human resource accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social,
economic and political organisations and carry forward national development (Frederick
H. H., 1973, as cited in Joseph, 2007, p. 1). Education is taken as a basic indicator of HDI
calculation by UNDP and one of eight international development goals established in
Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000 (United Nations, 2000). India has
enacted the 86th Constitution Amendment Act and inserted Article 21A in the Constitution
which makes education a Fundamental Right for Children aged 6 –14 years that as- ‘the
State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to
fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine’ (GOI, 2010).
5. Health security: - Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1948). The maternal and child
healthcare is one of the eight basic components of primary healthcare in the Declaration

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 of Alma-Ata (WHO, 1978). Since high mortality and morbidity lead to loss of labour
productivity, economic loss, indebtedness and finally poor quality of life. In India,
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), launched in April 2005aims to provide
accessible, affordable and quality health care to the rural population especially the
vulnerable groups with special focus to EAG states, North Eastern States, Jammu
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (GOI, 2016b).
6. Economic security: - Economic security is exclusively important for livelihood security.
The regular and non-farm sectors are highly associated with high well-being (Gautam
and Andersen, 2016). The non-farm sector constitutes more than half of the income in
the rural farming communities in developing countries (IFAD, 2010). The small farm
wage labourers and subsistence producers of the rural areas of low-income countries
comprise over two-thirds of the global poor (FAO et al., 2014; IFAD, 2010). Indian
governments, since independence, have tried to generate employment opportunities so as
people may make their own living. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Guarantee Act
(MGNRGA), 2006, is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims at
enhancing livelihood security of people in rural areas by guaranteeing 100 days of wage
employment in a financial year to a rural household to do unskilled manual work (GOI,
2006).
Definition of Livelihood:
A livelihood refers to the means by which individuals or households secure the
necessities of life, such as food, water, shelter, and clothing, as well as other essential
needs like health and education. It involves people's capabilities, assets, income, and
activities required to make a living.
Concept of Livelihood:
The concept of livelihood goes beyond mere employment. It includes the
resources (both material and social) available to people, their ability to make use of these
resources, and the strategies they adopt to meet their needs. It is closely connected with
social, economic, and environmental systems.
• Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA): This approach emphasizes the
combination of people’s capabilities, assets, and activities to survive and improve their
standard of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from
stresses and shocks, while maintaining or enhancing its assets and resources.
Livelihood Patterns in Urban and Rural Areas:
Rural Livelihoods:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 Rural livelihoods often revolve around agriculture and related activities. However, they
vary greatly depending on the region, availability of resources, and socio-economic
context.
• Agriculture and Farming: The dominant livelihood source in most rural areas,
including crop cultivation, livestock rearing, fishing, and forestry.
• Subsistence Farming: Common in many rural areas, where farming is done
mainly for household consumption.
• Non-Farm Activities: In some regions, people may engage in rural industries,
handicrafts, or wage labor on farms.
• Migration for Employment: Many rural inhabitants migrate to urban areas
temporarily or permanently to seek better employment opportunities.
Challenges in Rural Areas:
• Dependence on natural resources and weather conditions.
• Limited access to infrastructure and services (education, healthcare, etc.).
• Vulnerability to market fluctuations, environmental degradation, and climate
change.
Urban Livelihoods:
Urban livelihoods are more diverse, with a significant shift from agriculture to industrial,
service, and informal sectors. The livelihood options are more varied due to better access
to markets, infrastructure, and services.
• Formal Employment: Includes jobs in factories, offices, government services,
and the private sector.
• Informal Sector: A large number of urban residents, especially in developing
countries, work in the informal economy, such as street vending, small-scale businesses,
domestic work, and construction.
• Services and Commerce: A significant portion of urban livelihoods is driven by
the service sector, including retail, education, healthcare, finance, and IT.
• Skilled Labor: Urban areas offer a wider range of skilled job opportunities in
industries like education, healthcare, finance, etc.
Challenges in Urban Areas:
• High competition for jobs, leading to unemployment or underemployment.
• Overcrowded living conditions and lack of affordable housing.
• Exposure to pollution, health hazards, and inadequate infrastructure.
Different Indicators to Study Livelihood Systems:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 To understand and assess livelihoods, a range of indicators are used:
1. Economic Indicators:
o Income Levels: The primary measure of economic security.
o Employment Status: Formal vs informal employment and job security.
o Assets and Resources: Includes land ownership, livestock, housing, and tools.
2. Human Capital:
o Education and Skills: The ability of individuals to find and engage in productive
work.
o Health Status: Health is a crucial determinant of the capacity to work and earn.
o Demographic Composition: Age, gender, and family size influence livelihood
dynamics.
3. Natural Capital:
o Access to Natural Resources: Land, water, forests, and other environmental
resources.
o Environmental Quality: Pollution, climate change, and degradation of natural
resources affect livelihoods.
4. Physical Capital:
o Infrastructure: Availability of roads, transport, electricity, water supply, and
communication facilities.
o Housing and Shelter: Adequacy of living conditions and access to amenities.
5. Social Capital:
o Social Networks: Support from family, community, and social institutions.
o Access to Services: Healthcare, education, and social security systems.
6. Political and Institutional Indicators:
o Governance: Policies, laws, and institutions that influence access to resources
and services.
o Participation in Decision-Making: The degree to which people can influence
policies that affect their livelihoods.
7. Vulnerability and Risk Indicators:
o Exposure to Shocks: Natural disasters, market changes, or conflicts.
o Adaptability and Resilience: The ability of individuals and communities to
respond to changes and recover from shocks.
Conclusion:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 Livelihoods encompass a range of activities and resources that individuals and
communities rely on for survival and improvement. The livelihood patterns vary
significantly between rural and urban areas, with different challenges and opportunities
in each. A comprehensive understanding of livelihoods requires examining various
indicators related to economic status, resources, health, education, and vulnerability to
risks.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 5 & 6
AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS (ALS): MEANING, APPROACH,
APPROACHES AND FRAMEWORK.

Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS):

Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS) refer to the interconnected activities,
resources, and strategies that rural households employ to generate income and sustain
their livelihoods, predominantly through agriculture. ALS encompass the production of
crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries, and other related activities that support rural
livelihoods. These systems are influenced by local, regional, and global factors such as
environmental conditions, market forces, government policies, and social dynamics.
Approach to Agricultural Livelihood Systems:
Understanding ALS involves recognizing the diverse factors that influence agricultural
production and sustainability, as well as how households use their assets and resources
to maintain a stable livelihood. The approach to ALS can be holistic, considering multiple
dimensions, including environmental, economic, social, and institutional factors that
shape agricultural practices.
Approaches to Agricultural Livelihood Systems:
1. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA):
o A widely-used approach in analysing ALS, which emphasizes the interaction
between people, resources, and institutions. The SLA identifies five key capitals
or assets essential for sustaining livelihoods: human, natural, financial, physical,
and social capital. These assets determine how rural households engage with
agricultural systems and how they can respond to risks or shocks (e.g., droughts,
market changes).
o Sustainability: ALS must be environmentally sound, socially acceptable, and
economically viable over the long term to be sustainable.
2. Farming Systems Approach (FSA):
o The FSA views agriculture as part of a broader system where farms, markets,
technologies, institutions, and communities interact. It considers the farm as the
basic unit of analysis and looks at how farmers manage land, labor, and inputs.
o Integrated Systems: Focus on integrated farming where crops, livestock, and
forestry may be combined to enhance productivity and sustainability.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Agroecology: Promotes ecological principles in farming practices to maintain
biodiversity, soil fertility, and ecosystem services.
3. Value Chain Approach:
o This approach examines how agricultural products move from the producer to the
consumer, considering the various actors involved (farmers, processors, traders,
retailers). It seeks to identify opportunities for improving the value chain to
enhance farmers' incomes and productivity.
o Market Linkages: Emphasis is placed on connecting small-scale farmers to
markets, improving product quality, and ensuring better access to market
information.
4. Resilience Approach:
o Focuses on enhancing the ability of agricultural households to cope with and
adapt to shocks (e.g., climate change, pests, and market fluctuations). Resilience
involves building capacity to absorb disturbances and bounce back stronger.
o Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA): Emphasizes the importance of practices that
increase productivity, resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in
agricultural systems.
5. Livelihood Diversification Approach:
o Rural households often depend on multiple livelihood activities to minimize risk
and ensure steady income. Besides agriculture, they may engage in non-farm
activities (such as trading or crafts) to diversify their income sources.
o Risk Mitigation: Diversification is crucial in areas prone to environmental or
economic shocks.
Framework for Agricultural Livelihood Systems:
Several frameworks have been developed to help analyze ALS, often integrating
elements from the above approaches. These frameworks help in understanding the
interaction between household assets, livelihood strategies, institutional contexts, and
outcomes. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) is one of the most widely
used.
Key Components of Agricultural Livelihood Systems Frameworks:
1. Livelihood Assets (Capitals):
o Human Capital: Education, health, skills, and knowledge that influence the
ability of households to engage in productive activities.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Natural Capital: Land, water, forests, and biodiversity that are essential for
agricultural activities.
o Physical Capital: Infrastructure (roads, irrigation systems, storage facilities),
technology (tools, machinery), and other assets that support agricultural
production.
o Financial Capital: Access to financial resources, such as savings, credit,
remittances, or subsidies that enable households to invest in agriculture.
o Social Capital: Social networks, community organizations, and relationships that
help rural households access resources, knowledge, and markets.
2. Livelihood Strategies:
o Agricultural Practices: Crop selection, livestock rearing, use of fertilizers,
irrigation, mechanization, etc.
o Diversification: Households may combine farming with other non-agricultural
activities (e.g., wage labor, small businesses) to minimize risks and increase
income security.
o Migration: Seasonal or permanent migration for work is common in rural areas,
especially where agricultural income is insufficient.
3. Vulnerability Context:
o Shocks and Stresses: Households are vulnerable to various shocks (e.g., natural
disasters, price volatility, pests) and long-term stresses (e.g., land degradation,
population pressure).
o External Factors: Global economic trends, national policies, and environmental
changes impact rural livelihoods.
4. Policies, Institutions, and Processes:
o Governance and Policy: Land tenure systems, agricultural subsidies, market
regulations, and access to agricultural extension services play critical roles in
shaping ALS.
o Institutions: Local and international organizations, cooperatives, and informal
community networks influence how households access resources and support.
5. Livelihood Outcomes:
o Income Generation: Successful ALS should lead to better income levels, food
security, and reduced vulnerability.
o Sustainability: Maintaining natural resource base while enhancing productivity
and improving quality of life.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Food Security and Nutrition: Ensuring that agricultural activities contribute to
stable and nutritious food supplies for households and the wider community.
Conclusion:
Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS) are complex, dynamic, and highly contextual.
They integrate agricultural production, resources, and socio-economic factors to sustain
rural livelihoods. Various approaches and frameworks, such as the Sustainable
Livelihoods Approach and Farming Systems Approach, provide insights into how
agricultural systems can be understood and improved. These frameworks highlight the
importance of managing assets, adapting to risks, diversifying income sources, and
building resilience to sustain rural livelihoods in the face of challenges such as climate
change, market shifts, and environmental degradation.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 7
AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS (ALS): MEANING, APPROACH,
APPROACHES AND FRAMEWORK.
Definition of Farming Systems:
A farming system refers to an organized and integrated set of agricultural activities
undertaken by farmers or households. It includes the different crops, livestock, and other farm
enterprises that interact within the farm environment and its surrounding economic, social, and
natural ecosystem. Farming systems are influenced by multiple factors, including land
availability, climate, soil type, labor, technology, and socio-economic conditions.
Farming systems involve the management of resources like soil, water, plants, and animals to
produce food, fiber, fuel, and raw materials. They can vary significantly based on location,
available resources, and the specific goals of the farmer (subsistence vs commercial production).
Different Farming-Based Livelihood Systems:
Farming-based livelihood systems refer to the broader set of activities, strategies, and
resources that rural households use to secure their livelihoods, with farming as the central
element. These systems recognize that farming alone may not provide sufficient income, so rural
households often diversify their activities to enhance income security, reduce risks, and sustain
livelihoods.
1. Subsistence Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: In this system, farming is primarily done for household consumption.
Surplus production, if any, is sold in local markets.
• Location: Common in rural areas of developing countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America).
• Crops & Livestock: Maize, rice, cassava, small livestock like chickens or goats.
• Characteristics: Low inputs, small-scale production, limited market integration, high
dependence on natural resources.
2. Commercial Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: Farmers focus on producing crops or raising livestock primarily for sale in
markets rather than for their own consumption. This system aims to generate income
through large-scale production.
• Location: Common in developed and developing countries with access to good
infrastructure and markets (USA, Brazil, Europe).
• Crops & Livestock: Cash crops like cotton, sugarcane, or coffee; livestock such as dairy
cattle or poultry for sale.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Characteristics: High input systems (fertilizers, machinery), specialized production,
strong market integration, profit-oriented.
3. Mixed Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: A combination of crop cultivation and livestock rearing on the same farm.
Farmers diversify income sources by engaging in both crop and animal production.
• Location: Common in Europe, South Asia, and parts of Africa.
• Crops & Livestock: Wheat, maize, alongside livestock such as cattle, goats, and
chickens.
• Characteristics: Diversified income sources, better risk management, synergy between
crops and animals (e.g., livestock manure for crops).
4. Pastoralism-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: Primarily based on livestock herding, where people depend on the
movement of their animals (cattle, sheep, goats, camels) across large areas to access
pasture and water.
• Location: Common in arid and semi-arid regions (East Africa, Mongolia, Sahel region).
• Livestock: Cattle, goats, sheep, camels.
• Characteristics: Mobility, adaptability to harsh environments, communal land
management, high vulnerability to climate variability.
5. Agroforestry-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: A farming system that integrates trees and shrubs into agricultural
landscapes to improve productivity, biodiversity, and sustainability.
• Location: Practiced in tropical regions (Southeast Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin
America).
• Crops & Trees: Coffee, cocoa, along with timber trees or fruit trees like mangoes and
bananas.
• Characteristics: Combines environmental benefits (soil fertility, shade) with diversified
income streams from timber, fruits, and crops.
6. Horticulture-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: Focuses on the intensive production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and
ornamental plants, often in small-scale but high-value farming operations.
• Location: Common in peri-urban areas, Mediterranean climates, or areas with access to
good infrastructure.
• Crops: Tomatoes, apples, strawberries, flowers.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Characteristics: High labor input, intensive use of small plots, requires good market
access, often part of larger diversified livelihoods.
7. Aquaculture-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: Farming aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, or seaweed in controlled
environments. This system provides a supplementary or primary livelihood activity for
coastal or freshwater communities.
• Location: Coastal regions, freshwater lakes, and rivers (Asia, Latin America).
• Species: Tilapia, shrimp, salmon, carp.
• Characteristics: Controlled production environments, reduces pressure on wild
fisheries, requires capital investment in ponds or tanks.
8. Dairy Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: Specialized farming systems focusing on the production of milk and other
dairy products. It involves the careful breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle.
• Location: Common in temperate climates (USA, Europe, New Zealand, India).
• Livestock: Dairy cattle (Holstein, Jersey), goats.
• Characteristics: High infrastructure and input needs (milking machines, barns), regular
income through milk sales, intensive feeding and health management.
9. Organic Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
• Description: A system that avoids synthetic chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers) and
focuses on natural methods for farming, such as crop rotation, composting, and biological
pest control.
• Location: Practiced globally but especially in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia.
• Crops & Livestock: Organic vegetables, fruits, grains, organic livestock rearing.
• Characteristics: Environmentally sustainable, requires certification for organic status,
higher value crops, often more labor-intensive.
10. Integrated Farming Systems
• Description: Combines different types of farming activities like crops, livestock, fishery,
and agroforestry on the same farm to maximize resource use and efficiency.
• Location: Practiced globally, particularly in resource-constrained regions.
• Crops, Livestock & Fish: Rice, vegetables, poultry, fish, fruit trees.
• Characteristics: Synergy between different activities (e.g., fish farming in rice paddies),
reduces input costs, enhances resilience, and ensures diversified income sources.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of
Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 8 & 9
PREVALENT FARMING SYSTEMS IN INDIA CONTRIBUTING TO LIVELIHOOD.
India, with its vast geographical diversity, supports a wide variety of farming systems,
each contributing significantly to the livelihood of millions. The following are some of
the prevalent farming systems in India that contribute to the livelihoods of rural
communities across the country:
1. Subsistence Farming
Description: This system focuses on producing enough food to meet the basic needs
of the farmer’s family, with little to no surplus for sale.
Location: Practiced across rural India, particularly in remote or underdeveloped
regions.
Crops: Rice, wheat, maize, pulses, and millets.
Characteristics: Low input farming, small landholdings, high dependence on
monsoon rains, limited market integration.
Contribution to Livelihoods: Provides food security for millions of smallholder
farmers, although it contributes less to the overall market economy.
2. Commercial Farming
Description: Farmers grow crops primarily for sale in local or international markets,
focusing on profitability rather than just subsistence.
Location: States with access to better infrastructure and markets, such as Punjab,
Haryana, Maharashtra, and parts of Gujarat.
Crops: Wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice, and tobacco.
Characteristics: High input farming (fertilizers, pesticides, machinery), large-scale
production, often supported by government policies and subsidies.
Contribution to Livelihoods: Provides substantial income to farmers and contributes
significantly to the agricultural GDP of India.
3. Mixed Farming
• Description: Combines crop cultivation and livestock rearing on the same farm, allowing
farmers to diversify their income sources.
• Location: Practiced across India, particularly in the northern and western states (Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc.).
• Crops & Livestock: Wheat, rice, maize, along with dairy cattle, goats, and poultry.
• Characteristics: Provides economic security through diversification, with crops
supporting animals and animal manure improving soil fertility.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Contribution to Livelihoods: Ensures more stable income streams and enhances
resilience to climate and market shocks.
4. Shifting Cultivation (Jhum Farming)
• Description: Traditional slash-and-burn farming where land is cleared, cultivated for a
few seasons, and then left fallow to regenerate.
• Location: Practiced in the northeastern states of India (Nagaland, Mizoram, Assam, and
Arunachal Pradesh).
• Crops: Rice, millets, maize, vegetables.
• Characteristics: Low-input farming, rotational land use, often unsustainable due to
deforestation and loss of soil fertility.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Supports the livelihoods of tribal communities, though it
is increasingly being replaced by more sustainable practices.
5. Plantation Farming
• Description: Large-scale commercial farming, typically involving a single crop grown
for export or domestic consumption.
• Location: Southern and northeastern regions (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam,
and West Bengal).
• Crops: Tea, coffee, rubber, spices (cardamom, pepper), and coconut.
• Characteristics: Monoculture, high capital investment, labor-intensive, relies heavily on
both domestic and export markets.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Plantation crops provide significant employment
opportunities, especially for rural laborers, and contribute to India’s export economy.
6. Horticulture-Based Farming
• Description: The cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and other high-value crops,
often for both domestic consumption and export.
• Location: Widely practiced in states like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir (for
apples), Maharashtra (for grapes), and Uttar Pradesh (for mangoes).
• Crops: Mango, apple, grapes, pomegranate, flowers, and vegetables.
• Characteristics: Requires intensive labor, good market access, and often includes
processing industries like juice production.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Provides higher returns compared to staple crops,
supports both small and large farmers, and contributes significantly to the overall
economy.
7. Dairy Farming

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Description: Specialized in the production of milk and other dairy products.
• Location: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
• Livestock: Dairy cattle (e.g., Murrah buffalo, Holstein Friesian cows) and goats.
• Characteristics: Often integrated with crop farming, milk cooperatives (like Amul) play
a major role, providing regular income through the sale of milk.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Supports millions of small and marginal farmers,
providing daily income and contributing to food security.
8. Aquaculture (Fish Farming)
• Description: Farming of fish, shrimp, and other aquatic species in freshwater or coastal
regions.
• Location: Coastal states (West Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha) and regions
with large inland water bodies.
• Species: Carp, tilapia, shrimp, and catfish.
• Characteristics: Requires investment in ponds or tanks, involves controlled
environments, and can yield high profits.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Provides income to coastal and inland communities,
reducing reliance on traditional fishing and helping manage overfishing pressures.
9. Agroforestry
• Description: The integration of trees, crops, and livestock on the same farm to improve
productivity, enhance biodiversity, and provide environmental benefits.
• Location: Practiced in semi-arid regions (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu) and forested
regions of central India.
• Crops and Trees: Fruit trees (mango, jackfruit), timber trees (teak), combined with crops
like legumes and livestock.
• Characteristics: Combines environmental sustainability with economic benefits,
improving soil fertility and providing wood and fruit for sale.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Enhances food security, reduces soil erosion, and
diversifies income sources for smallholder farmers.
10. Organic Farming
• Description: Farming without synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, focusing on
sustainable, eco-friendly agricultural practices.
• Location: Increasingly popular in states like Sikkim (which became the first fully
organic state), Uttarakhand, Kerala, and parts of Rajasthan.
• Crops: Organic vegetables, fruits, rice, wheat, and spices.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Characteristics: Lower yields compared to conventional farming but fetch higher prices
in markets, including export markets.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Offers higher income potential through premium prices,
especially for small and marginal farmers, and reduces dependence on expensive inputs.
11. Dryland Farming
• Description: Farming in arid and semi-arid regions where irrigation is limited, and crops
are grown mainly during the monsoon season.
• Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Crops: Millets (sorghum, pearl millet), pulses, groundnut, and cotton.
• Characteristics: Relies heavily on rainfall, low input costs, and drought-tolerant crops
are often grown.
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Supports farmers in regions with low water availability,
helping them sustain livelihoods in harsh environments.
12. Integrated Farming Systems
• Description: Combines multiple farming activities like crop cultivation, livestock
rearing, fish farming, and agroforestry on the same farm.
• Location: Practiced in states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal.
• Crops, Livestock, & Fish: Rice, vegetables, dairy cattle, poultry, fish, and fruit trees.
• Characteristics: Enhances productivity by optimizing resource use (e.g., livestock
manure for crops, fish farming in rice paddies).
• Contribution to Livelihoods: Provides multiple income sources, reduces the risk of crop
failure, and enhances resilience to economic and environmental shocks.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 12 & 13
COMPONENTS OF FARMING SYSTEM/ FARMING-BASED LIVELIHOOD
SYSTEMS.

The components of a farming system or farming-based livelihood system refer to the

interconnected elements that work together to support agricultural production and sustain the
livelihoods of farming households. These components include natural resources, inputs, outputs,
human and social capital, and supporting institutions. Together, they define how effectively a
farming system can function, produce food, generate income, and ensure sustainability.
Here are the key components of farming systems and farming-based livelihood systems:
1. Natural Resources
Natural resources are the foundational assets that a farming system relies on for production.
These resources vary based on the geographical location, climate, and type of farming practiced.
• Land: The most critical resource for any farming system. It includes both the quality of
soil and the size of the landholding, which determines the types of crops and livestock
that can be produced.
• Water: Essential for irrigation, livestock, and aquaculture. Access to water sources like
rivers, lakes, groundwater, or rainfall is critical for successful farming.
• Biodiversity: Crop diversity (e.g., multiple crops or crop varieties) and livestock
diversity can enhance resilience and productivity.
• Climate and Weather: Climatic conditions, including temperature, rainfall, and
seasonal variation, play a significant role in determining what farming practices can be
sustained.
2. Agricultural Inputs
Inputs refer to the resources and materials that are added to the farming process to enhance
productivity and ensure successful production.
• Seeds and Planting Material: Quality seeds, planting stock, or saplings are essential for
achieving good yields.
• Fertilizers and Soil Amendments: Chemical fertilizers, organic manures, compost, and
other soil amendments (e.g., lime) are used to enhance soil fertility and increase crop
yields.
• Pesticides and Herbicides: Chemicals to manage pests, diseases, and weeds that
threaten crops. In organic systems, natural pest control methods like biological pest
control are used.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Irrigation Systems: Water supply mechanisms like drip irrigation, sprinklers, or
traditional methods to ensure crops get adequate water, especially in areas with
insufficient rainfall.
• Machinery and Tools: Implements such as tractors, plows, harvesters, or manual tools
that help in land preparation, sowing, weeding, and harvesting.
3. Crops and Livestock
Farming systems are centered around the production of crops, livestock, or a combination of
both. The specific crops or animals chosen are influenced by local environmental conditions,
market demand, and the farmer’s needs.
• Crops: These can range from staple crops (e.g., rice, wheat, maize) to cash crops (e.g.,
sugarcane, cotton) and horticultural crops (e.g., fruits, vegetables, spices). Crop selection
is essential for ensuring both food security and income generation.
• Livestock: Livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and pigs contribute to farming
systems by providing milk, meat, eggs, and manure for crop production.
• Aquaculture: In certain systems, fish farming or shrimp farming forms an integral part
of the livelihood system.
• Agroforestry: Involves the integration of trees on farms, either for timber, fruit, or as
part of crop rotation systems.
4. Human Capital
Human capital refers to the skills, labor, and knowledge that the farming household or
community possesses. It is a critical component in ensuring that farming practices are well-
managed and productive.
• Labor: Farming activities require manual labor for tasks such as planting, weeding,
irrigation, harvesting, and post-harvest processing.
• Skills and Knowledge: The expertise of the farmer or farming community in
understanding local conditions, managing crops and livestock, and using modern
techniques and tools (e.g., pest management, soil conservation, or irrigation practices)
significantly affects productivity.
• Education and Training: Access to agricultural education, extension services, and
training programs helps farmers improve their productivity and adapt to new
technologies or farming methods.
5. Social and Institutional Capital
The social and institutional networks surrounding farming households play a crucial role in
providing support, access to resources, and market linkages.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Farmer Cooperatives and Groups: Farmers often form cooperatives or groups to share
resources, access credit, buy inputs in bulk, and market their produce more efficiently.
• Government Policies and Subsidies: Government programs and subsidies for
fertilizers, seeds, irrigation, crop insurance, and minimum support prices provide crucial
support for small-scale farmers.
• Extension Services: Government and non-government extension services provide
technical advice and training to farmers, helping them adopt new farming techniques,
improve yields, and diversify their production.
• Access to Credit and Financial Services: Farmers require access to credit for
purchasing inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and machinery. Microcredit, rural banks, and
self-help groups help farmers invest in their farms.
• Market Access and Infrastructure: The availability of markets where farmers can sell
their produce, as well as transportation, storage, and processing facilities, are crucial for
the profitability of farming systems.
6. Economic and Market Factors
Economic factors influence the profitability and sustainability of a farming system. They
include:
• Market Prices: Prices for crops and livestock are determined by local, national, and
global markets. Higher prices for cash crops or dairy products, for instance, can provide
a higher income for farmers.
• Input Costs: The cost of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery affects overall farm
profitability.
• Off-Farm Income: In many farming-based livelihood systems, households engage in
non-agricultural work or trade to supplement their farming income, creating a diversified
livelihood system.
7. Output and Productivity
Outputs of farming systems include crops, livestock products, and other goods that are produced
and consumed or sold by farming households.
• Food Products: Staple crops, vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, and meat are produced for
home consumption and sale.
• Cash Crops: High-value crops such as cotton, coffee, tea, spices, and sugarcane, which
are grown for commercial purposes.
• Byproducts: Byproducts like manure, straw, and crop residues that can be reused for
livestock feed, composting, or energy (biogas).

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
8. Environmental Sustainability and Resilience
Modern farming systems must focus on sustainability to ensure long-term productivity and
environmental health. Key elements include:
• Soil Health Management: Practices such as crop rotation, organic farming, and reduced
chemical use to maintain soil fertility and prevent degradation.
• Water Conservation: Efficient irrigation practices like drip irrigation and rainwater
harvesting to minimize water use.
• Biodiversity Conservation: Maintaining diverse crop varieties, intercropping,
agroforestry, and preserving native species to improve resilience to climate change.
• Climate Adaptation: Adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices, including
drought-resistant crops and livestock breeds, to mitigate the impacts of climate
variability.
9. Risk Management and Diversification
Risk management involves strategies farmers use to cope with uncertainty and variability, such
as weather, pest outbreaks, or market fluctuations.
• Crop and Livestock Diversification: Farmers often grow multiple types of crops or
raise a combination of livestock to reduce the risk of total loss.
• Crop Insurance: Government-backed crop insurance schemes provide financial
compensation to farmers in the event of crop failure due to natural disasters, pest
outbreaks, or other unforeseen events.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 14 & 15
CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS, LIVESTOCK, (DAIRY, PIGGERY, GOATRY,
POULTRY, DUCKRY ETC.)
Crops and Cropping Systems
1. Crops:
Crops refer to plants that are grown on a large scale primarily for consumption or sale. They are
cultivated for food, fodder, fuel, fibre, and other economic products. Crops can be broadly
categorized based on their use, growing seasons, and environmental requirements.
Types of Crops:
• Food Crops: Grown for human consumption.
o Examples: Rice, wheat, maize, barley, millet, sorghum.
• Cash Crops: Grown primarily for sale rather than for the farmer's own use.
o Examples: Cotton, sugarcane, coffee, tea, tobacco.
• Horticultural Crops: Include fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.
o Examples: Mangoes, apples, tomatoes, potatoes, flowers.
• Fiber Crops: Grown for textile production.
o Examples: Cotton, jute, flax.
• Oilseed Crops: Cultivated for oil extraction.
o Examples: Mustard, sunflower, groundnut, soybean.
• Fodder Crops: Used to feed livestock.
o Examples: Alfalfa, clover, maize (for silage).
• Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Cultivated for their medicinal or aromatic properties.
o Examples: Aloe vera, tulsi (holy basil), lavender, mint.
Seasonal Classification of Crops:
• Kharif Crops: Grown during the monsoon (rainy) season, typically sown in June/July
and harvested in September/October.
o Examples: Rice, maize, cotton, groundnut.
• Rabi Crops: Grown during the winter season, sown in October/November and harvested
in April/May.
o Examples: Wheat, barley, mustard, peas.
• Zaid Crops: Grown in the short summer season between Rabi and Kharif (March to
June).
o Examples: Watermelon, cucumber, muskmelon.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
2. Cropping Systems:
A cropping system refers to the type and sequence of crops grown on a specific piece of land
over a period of time. It involves the management practices used to maximize yield and minimize
the impact on soil, water, and other natural resources.
Types of Cropping Systems:
1. Monocropping (Monoculture):
o Definition: Involves growing a single crop on the same piece of land year after
year.
o Example: Growing rice or wheat continuously in the same field.
o Advantages:
▪ Easier to manage since only one crop is involved.
▪ Specialized knowledge of a single crop can lead to higher productivity.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Depletes soil nutrients specific to that crop.
▪ Increases vulnerability to pests and diseases affecting that crop.
2. Multiple Cropping:
o Definition: Growing two or more crops on the same land in a single growing
season.
o Types:
▪ Sequential Cropping: Crops are grown one after the other in the same
field within a year.
▪ Example: Wheat followed by rice.
▪ Intercropping: Two or more crops are grown simultaneously on the same
field.
▪ Example: Maize and beans grown together.
o Advantages:
▪ Efficient use of resources like sunlight, water, and nutrients.
▪ Increases farm productivity and income.
▪ Reduces risk of crop failure.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Requires more management and labor.
▪ Competition for nutrients, water, and light between crops.
3. Mixed Cropping:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Definition: Growing two or more crops together in the same field without a
specific pattern.
o Example: Growing wheat and mustard together in the same field.
o Advantages:
▪ Reduces the risk of crop failure.
▪ Enhances resource use efficiency.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Difficult to manage crops with different growth requirements.
▪ Lower individual crop yields compared to monocropping.
4. Relay Cropping:
o Definition: The practice of planting a second crop in the same field before the
first crop is completely harvested.
o Example: Planting a crop of mustard while the rice crop is still maturing.
o Advantages:
▪ Maximizes the use of available growing season.
▪ Increases total farm productivity.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Can be complex to manage both crops simultaneously.
▪ High labor demand.
5. Crop Rotation:
o Definition: The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same
land to maintain soil fertility and health.
o Example: Alternating between a nitrogen-fixing legume (e.g., pulses) and a
cereal crop (e.g., wheat) on the same field.
o Advantages:
▪ Prevents depletion of specific nutrients in the soil.
▪ Helps control pests and diseases.
▪ Improves soil structure and fertility.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Requires careful planning and knowledge of crop needs.
▪ Lower income during the rotation of low-value crops.
6. Agroforestry:
o Definition: A system where trees or shrubs are grown alongside crops or
livestock.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Example: Growing fruit or timber trees alongside crops like maize or wheat.
o Advantages:
▪ Provides multiple sources of income (from crops, livestock, and timber).
▪ Protects soil from erosion and improves water retention.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Requires longer time to see economic benefits from trees.
▪ Can increase competition for resources between trees and crops.
7. Alley Cropping:
o Definition: Crops are grown in the alleys between rows of trees or shrubs.
o Example: Growing vegetables or legumes between rows of timber trees like teak
or poplar.
o Advantages:
▪ Trees provide shade, improve microclimates, and increase biodiversity.
▪ Reduces soil erosion and improves nutrient cycling.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Requires more space and may reduce crop area.
▪ Competition for water and nutrients between trees and crops.
Livestock Enterprises:
Livestock farming is a critical part of farming systems that complement crop production
by providing additional sources of food, income, and farm inputs like manure. Different livestock
enterprises include dairy farming, piggery, goat farming, poultry, and Duckry, each with specific
management practices.
A. Dairy Farming (Cattle and Buffaloes):
• Definition: Dairy farming involves raising cattle or buffaloes for milk production. Dairy
products are an essential part of the diet and a significant source of income for many rural
households.
• Key Features:
o Breeds include local and high-yielding breeds like Holstein Friesian (cattle) and
Murrah (buffalo).
o Proper feeding with high-protein fodder like alfalfa, maize silage, and
concentrates.
o Regular milking, proper housing, and veterinary care are essential.
• Importance:
o Provides milk and milk products (cheese, butter, ghee).

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Manure from dairy animals is used as an organic fertilizer.
• Challenges:
o Disease management, fodder availability, and market fluctuations in milk prices.
B. Piggery (Pig Farming):
• Definition: Piggery involves raising pigs for meat production. Pigs are highly prolific
animals, and their meat (pork) is in demand globally.
• Key Features:
o Breeds include Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, and Duroc.
o Feeding consists of kitchen waste, grains, and formulated feed.
o Pigs have a shorter gestation period and high growth rate.
• Importance:
o Pork is a rich source of protein.
o Pigs efficiently convert feed into meat and grow rapidly.
• Challenges:
o Management of waste and odor, disease control (swine fever), and market access.
C. Goatry (Goat Farming):
• Definition: Goat farming is done for meat, milk, and fiber production. Goats are hardy
animals and are well-suited to arid and semi-arid regions.
• Key Features:
o Popular breeds include Jamunapari, Barbari, and Sirohi.
o Goats are browsers and can thrive on shrubs, leaves, and crop residues.
o Goats are prolific breeders and have low maintenance costs.
• Importance:
o Goats provide milk, meat, and manure.
o Goat milk is rich in nutrients and is easier to digest than cow milk.
• Challenges:
o Disease management (PPR, foot-and-mouth disease), low milk yield, and market
fluctuations in meat prices.
D. Poultry Farming:
• Definition: Poultry farming involves raising chickens for meat (broilers) and eggs
(layers). It is one of the most commercialized livestock enterprises.
• Key Features:
o Broiler and layer breeds like White Leghorn (layers) and Cornish Cross (broilers).
o Intensive feeding with high-energy and high-protein commercial feed.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Controlled housing with proper temperature, ventilation, and light management.
• Importance:
o Provides a high-quality protein source in the form of eggs and chicken meat.
o Fast-growing enterprise with a quick turnover.
• Challenges:
o Disease outbreaks (avian flu), high feed costs, and proper waste management.
E. Duckery (Duck Farming):
• Definition: Duck farming involves raising ducks for meat and eggs. It is especially suited
for wetland and paddy-growing regions.
• Key Features:
o Popular duck breeds include Khaki Campbell (for eggs) and Pekin (for meat).
o Ducks can be reared in confined systems or allowed to forage in ponds and rice
fields.
o Ducks are hardy and less susceptible to diseases than chickens.
• Importance:
o Duck eggs and meat are in high demand in certain regions.
o Ducks help control pests in paddy fields and contribute to rice-duck farming
systems.
• Challenges:
o Limited market access in some areas and lack of veterinary support.
Integration of Crops and Livestock:
In many traditional and modern farming systems, crops and livestock are integrated to create
a symbiotic relationship between the two. This integrated approach helps maximize resource use
and optimize farm productivity.
Benefits of Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems:
• Nutrient Recycling: Manure from livestock serves as organic fertilizer for crops, while
crop residues and by-products can feed livestock.
• Income Diversification: Farmers earn from both crop and livestock enterprises,
reducing risk and stabilizing income.
• Improved Soil Health: Livestock grazing can help in controlling weeds, and the addition
of organic manure improves soil fertility.
• Risk Reduction: Diversifying into both crops and livestock helps mitigate risks such as
crop failure or market price fluctuations.
Examples of Integrated Systems:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Rice-Duck Farming: Ducks are raised in flooded rice fields, where they control pests,
provide manure, and improve yields.
• Agro-Pastoral Systems: Crops are grown alongside livestock farming, with grazing
lands adjacent to crop fields.
• Agroforestry and Livestock: Trees provide shade and fodder for livestock, while
livestock manure enriches the soil for trees and crops.

LECTURE: - 16 & 17

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 16 & 17
HORTICULTURAL CROPS, AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEMS, AQUA CULTURE
DUCK/POULTRY CUM FISH, DAIRY CUM FISH, PIGGERY CUM FISH ETC.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 18 & 19
SMALL, MEDIUM AND LARGE ENTERPRISES INCLUDING VALUE CHAINS AND
SECONDARY ENTERPRISES AS LIVELIHOOD COMPONENTS FOR FARMERS,
FACTORS AFFECTING INTEGRATION OF VARIOUS ENTERPRISES OF
FARMING FOR LIVELIHOOD.
The integration of small, medium, and large enterprises, along with value chains and
secondary enterprises, plays a crucial role in enhancing the livelihoods of farmers. Let’s break
this down into different components:

1. Small Enterprises:
Small enterprises can include farmer cooperatives, local processing units, and small-scale
agro-based businesses. These enterprises typically focus on:
Local Processing: Farmers can process their raw produce (like turning fruits into jams, grains
into flour), adding value and creating local employment.
Agro-input Supply: Small enterprises may also focus on providing essential agricultural inputs
such as seeds, fertilizers, and equipment, reducing farmers' dependency on distant suppliers.
Market Linkage: They help farmers sell their produce in nearby markets, ensuring better prices
and reducing transportation costs.
Impact on farmers' livelihoods:
• Increased income from value-added products.
• Creation of local employment opportunities.
• Enhanced access to market, reducing post-harvest losses.
2. Medium Enterprises:
Medium-sized enterprises often focus on more organized agricultural services and larger-
scale processing operations. Some examples include:
Aggregators and Storage: Medium enterprises act as aggregators for small-scale farmers,
collecting and storing produce in bulk, which can be sold to larger markets or industries.
Processing and Packaging: Medium enterprises may engage in the processing,
packaging, and branding of agricultural products, increasing shelf life and market appeal.
Contract Farming: These enterprises may also enter into contract farming agreements with
farmers, providing them with technical support, inputs, and guaranteed purchase agreements.
Impact on farmers' livelihoods:
• Access to reliable markets with guaranteed prices.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Technology and skill transfer through partnerships and contracts.
• Improved bargaining power as farmers are part of a larger network.
3. Large Enterprises:
Large enterprises include agribusiness corporations and multinational companies that have
significant capital and infrastructure. They often focus on:
Supply Chain Integration: Large enterprises can provide comprehensive supply chain solutions
from farm to market, offering logistics, cold storage, and global market access.
Research & Development: Large enterprises invest in R&D for high-yield seeds, advanced
machinery, and sustainable farming practices, benefiting farmers with innovative solutions.
Export Opportunities: They can link farmers to international markets, helping them get better
prices for their produce.
Impact on farmers' livelihoods:
• Access to international markets and premium prices.
• Better infrastructure and technology through partnerships.
• Potential for large-scale employment in agribusinesses and related industries.
4. Value Chains:
Value chains refer to the entire process from production to consumption, including inputs,
production, processing, packaging, marketing, and distribution. Integrating farmers into these
value chains ensures:
Higher Income: Farmers can earn more by participating in different stages of the value chain,
rather than just being raw material suppliers.
Increased Efficiency: Efficient value chains reduce post-harvest losses and ensure timely supply
to markets, which helps farmers gain better prices.
Partnerships: By participating in value chains, farmers can establish long-term relationships
with companies, securing steady demand for their produce.
• Impact on farmers' livelihoods:
• Better market access and price stability.
• Opportunities for diversification into value-added activities.
• Increased knowledge and capacity-building through collaboration.
5. Secondary Enterprises:
These are ancillary businesses that support primary agricultural operations, such as:
Agro-tourism: Farmers can diversify into tourism, offering farm stays, agro-based activities, or
educational experiences, increasing their income streams.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
Farm Equipment Services: Secondary enterprises can offer rental services for tractors,
harvesters, and other machinery that small farmers cannot afford individually.
Renewable Energy: Secondary enterprises like biogas plants or solar power can help farmers
save on energy costs while also creating employment.
Impact on farmers' livelihoods: \
• Diversified income through tourism or renewable energy projects.
• Reduced production costs with access to shared resources (e.g., machinery).
• Increased community engagement and development of new skills.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTEGRATION OF VARIOUS ENTERPRISES OF FARMING

FOR LIVELIHOOD.
The integration of various enterprises in farming, commonly referred to as integrated farming
systems (IFS), can improve livelihoods by enhancing resource efficiency, reducing risks, and
increasing income. However, several factors influence the success of such integration. Here are
key factors affecting the integration of various farming enterprises for livelihood:
1. Resource Availability
• Land: The size and quality of land influence which enterprises (e.g., crop cultivation,
livestock, aquaculture) can be integrated. Larger farms offer more flexibility in enterprise
diversification.
• Water: Reliable water supply is essential for integrating enterprises like aquaculture,
horticulture, and livestock management.
• Labor: The availability and skill level of labor influence how well different enterprises
can be integrated, especially when handling complex or labor-intensive systems.
• Capital: Financial resources determine the ability to invest in diverse enterprises and
adopt technologies that can improve efficiency.
2. Climatic and Environmental Conditions
• Climate: Temperature, rainfall, and humidity play a critical role in determining which
enterprises can coexist. For instance, integration of poultry and aquaculture may work
well in tropical regions but not in temperate climates.
• Soil Quality: The type and fertility of soil affect the types of crops that can be cultivated
and what other activities can be integrated, such as animal rearing or fish farming.
• Biodiversity: Diverse ecosystems support better integration of multiple enterprises, such
as intercropping and agroforestry, which can promote ecological balance.
3. Technology and Infrastructure

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Irrigation Systems: Efficient water management systems like drip irrigation enable
better integration of water-demanding enterprises (e.g., horticulture).
• Mechanization: Availability of tools and equipment to streamline farming processes,
such as planting, harvesting, or animal husbandry, increases the feasibility of integrated
systems.
• Post-harvest Storage and Processing: Adequate infrastructure for storing and
processing produce (e.g., refrigeration for milk or fruits, cold storage for fish) is crucial
for integrating value-added enterprises.
4. Knowledge and Skillset
• Farmers’ Knowledge: The technical know-how about different enterprises (e.g., crop-
livestock integration, waste recycling, organic farming) is essential for successful
integration.
• Training: Access to agricultural extension services and training programs ensures that
farmers are well-equipped to manage multiple enterprises efficiently.
5. Market Access and Demand
• Proximity to Markets: Access to local, regional, or international markets affects the
profitability of various farming enterprises. For example, integrating dairy farming or
horticulture may be more feasible if there are strong markets for milk or fresh vegetables.
• Price Fluctuations: Market volatility impacts farmers’ income from integrated systems,
as some products may not consistently fetch good prices.
• Value Chain Development: A developed value chain for agricultural products (including
processing, packaging, and distribution) can improve integration success by ensuring
better returns.
6. Government Policies and Support
• Subsidies and Grants: Government financial support (e.g., for livestock, organic
farming, or renewable energy initiatives) can encourage the adoption of integrated
farming systems.
• Agricultural Policies: Policies that promote diversification and sustainable agriculture,
such as support for mixed farming and agroforestry, affect how farmers choose to
integrate enterprises.
• Regulations: Environmental and health regulations can either enable or hinder the
integration of certain enterprises, such as restrictions on livestock numbers or pesticide
use.
7. Risk Management

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Diversification Benefits: Integrating different enterprises helps in spreading risks (such
as crop failure or market fluctuations) across multiple sources of income, thus enhancing
livelihood resilience.
• Climate Resilience: Enterprises that are more resilient to climate change, such as
drought-tolerant crops or livestock breeds, can improve the viability of integration.
• Insurance: Access to agricultural insurance programs can encourage farmers to take
risks in integrating more enterprises by providing a safety net.
8. Cultural and Social Factors
• Traditional Farming Practices: Cultural attitudes towards farming methods may
influence the types of enterprises that can be integrated (e.g., certain regions may favor
livestock over crop cultivation).
• Cooperation and Collective Action: Farmer cooperatives or community-based farming
initiatives can help integrate enterprises by pooling resources and sharing knowledge,
especially for smallholders.
9. Environmental Sustainability
• Waste Recycling: Integrated farming allows for the recycling of resources such as crop
residues, manure, and wastewater, contributing to sustainability and reducing external
inputs.
• Biodiversity Conservation: Integrating enterprises like agroforestry or fish-crop
systems enhances biodiversity and soil health, improving long-term productivity.
• Sustainable Practices: Organic farming, permaculture, and other sustainable methods
of integrating enterprises help in preserving the environment and enhancing the resilience
of farming systems.
10. Economic Viability
• Cost of Inputs: The rising cost of inputs (seeds, feed, fertilizers) affects the choice and
success of integrating different enterprises.
• Return on Investment: Farmers assess whether integrating enterprises will provide
sufficient income and economic returns, factoring in input costs, labor, and potential
yield.
The success of integrating various farming enterprises for livelihood depends on effectively
managing these factors to maximize resource use, productivity, and income while ensuring long-
term sustainability.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 20 & 21
FEASIBILITY OF DIFFERENT FARMING SYSTEMS FOR DIFFERENT
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES.
The feasibility of farming systems in different agro-climatic zones is influenced by
various factors like climate, soil type, water availability, and socio-economic conditions.
Different farming systems are better suited for specific agro-climatic conditions, maximizing
productivity and sustainability. Here’s an overview of some common farming systems and their
suitability across different agro-climatic zones:
1. Rainfed Farming
• Suitable for: Semi-arid and dry zones with low and erratic rainfall.
• Key Crops: Sorghum, millet, pulses, and oilseeds.
• Feasibility: High for areas with limited irrigation facilities. Farmers rely on seasonal
rainfall, making the system vulnerable to climate variability. Efficient water conservation
methods like rainwater harvesting are essential.
2. Irrigated Farming
• Suitable for: Plains and river basins, areas with regular water supply.
• Key Crops: Rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables.
• Feasibility: High in regions with good irrigation infrastructure, such as the Indo-
Gangetic plains or Nile River basin. Irrigated farming enhances yield stability and
supports intensive cropping patterns.
3. Shifting Cultivation
• Suitable for: Tropical forest regions with poor soils.
• Key Crops: Maize, cassava, yams, and bananas.
• Feasibility: Declining due to environmental concerns and deforestation. This system
involves clearing small patches of forest for cultivation, leading to low productivity over
time.
4. Mixed Farming
• Suitable for: Temperate and sub-tropical zones.
• Key Crops and Livestock: Grains, legumes, dairy cattle, and poultry.
• Feasibility: High for regions with moderate rainfall and soil fertility. Integration of crop
production with livestock allows for diversification, reducing risks and improving
income stability.
5. Agroforestry
• Suitable for: Humid and semi-arid tropical regions.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Key Components: Trees, shrubs, crops, and livestock.
• Feasibility: Ideal in regions where there is a need to control soil erosion and improve
soil fertility. Trees provide shade, timber, fruits, and act as windbreakers. Agroforestry
supports environmental sustainability.
6. Plantation Farming
• Suitable for: Tropical and sub-tropical humid regions.
• Key Crops: Tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, oil palm.
• Feasibility: Highly suitable for regions with high rainfall, humid conditions, and fertile
soils. Plantation farming is capital-intensive but can be highly profitable in regions with
favorable agro-climatic conditions.
7. Horticulture
• Suitable for: Temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical climates depending on the crops.
• Key Crops: Fruits, vegetables, flowers, and spices.
• Feasibility: High in regions with good soil fertility and moderate to high water
availability. Greenhouse farming is also popular in temperate and arid zones, providing
controlled conditions for sensitive crops.
8. Organic Farming
• Suitable for: All zones, but especially feasible in regions with low pest pressure and
favorable soil conditions.
• Key Crops: Diverse, including grains, vegetables, fruits, and livestock.
• Feasibility: Highly sustainable, but requires knowledge-intensive management. Organic
farming is suitable where synthetic inputs are limited, and the focus is on soil health and
biodiversity.
9. Dryland Farming
• Suitable for: Arid and semi-arid regions.
• Key Crops: Sorghum, pearl millet, pigeon pea, chickpea.
• Feasibility: Requires drought-resistant crop varieties and efficient water management
techniques. Conservation agriculture and minimum tillage are essential for improving
productivity in these areas.
10. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS)
• Suitable for: Variable agro-climatic zones.
• Key Components: A mix of crops, livestock, fisheries, and agroforestry.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Feasibility: Highly sustainable and adaptable to multiple agro-climatic zones. IFS
diversifies income streams and reduces risks, improving the economic viability of small
and marginal farms.
11. Livestock Farming
• Suitable for: Pastoral zones, semi-arid, and arid regions.
• Key Livestock: Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry.
• Feasibility: High in areas with limited arable land but suitable grazing pastures.
Livestock can provide a stable income, especially in regions prone to drought or where
crops may not thrive.
Agro-Climatic Zones and Suitable Farming Systems:
1. Humid Sub-Tropical Zones:
o Suitable Farming: Plantation crops (tea, coffee), irrigated farming, horticulture.
2. Tropical Wet and Dry (Savanna):
o Suitable Farming: Mixed farming, rainfed farming, and agroforestry.
3. Arid and Semi-Arid Zones:
o Suitable Farming: Dryland farming, rainfed farming, and livestock farming.
4. Temperate Zones:
o Suitable Farming: Mixed farming, horticulture, and organic farming.
5. Mountain and Hilly Zones:
o Suitable Farming: Terrace farming, horticulture, and agroforestry.
Factors to Consider for Feasibility:
• Water Availability: Farming systems that require more water (e.g., irrigated farming,
horticulture) are less feasible in water-scarce regions.
• Soil Type: Crops like rice and sugarcane require clayey soils, while coarse grains and
pulses thrive on sandy soils.
• Temperature and Growing Season: Frost-sensitive crops (e.g., bananas, rubber) are not
feasible in temperate zones.
• Market Access and Infrastructure: High-value crops like horticulture products need
good transportation and market systems to ensure profitability.
By aligning the right farming system with the agro-climatic conditions, farmers can enhance
productivity, sustainability, and resilience to environmental challenges.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 22 & 23
COMMERCIAL FARMING-BASED LIVELIHOOD MODELS BY NABARD, ICAR
AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS ACROSS THE COUNTRY.

Commercial farming-based livelihood models promoted by institutions like NABARD

(National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development), ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research), and other organizations aim to enhance income and sustainability for farmers. These
models focus on promoting high-value crops, integrated farming systems, value addition, and
linkages with markets and financial institutions. Below are some prominent livelihood models:
1. NABARD-Backed Livelihood Models
NABARD plays a crucial role in supporting commercial farming-based livelihood models
through various schemes and programs. It offers financial assistance, training, and market
linkages. Some of the key models include:
A. Integrated Farming System (IFS) Model
• Focus: Combining crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, and agroforestry to
increase productivity and income diversification.
• Key Components:
o Crop-livestock integration (dairy, poultry, goat farming).
o Water harvesting for irrigation and aquaculture.
o Agroforestry for soil health and fodder.
• Benefits: Reduced risk, year-round income, and sustainable resource management.
• Example: NABARD's support for IFS in Tamil Nadu has helped marginal farmers
increase their income by 30-40% through diversification.
B. Horticulture-Based Livelihood Models
• Focus: Promotion of fruits, vegetables, and floriculture for income generation.
• Key Initiatives:
o Cluster-based approach for cultivation of high-value crops like mango, banana,
and flowers.
o Provision of cold storage and processing units to reduce post-harvest losses.
o Market linkages through contract farming or farmer producer organizations
(FPOs).
• Example: NABARD’s promotion of the mango value chain in Maharashtra, where
farmers are connected with exporters and processing industries.
C. Dairy and Livestock-Based Models
• Focus: Enhancing milk production and livestock rearing.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Key Components:
o Dairy farming (buffalo, cow).
o Goat and sheep farming in semi-arid and arid zones.
o Providing fodder cultivation, veterinary services, and market linkages for milk
cooperatives.
• Example: NABARD’s dairy entrepreneurship development scheme has been successful
in regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan, where dairy cooperatives like Amul operate.
D. Fisheries and Aquaculture Models
• Focus: Inland and marine fisheries for small and marginal farmers.
• Key Components:
o Freshwater fish farming in ponds and tanks.
o Shrimp farming in coastal areas.
o Providing access to feed, disease control, and market linkages.
• Example: Integrated fisheries projects in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have helped
coastal communities improve incomes.
2. ICAR-Backed Livelihood Models
ICAR, as India’s premier agricultural research body, develops technology-driven farming models
to enhance the profitability and sustainability of agriculture. Some of its livelihood models
include:
A. Precision Farming Model
• Focus: Use of technology like drip irrigation, fertigation, and remote sensing to optimize
input use and improve yields.
• Key Initiatives:
o Promotion of precision farming in crops like sugarcane, vegetables, and cotton.
o Use of GPS-guided tractors and real-time soil health monitoring.
o Reducing input costs and increasing resource-use efficiency.
• Example: Precision farming models in Tamil Nadu for crops like cotton have improved
water-use efficiency and reduced fertilizer costs.
B. Protected Cultivation (Greenhouse Farming) Model
• Focus: Growing high-value crops like vegetables and flowers under controlled
conditions.
• Key Components:
o Polyhouse cultivation of crops like capsicum, tomato, and roses.
o Temperature, humidity, and nutrient control systems.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Value addition through post-harvest handling and processing.
• Example: ICAR’s model of greenhouse cultivation in Haryana and Punjab has increased
farmer incomes by 2-3 times, especially for floriculture.
C. Organic Farming Model
• Focus: Promotion of organic farming practices to reduce dependence on chemical inputs.
• Key Initiatives:
o Crop rotation, organic manure, and biopesticides for sustainable farming.
o Certification and branding for organic produce.
o Market linkages for premium pricing of organic products.
• Example: ICAR’s organic farming models in the North-Eastern states like Sikkim have
gained traction due to minimal use of synthetic inputs in these regions.
3. Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) as Livelihood Models
• Focus: Aggregation of small farmers into producer organizations to improve bargaining
power, reduce costs, and access better markets.
• Key Components:
o Input procurement at lower prices.
o Direct market access, bypassing middlemen.
o Establishing processing units for value addition.
• Example: The Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC), with NABARD’s
support, has facilitated the formation of thousands of FPOs across India, providing
smallholder farmers access to better markets and higher prices.
4. Agroforestry-Based Models
• Focus: Integration of trees with crop and livestock systems to improve soil fertility,
provide fodder, and additional income from timber and fruits.
• Key Initiatives:
o Promotion of tree species like teak, bamboo, and fruit trees in combination with
traditional crops.
o Reducing soil erosion and enhancing biodiversity.
• Example: ICAR’s agroforestry models have been widely adopted in semi-arid regions
like Rajasthan and Karnataka, where they offer dual benefits of income from timber and
protection against drought.
5. Commercial Crop-Based Livelihood Models
Organizations like ICAR and NABARD promote commercial crop cultivation for high-value
markets:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Key Crops: Cotton, spices, medicinal plants, biofuels (jatropha), and oilseeds.
• Support Systems: Research on high-yielding varieties, pest management, and market
integration.
• Example: ICAR's promotion of commercial cultivation of turmeric and medicinal plants
in Odisha and Jharkhand has improved incomes in tribal areas.
6. Self-Help Group (SHG) and Micro-Enterprise Models
• Focus: Encouraging women and small farmers to form SHGs and establish micro-
enterprises based on agricultural produce.
• Key Initiatives:
o Dairy cooperatives, goat farming, honey production, mushroom cultivation, and
rural handicrafts.
o Providing financial literacy and access to microcredit through NABARD’s SHG-
Bank linkage program.
• Example: In states like Kerala, SHG models in dairy farming and mushroom production
have been a key livelihood strategy for women.
7. Cluster-Based Approach in Agriculture
• Focus: Grouping farmers within a particular geographic area to cultivate the same crops
or engage in the same agricultural activity.
• Key Initiatives:
o Identifying clusters for specific crops such as spices in Kerala, fruits in
Maharashtra, and rice in Punjab.
o Improving access to technology, inputs, and markets for large-scale commercial
farming.
• Example: The cluster-based approach for spice farming in Kerala, supported by
NABARD, has boosted exports and farmer incomes.
8. Sericulture and Silk Farming
• Focus: Promotion of sericulture for livelihood generation, particularly in rural and semi-
urban areas.
• Key Components:
o Mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing.
o Processing and sale of silk products.
o Training and support through organizations like NABARD and the Central Silk
Board.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Example: Sericulture models in Karnataka and West Bengal have been highly
successful, providing a steady income for rural communities.
These livelihood models supported by NABARD, ICAR, and other organizations are tailored to
suit the agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic realities of different regions in India. They
emphasize sustainable practices, value addition, and market linkages to ensure long-term
profitability for farmers.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 25 & 26
CASE STUDIES ON DIFFERENT LIVELIHOOD ENTERPRISES
ASSOCIATED WITH THE FARMING.
Here are a few case studies on different livelihood enterprises associated with farming
across various regions in India. These examples showcase how integrating farming with other
enterprises can enhance rural livelihoods by diversifying income sources, improving
sustainability, and increasing resilience to market or climate risks.
1. Dairy Farming Enterprise in Gujarat: The Amul Cooperative Model
• Location: Anand, Gujarat
• Enterprise: Dairy Farming
• Key Stakeholders: Amul (Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation), Local
Dairy Farmers, NABARD
• Overview: Amul, established in 1946, has created one of the largest and most successful
cooperative dairy farming enterprises in India. Over time, Amul has become a household
name, directly impacting the livelihoods of millions of farmers through milk collection
and dairy products.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Income Diversification: Farmers integrated dairy farming with crop farming,
securing a regular income from milk sales.
o Market Linkages: Amul ensures stable and fair prices through cooperative
agreements, bypassing intermediaries.
o Support and Training: The cooperative provides farmers with veterinary care,
feed, training on cattle management, and access to credit through NABARD and
other financial institutions.
• Outcome: Over 3.6 million dairy farmers are part of the Amul cooperative, significantly
improving the living standards in rural Gujarat. The model has been replicated in several
states like Karnataka and Maharashtra.
2. Organic Farming and Value Addition in Sikkim: India's First Fully Organic State
• Location: Sikkim
• Enterprise: Organic Farming and Processing
• Key Stakeholders: Government of Sikkim, ICAR, NABARD, Local Farmers
• Overview: Sikkim became the first fully organic state in India in 2016. The government,
in collaboration with ICAR and NABARD, implemented policies to shift farmers from

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 conventional to organic farming practices. The state promotes organic crops like
cardamom, ginger, oranges, and vegetables, along with value-added products.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Market Premium: Organic produce fetches premium prices in national and
international markets, improving farmers’ incomes by 20-30%.
o Value Addition: Farmers were trained in processing organic products like
organic turmeric powder and organic spices, which increased their earning
potential.
o Environmental Sustainability: Organic farming helped in soil conservation,
reduced water usage, and improved biodiversity in the region.
• Outcome: The organic farming initiative in Sikkim has improved the livelihoods of over
66,000 farmers, with the model now serving as a national and global example of
sustainable farming practices.
3. Mushroom Farming Enterprise in Himachal Pradesh
• Location: Solan, Himachal Pradesh
• Enterprise: Mushroom Cultivation
• Key Stakeholders: Mushroom Growers, Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,
NABARD
• Overview: Solan, known as the "Mushroom City of India," has a thriving mushroom
farming community. With technical support from ICAR and financial support from
NABARD, small and marginal farmers started growing button mushrooms, oyster
mushrooms, and medicinal mushrooms.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Low Investment, High Return: Mushroom farming requires minimal land and
capital, making it an attractive livelihood option for small farmers.
o Income Diversification: Farmers combine mushroom cultivation with
horticulture or dairy farming, adding a reliable source of income.
o Training and Market Linkages: Agricultural universities and ICAR provide
training on mushroom cultivation techniques, post-harvest handling, and disease
control, while NABARD helps with access to finance.
• Outcome: Mushroom farming has transformed the livelihoods of thousands of small
farmers in Solan, generating employment, especially for women and marginalized
communities.
4. Sericulture (Silk Farming) in Karnataka

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Location: Ramanagara, Karnataka
• Enterprise: Sericulture (Silk Farming)
• Key Stakeholders: Karnataka State Sericulture Development Institute, NABARD,
Local Farmers
• Overview: Karnataka produces over 70% of India's mulberry silk. Farmers in
Ramanagara district adopted sericulture as a complementary livelihood to crop farming.
The Karnataka State Sericulture Institute and NABARD supported the farmers with
training, subsidies, and market access.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Dual Income Source: Farmers rear silkworms alongside cultivating mulberry
plants, thereby generating dual income streams.
o Market Assurance: Farmers are guaranteed market access and fair prices
through cooperatives and government procurement policies.
o Training: NABARD and the State Sericulture Department provide training on
mulberry cultivation, silkworm rearing, and silk processing techniques.
• Outcome: Sericulture in Karnataka has greatly increased the income of over 50,000
small farmers, and Ramanagara has become a key silk production hub in India. The
model supports around 20% higher annual income than crop farming alone.
5. Fisheries Enterprise in Andhra Pradesh
• Location: Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh
• Enterprise: Inland Aquaculture (Fisheries)
• Key Stakeholders: NABARD, ICAR-Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture
(CIFA), Local Fishermen
• Overview: Krishna District is one of the largest inland aquaculture hubs in India. With
the support of NABARD and ICAR-CIFA, local fishermen turned to inland fish farming
as a livelihood enterprise. The primary species cultivated include rohu, catla, and shrimp.
• Livelihood Impact:
o High Returns: Fish farming has a relatively high return on investment compared
to traditional crop farming in the region.
o Employment: Aquaculture has generated local employment, particularly for
youth, and improved household incomes.
o Infrastructure Support: NABARD has provided financial support for pond
construction, feed, and disease control measures, while ICAR-CIFA offers
technical guidance on modern aquaculture practices.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Outcome: Aquaculture has transformed Krishna district into a prosperous fisheries
region. It has raised incomes for thousands of farmers, making it a profitable and
sustainable enterprise.
6. Integrated Farming System (IFS) in Tamil Nadu
• Location: Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
• Enterprise: Integrated Farming System (IFS) combining crop farming, livestock,
poultry, and fish farming.
• Key Stakeholders: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, NABARD, Local Farmers
• Overview: In this case, small farmers in the Cauvery Delta region faced issues of water
scarcity and declining soil fertility. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, supported
by NABARD, introduced Integrated Farming Systems to improve resilience and income
stability.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Income Diversification: Farmers now practice a combination of rice cultivation,
dairy farming, fish farming, and poultry, leading to multiple income sources.
o Efficient Resource Use: The system uses farm by-products efficiently. For
example, crop residues are used for livestock feed, while livestock manure is used
for crop fertilization.
o Training and Credit Support: Farmers received training on integrated farming
techniques and access to credit through NABARD.
• Outcome: Farmers’ incomes increased by up to 50% in five years, and the model has
improved soil fertility, water efficiency, and overall farm productivity.
7. Agroforestry and Beekeeping in Uttarakhand
• Location: Almora, Uttarakhand
• Enterprise: Agroforestry and Beekeeping
• Key Stakeholders: ICAR, State Forest Department, NABARD, Local Farmers
• Overview: In the hilly regions of Uttarakhand, farmers traditionally faced issues of soil
erosion and low crop productivity. ICAR and NABARD encouraged agroforestry and
beekeeping as supplementary livelihoods.
• Livelihood Impact:
o Agroforestry: Farmers planted trees like teak, bamboo, and fruit trees alongside
traditional crops, improving soil conservation and generating timber income.
o Beekeeping: Farmers practiced beekeeping alongside agroforestry, producing
honey, beeswax, and other value-added products.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Value Addition: Honey produced is marketed under the local brand name,
fetching premium prices.
• Outcome: Agroforestry combined with beekeeping has provided additional income and
employment in the region, especially for women. The initiative also contributed to
biodiversity conservation and increased farm resilience.
These case studies demonstrate that integrated, diversified livelihood enterprises associated with
farming are critical for enhancing rural incomes, creating employment, and building resilience
against environmental and economic shocks. They also highlight the essential roles of financial
institutions like NABARD and research bodies like ICAR in supporting these initiatives.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 27 & 28
RISK & SUCCESS FACTORS IN FARMING-BASED LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS
Farming-based livelihood systems are complex, and their success depends on a range of
factors that can either enhance or hinder the sustainability and profitability of the enterprise.
Understanding both risk factors and success factors is critical for improving farming outcomes
and ensuring long-term viability for rural communities.
Risk Factors in Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
1. Climate and Weather-Related Risks
o Unpredictable Weather: Droughts, floods, and erratic rainfall patterns can lead
to crop failures, lower yields, and loss of livestock.
o Climate Change: Rising temperatures, shifting monsoon patterns, and extreme
weather events can reduce the viability of traditional crops in certain regions.
o Pest and Disease Outbreaks: Uncontrolled pest infestations or crop diseases can
devastate yields, particularly in monoculture systems.
2. Market Risks
o Price Fluctuations: Farming is highly vulnerable to market volatility. Global
commodity prices, local demand-supply imbalances, and government policies
(e.g., export bans, subsidies) can lead to sharp price fluctuations for agricultural
products.
o Market Access: Lack of access to well-functioning markets, especially for small-
scale and remote farmers, results in poor pricing, delayed payments, and
exploitation by middlemen.
o Global Competition: Farmers, especially those producing cash crops like cotton
or sugar, face competition from global producers, which can undercut local
prices.
3. Financial and Credit Risks
o Lack of Access to Credit: Small and marginal farmers often face difficulties in
obtaining formal credit due to lack of collateral, small landholdings, or high
interest rates.
o Indebtedness: Borrowing from informal moneylenders at high interest rates can
trap farmers in cycles of debt, especially when crop failure or market downturns
occur.
o High Input Costs: Rising prices of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery
can increase production costs, squeezing farmer profit margins.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 4. Resource Depletion
o Soil Degradation: Over-cultivation, deforestation, and improper farming
techniques lead to soil erosion, loss of fertility, and declining crop productivity.
o Water Scarcity: Over-extraction of groundwater and poor irrigation
infrastructure can lead to severe water shortages, especially in arid and semi-arid
regions.
o Biodiversity Loss: Monoculture practices reduce biodiversity, making farming
systems more vulnerable to pests, diseases, and changing environmental
conditions.
5. Social and Demographic Risks
o Land Fragmentation: In many parts of India and other developing nations,
landholdings are becoming increasingly fragmented due to inheritance laws,
reducing economies of scale.
o Aging Farmer Population: Rural youth are increasingly migrating to urban
areas in search of better employment opportunities, leaving aging populations to
manage farms.
o Gender Disparities: Women in agriculture face barriers such as limited access
to land, credit, and training, despite often being primary contributors to farm
work.
6. Policy and Regulatory Risks
o Inconsistent Government Policies: Frequent changes in agricultural policies,
subsidies, import-export restrictions, and pricing mechanisms can create
uncertainties for farmers.
o Lack of Support Infrastructure: Poor road connectivity, inadequate storage
facilities, and weak supply chains hamper the timely transportation and sale of
agricultural produce.
o Regulatory Barriers: Complex and bureaucratic procedures for accessing
government schemes, subsidies, or insurance often discourage small farmers from
participating in such programs.
7. Technological Risks
o Lack of Awareness and Access to Technology: Many smallholder farmers are
unaware of or lack access to modern technologies such as precision farming tools,
improved seeds, and irrigation systems.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Inappropriate Technology: In some cases, the technologies introduced are
unsuitable for local conditions, leading to suboptimal results or even crop failure.
Success Factors in Farming-Based Livelihood Systems
1. Diversification of Income Sources
o Multiple Livelihood Streams: Farmers who diversify their income sources
through mixed farming (crops, livestock, poultry, aquaculture), agroforestry, or
value-added processing are more resilient to market fluctuations and climate
risks.
o Off-Farm Income: Engaging in non-farming activities such as rural crafts,
tourism, or wage labor can buffer farmers from agricultural income volatility.
2. Access to Technology and Innovation
o Improved Seeds and Inputs: The adoption of high-yielding, disease-resistant
crop varieties and hybrid seeds can significantly boost productivity and farm
income.
o Irrigation and Water Management Technology: Efficient irrigation systems
such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, combined with water-harvesting techniques,
reduce water usage and increase crop yields.
o Precision Farming Tools: Use of technology like drones, sensors, and GIS
mapping for monitoring crop health, soil conditions, and pest control can
optimize input usage and improve yields.
3. Market Linkages and Value Addition
o Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): Organized groups of farmers can
leverage collective bargaining to access better markets, negotiate fair prices, and
reduce input costs.
o Contract Farming: Contractual arrangements with private companies can
provide assured markets, stable prices, and technical support for farmers growing
specific crops.
o Value Addition: Processing raw produce into value-added products (e.g., turning
milk into cheese, or fruits into jams) can fetch higher prices in the market and
reduce dependency on raw commodity sales.
4. Access to Credit and Financial Services
o Microfinance and SHGs: Participation in microfinance initiatives and Self-Help
Groups (SHGs) helps farmers, especially women, access small loans for seeds,
equipment, or other investments.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Crop Insurance: Insurance schemes like Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY) in India help farmers manage risks related to crop failure due to
weather events or disease outbreaks.
o Affordable Credit: Formal banking services with affordable interest rates from
institutions like NABARD can provide farmers with the capital needed for
purchasing inputs, investing in technology, or expanding production.
5. Government Support and Policies
o Subsidies and Schemes: Government subsidies on fertilizers, seeds, and
equipment, as well as welfare schemes like the Kisan Credit Card (KCC), offer
financial relief and lower production costs.
o Price Support Mechanisms: Minimum Support Price (MSP) schemes for key
crops ensure farmers get a fair price for their produce, protecting them from
market volatility.
o Public Investment in Infrastructure: Improved roads, cold storage facilities,
and supply chains help reduce post-harvest losses and improve market access for
farmers in remote areas.
6. Capacity Building and Training
o Farmer Education: Extension services, training programs, and demonstration
plots help farmers learn best practices in soil health, crop management, water
conservation, and pest control.
o Digital Literacy: Access to digital tools like mobile apps for weather forecasts,
market prices, and farming techniques can empower farmers with real-time
information for decision-making.
7. Sustainable Agricultural Practices
o Organic Farming and Agroecology: Farmers who adopt organic farming,
permaculture, and agroecological practices often benefit from reduced input costs
and better long-term soil health, while also fetching premium prices in niche
markets.
o Agroforestry and Intercropping: Agroforestry practices that integrate trees
with crops and livestock provide additional sources of income (timber, fruits,
fodder) and enhance biodiversity and environmental resilience.
8. Social and Cooperative Systems

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Community Participation: Strong farmer cooperatives, self-help groups, and
FPOs provide social support, enable collective action, and foster resilience
through shared resources and knowledge.
o Women’s Empowerment: Empowering women in agriculture by improving
their access to land, credit, and markets can significantly boost farm productivity
and household incomes.
9. Climate-Resilient Practices
o Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adoption of climate-resilient crops, conservation
agriculture (no-till farming, cover cropping), and integrated pest management
(IPM) helps farmers cope with changing climatic conditions.
o Water Conservation: Techniques such as rainwater harvesting, check dams, and
watershed management improve water availability, particularly in arid and semi-
arid regions.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 27 & 28
SCHEMES & PROGRAMMES BY CENTRAL & STATE GOVERNMENT, PUBLIC &
PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN PROMOTION OF FARMING-BASED
LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES
Both the Central Government of India and the Maharashtra State Government,
along with various public and private organizations, have launched numerous schemes and
programs to promote farming-based livelihood opportunities. These initiatives aim to enhance
agricultural productivity, support farmer welfare, increase income, promote sustainable
practices, and ensure food security. Below is an overview of key schemes and programs:
A. Central Government Schemes & Programs
1. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
o Objective: Provide insurance coverage and financial support to farmers in the
event of crop failure due to natural calamities, pests, and diseases.
o Key Features:
▪ Covers pre-harvest and post-harvest losses.
▪ Affordable premium rates for farmers (2% for Kharif, 1.5% for Rabi, and
5% for commercial crops).
▪ Encourages farmers to adopt better farming practices.
o Target Group: All farmers, including small and marginal farmers.
2. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)
o Objective: Provide direct income support to small and marginal farmers to
supplement their financial needs for farming and allied activities.
o Key Features:
▪ Direct transfer of ₹6,000 per year to farmers in three equal installments.
▪ Covers small and marginal farmers across the country.
o Target Group: Small and marginal farmers with less than 2 hectares of land.
3. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
o Objective: Improve water use efficiency in agriculture and provide assured
irrigation to farmers.
o Key Features:
▪ Focus on micro-irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
▪ Integration of various water-saving technologies and practices.
▪ Promotes sustainable water management in agriculture.
o Target Group: Farmers in drought-prone and water-scarce areas.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 4. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM)
o Objective: Create a unified online market platform for agricultural commodities
across India to ensure better price discovery.
o Key Features:
▪ Facilitates transparent online trade of agricultural produce.
▪ Reduces dependency on middlemen by linking farmers directly to buyers.
▪ Enables farmers to get better prices for their products.
o Target Group: Farmers, traders, and buyers.
5. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)
o Objective: Provide financial assistance to states for holistic agricultural
development.
o Key Features:
▪ Focuses on increasing farmers’ income, productivity, and crop
diversification.
▪ Supports state-level initiatives in areas such as organic farming,
horticulture, animal husbandry, and agri-infrastructure.
o Target Group: Farmers, cooperatives, and state governments.
6. Soil Health Card Scheme
o Objective: Promote sustainable soil health management by providing farmers
with soil health cards that contain nutrient information.
o Key Features:
▪ Helps farmers understand soil nutrient requirements and adopt
appropriate fertilization practices.
▪ Reduces input costs and promotes balanced use of fertilizers.
o Target Group: Farmers across the country.
7. National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
o Objective: Increase production and productivity of key food grains such as rice,
wheat, pulses, and coarse cereals.
o Key Features:
▪ Promotes the adoption of improved seed varieties, soil fertility
management, and efficient water use.
▪ Encourages crop diversification to improve resilience against climate
risks.
o Target Group: Farmers cultivating food grains.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 8. National Livestock Mission (NLM)
o Objective: Develop livestock-based livelihoods, especially in rural areas.
o Key Features:
▪ Focuses on breed improvement, animal health services, and fodder
development.
▪ Promotes poultry, dairy farming, goat rearing, and piggery for income
generation.
o Target Group: Farmers engaged in livestock rearing.
B. Maharashtra State Government Schemes & Programs
1. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule Shetkari Karjmukti Yojana
o Objective: Provide debt relief to indebted farmers in Maharashtra by waiving off
loans.
o Key Features:
▪ Full loan waiver for farmers with outstanding loans up to ₹2 lakh.
▪ Benefits marginalized and small farmers by reducing debt burden.
o Target Group: Small and marginal farmers in Maharashtra.
2. Baliraja Chetana Abhiyan
o Objective: Address agrarian distress and improve the socio-economic conditions
of farmers in drought-prone areas.
o Key Features:
▪ Focuses on improving irrigation infrastructure, providing financial
assistance, and promoting sustainable farming practices.
▪ Supports drought-affected farmers with immediate relief and long-term
livelihood opportunities.
o Target Group: Farmers in drought-affected regions of Maharashtra.
3. Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh Interest Subsidy Scheme
o Objective: Provide interest subsidies to farmers on short-term crop loans.
o Key Features:
▪ Interest subsidy up to 5% on short-term crop loans.
▪ Helps reduce the cost of borrowing for small and marginal farmers.
o Target Group: Farmers availing of crop loans from cooperative and nationalized
banks.
4. Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Objective: Improve water conservation and management to make Maharashtra
drought-free.
o Key Features:
▪ Focuses on watershed development, rainwater harvesting, and increasing
water storage capacity.
▪ Involves construction of farm ponds, check dams, and repairing existing
water structures.
o Target Group: Farmers in water-scarce and drought-prone areas.
5. Shetkari Samriddhi Yojana
o Objective: Promote horticulture development in Maharashtra to enhance farmers'
income.
o Key Features:
▪ Provides financial assistance for setting up fruit orchards, vegetable
cultivation, and floriculture.
▪ Encourages crop diversification by supporting high-value horticultural
crops.
o Target Group: Farmers involved in horticulture and floriculture.
6. Ekatmik Krushi Vikas Yojana (Integrated Agricultural Development Program)
o Objective: Promote integrated farming systems in Maharashtra to improve
farmers' livelihoods.
o Key Features:
▪ Encourages a holistic approach by integrating crops, livestock,
agroforestry, and fisheries.
▪ Provides financial assistance, technical guidance, and market linkages.
o Target Group: Farmers practicing mixed farming and agro-entrepreneurs.
7. Pik Vima Yojana (Crop Insurance Scheme)
o Objective: Provide insurance cover to farmers in Maharashtra against crop loss
due to natural calamities.
o Key Features:
▪ Covers crop loss caused by drought, flood, hailstorms, pests, and diseases.
▪ Farmers can pay a nominal premium for the coverage.
o Target Group: Farmers growing insured crops.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN PROMOTION OF
FARMING-BASED LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES
In India, both public and private organizations play a vital role in supporting farming-based
livelihoods. These organizations provide various types of assistance, including financial aid,
technical training, market access, and policy support to enhance agricultural productivity and
rural incomes. Below is a detailed overview of such organizations in India:
Public Organizations
1. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare (MoAFW)
o Focus: Overall development of agriculture and farmers' welfare.
o Activities: Implements key policies and schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Kisan
Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN), Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), and
the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA). These schemes focus
on direct income support, crop insurance, and sustainable farming practices.
2. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
o Focus: Promoting agriculture and rural development.
o Activities: Provides credit, financial services, and technical support to farmers.
NABARD facilitates infrastructure development through initiatives like the Rural
Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) and supports rural entrepreneurship
through various schemes like the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
(DEDS).
3. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
o Focus: Agricultural research and education.
o Activities: Develops new technologies, crop varieties, and farming techniques. It
operates Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) across India to disseminate knowledge,
conduct on-farm trials, and provide capacity-building training to farmers.
4. National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED)
o Focus: Agricultural marketing and price stabilization.
o Activities: Helps farmers get fair prices for their produce by providing marketing
support and running procurement programs. NAFED also assists in exporting
surplus crops and promoting farmer-owned cooperatives.
5. Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC)
o Focus: Promoting agribusiness and farmer producer organizations (FPOs).
o Activities: Provides assistance to small and marginal farmers to organize into
FPOs. SFAC also helps with marketing, access to finance, and capacity-building.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 6. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)
o Focus: Strengthening the agricultural sector.
o Activities: Provides states with financial support for agricultural development
projects based on their specific needs. This scheme promotes crop diversification,
mechanization, and sustainable practices.
Private Organizations
1. Tata Trusts
o Focus: Rural development and agricultural livelihood support.
o Activities: Runs several programs aimed at improving agricultural productivity
and income generation, such as soil health management, livestock development,
and water resource management. Tata Trusts also support farmer producer
organizations (FPOs).
2. Mahindra Agri Solutions
o Focus: Comprehensive solutions for agriculture.
o Activities: Offers a range of services including high-quality seeds, crop care
solutions, and precision farming techniques. Mahindra also provides market
linkages and export opportunities for farmers through its various agribusiness
ventures.
3. ITC Limited’s Agri-Business Division
o Focus: Improving farm productivity and sustainability.
o Activities: Operates the e-Choupal initiative, which provides farmers with real-
time information, agricultural best practices, and direct access to markets. ITC
also works on water conservation, soil fertility improvement, and sustainable
farming practices.
4. Reliance Foundation
o Focus: Empowering rural communities and enhancing agricultural livelihoods.
o Activities: Provides farmers with technology-driven solutions, financial literacy,
and market access through its digital platforms and initiatives like Reliance
Foundation Information Services (RFIS). Focuses on improving farm
productivity, water resources, and livestock development.
5. Godrej Agrovet
o Focus: Enhancing agricultural productivity and farmer incomes.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Activities: Provides products and services in the areas of animal feed, oil palm
cultivation, crop protection, and dairy farming. Godrej also works closely with
smallholder farmers to improve farming practices and increase profitability.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Foundations
1. BAIF Development Research Foundation
o Focus: Sustainable rural development.
o Activities: Implements programs in livestock development, watershed
management, and sustainable agriculture. BAIF supports marginal farmers in
improving farm productivity and building alternative livelihoods through skill
development.
2. Srijan (Self-Reliant Initiatives through Joint Action)
o Focus: Enhancing rural livelihoods and agricultural practices.
o Activities: Provides support to smallholder farmers in adopting improved
agricultural technologies, water management practices, and market-oriented
farming. Srijan also promotes value chains and farmer cooperatives.
3. Action for Social Advancement (ASA)
o Focus: Agriculture, livelihoods, and water management.
o Activities: Promotes sustainable agricultural practices, assists with forming
FPOs, and helps farmers access markets and finance. ASA is involved in
watershed development and enhancing water-use efficiency.
Cooperatives and Social Enterprises
1. Amul (Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation)
o Focus: Dairy farming and cooperative development.
o Activities: Organizes dairy farmers into cooperatives, providing them with
market access, training, and fair prices for their produce. Amul's model has been
successful in transforming dairy farming into a sustainable livelihood for millions
of farmers.
2. IFFCO (Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative)
o Focus: Providing high-quality fertilizers to farmers.
o Activities: Supports farmers by offering affordable fertilizers, promoting
balanced nutrient use, and encouraging sustainable agricultural practices. IFFCO
also engages in farmer education and capacity-building programs.
3. Mother Dairy
o Focus: Dairy farming and agribusiness.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 o Activities: Operates milk procurement systems directly from farmers, ensuring
they receive a fair price. Mother Dairy also supports horticulture farmers by
offering market linkages for fruits and vegetables.
Social Enterprises and Startups
1. AgroStar
o Focus: Digital agriculture and agribusiness.
o Activities: Provides a mobile-based platform for farmers to access agricultural
inputs, expert advice, and market information. AgroStar helps farmers improve
productivity and profitability by offering technology-driven solutions.
2. DeHaat
o Focus: Agritech solutions for smallholder farmers.
o Activities: Offers end-to-end services such as input supply, crop advisory, and
market linkages via digital platforms. DeHaat aims to improve the economic
standing of small farmers by providing them with access to technology and better
markets.
These organizations, through a combination of government schemes, private-sector initiatives,
and NGO efforts, are working towards enhancing the sustainability and profitability of farming-
based livelihoods in India. Their focus on innovation, technology, and farmer empowerment is
crucial for addressing the challenges faced by the agricultural sector in the country.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 LECTURE: - 29 & 30
ROLE OF FARMING-BASED LIVELIHOOD ENTERPRISES IN 21ST CENTURY IN
VIEW OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY, GREEN ECONOMY, CLIMATE CHANGE,
DIGITALIZATION & CHANGING LIFE STYLE.
Farming-based livelihood enterprises play a pivotal role in advancing the principles of the
circular economy in the 21st century. As the global focus shifts towards sustainability, resource
efficiency, and environmental stewardship, agriculture and farming enterprises are reorienting
their operations to align with circular economy models. Below are key roles that farming-based
livelihood enterprises perform in the context of the circular economy:
1. Waste Minimization and Resource Efficiency
Farming enterprises are central to circular economy models due to their ability to repurpose
agricultural waste into valuable inputs:
• Organic Waste Recycling: Crop residues, livestock manure, and food waste can be
converted into organic fertilizers or compost, returning nutrients to the soil and enhancing
fertility.
• Biomass Utilization: Farming enterprises utilize agricultural waste (stalks, husks, etc.)
as biomass for renewable energy production (bioenergy), thus minimizing waste and
reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
• Water Recycling: Implementing closed-loop water management systems like drip
irrigation and rainwater harvesting helps conserve water, ensuring that this precious
resource is reused efficiently.
2. Soil Health and Regenerative Agriculture
Circular economy practices in farming prioritize soil regeneration rather than depletion:
• Regenerative Agriculture: Farming-based enterprises are adopting regenerative
agriculture practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and no-till farming. These
practices help restore soil organic matter, improve biodiversity, and capture carbon,
contributing to long-term soil fertility and ecosystem health.
• Bio-fertilizers and Bio-pesticides: Enterprises are increasingly focusing on natural
alternatives to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, reducing chemical inputs that degrade
soil and water ecosystems.
3. Sustainable Supply Chains
Farming enterprises in a circular economy aim to create sustainable and closed-loop supply
chains:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Farm-to-Table and Localized Systems: By focusing on local production and
consumption models, enterprises reduce transportation emissions and the overall carbon
footprint. Shorter supply chains also mean less waste, as food and other agricultural
products are consumed closer to where they are produced.
• Fair Trade and Ethical Practices: Many farming enterprises in the circular economy
adopt fair trade principles, ensuring that producers receive fair wages and work under
sustainable conditions. This creates resilient local economies.
4. Valorization of By-products and Secondary Resources
One of the core principles of the circular economy is transforming by-products into valuable
materials:
• Upcycling: By-products from farming, such as animal waste, can be upcycled into
biogas, biofuels, or even bio-based packaging materials. This turns waste into new
resources and reduces dependency on non-renewable materials.
• Circular Packaging: Many enterprises are moving towards biodegradable or
compostable packaging made from agricultural by-products, reducing plastic waste in
the supply chain.
5. Innovation in Agri-tech and Precision Farming
Farming-based enterprises are leveraging technological innovations to advance circular
economy principles:
• Precision Agriculture: Using technology like sensors, drones, and AI, enterprises can
monitor crop health, optimize water and input use, and reduce waste. Precision farming
ensures that resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides are used efficiently,
minimizing environmental impact.
• Smart Irrigation and Resource Management: Advanced irrigation systems that reuse
water and monitor soil moisture help in resource efficiency, aligning with the circular
economy's focus on reducing inputs and waste.
6. Regenerative Livestock and Aquaculture Systems
In circular economies, the livestock and aquaculture sectors focus on practices that restore
ecosystems and reduce the environmental burden:
• Integrated Farming Systems: Enterprises are adopting mixed farming systems where
livestock and crop production are interdependent. For example, livestock manure can be
used as organic fertilizer, and crop residues can serve as feed, creating a natural cycle
that minimizes waste.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Aquaponics and Circular Aquaculture: Fish farming enterprises are integrating
circular practices by using waste from fish to fertilize crops in aquaponics systems, where
plants filter and clean water, reducing water waste and pollution.
7. Climate Resilience and Carbon Sequestration
Farming enterprises contribute to mitigating climate change by promoting carbon sequestration
and ecosystem restoration:
• Agroforestry: Incorporating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes captures
carbon, reduces erosion, and provides habitats for biodiversity. Enterprises that adopt
agroforestry help to create more resilient ecosystems.
• Carbon Farming: Enterprises are involved in practices like cover cropping and reduced
tillage, which sequester carbon in the soil. This not only improves soil health but also
contributes to global climate change mitigation efforts.
8. Circular Economy Business Models in Farming
Farming enterprises are increasingly adopting business models that prioritize reuse, recycling,
and long-term sustainability:
• Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): These collective models enable smallholder
farmers to pool resources, reduce costs, and adopt sustainable practices more effectively.
FPOs promote shared ownership of resources like machinery and composting facilities,
enabling closed-loop resource use.
• Agri-sharing Platforms: Enterprises are utilizing sharing economy models where
equipment, tools, and machinery are shared among farmers, reducing the need for new
resource extraction and lowering the environmental footprint.
9. Enhanced Market Access and Circular Economy Products
Farming-based enterprises create products and services that are more environmentally
sustainable, tapping into growing consumer demand for eco-friendly products:
• Eco-friendly and Circular Products: Farming enterprises are focusing on producing
organic, sustainably grown crops and products that are environmentally friendly and use
fewer resources. These include organic foods, biofuels, and biodegradable products made
from agricultural residues.
• Access to Sustainable Markets: With the rise in demand for sustainably produced food
and fiber, farming enterprises are accessing new markets where circular economy
principles are valued, such as eco-labels and certification programs (e.g., organic, Fair
Trade, Rainforest Alliance).
10. Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
Farming-based enterprises in the circular economy often emphasize collaboration and
knowledge transfer:
• Farmers’ Cooperatives and Networks: These organizations promote the sharing of best
practices, technology, and resources among farmers to ensure that circular principles are
widely adopted and scaled.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Enterprises frequently collaborate with
government agencies, research institutions, and NGOs to implement circular economy
initiatives, including water conservation, renewable energy adoption, and sustainable
input management.
Green Economy
Farming-based livelihood enterprises are integral to the development of a green economy in the
21st century, which emphasizes sustainable practices, resource efficiency, and environmental
protection while promoting economic growth and social equity. Here’s a detailed exploration of
their roles:
1. Sustainable Agricultural Practices
Farming enterprises are adopting sustainable methods that minimize environmental impact and
promote biodiversity:
• Organic Farming: Many enterprises are shifting towards organic practices that avoid
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, enhancing soil health and reducing pollution.
• Agroecology: This approach integrates ecological principles into farming, promoting
practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and polycultures that enhance biodiversity and
ecosystem services.
2. Resource Efficiency and Conservation
Farming-based enterprises are focused on optimizing resource use to reduce waste and promote
sustainability:
• Water Management: Implementing efficient irrigation systems (like drip and sprinkler
irrigation) and rainwater harvesting to conserve water and reduce usage.
• Soil Conservation: Practices such as no-till farming, cover cropping, and composting
help maintain soil health, reduce erosion, and enhance fertility.
3. Carbon Sequestration and Climate Mitigation
Farming enterprises contribute to climate change mitigation through practices that sequester
carbon and reduce greenhouse gas emissions:
• Regenerative Agriculture: Techniques like agroforestry, cover cropping, and holistic
grazing management improve soil carbon storage, helping to combat climate change.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Reduced Emissions: Transitioning to sustainable practices decreases reliance on fossil
fuels for fertilizers and pesticides, lowering overall emissions from agricultural activities.
4. Promotion of Renewable Resources
Farming enterprises can harness renewable resources to create sustainable energy solutions:
• Biogas Production: Utilizing agricultural waste and livestock manure for biogas
production, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and providing clean energy for rural
households.
• Bioenergy: Enterprises are exploring biofuels derived from crops or waste products,
promoting energy independence and reducing carbon footprints.
5. Creation of Green Jobs and Economic Opportunities
Farming-based livelihood enterprises play a significant role in creating jobs and fostering
economic development:
• Employment Generation: Sustainable agricultural practices require more labor,
creating green jobs in areas like organic farming, agroecology, and permaculture.
• Rural Development: By promoting sustainable practices, these enterprises can enhance
rural economies, empowering communities and reducing poverty.
6. Biodiversity Conservation
Farming enterprises can contribute to preserving and enhancing biodiversity:
• Conservation Agriculture: This involves practices that maintain ecosystem functions,
protect wildlife habitats, and conserve genetic diversity among crops and livestock.
• Traditional Farming Practices: Supporting indigenous and local farming methods can
enhance biodiversity and resilience while preserving cultural heritage.
7. Support for Local and Sustainable Markets
Farming-based enterprises are increasingly engaging in local markets that emphasize
sustainability:
• Farm-to-Table Initiatives: Many enterprises are establishing direct connections with
consumers, reducing transportation emissions and promoting fresh, locally sourced
products.
• Value-Added Products: Processing agricultural products (like making jams, juices, or
dried fruits) not only increases income for farmers but also minimizes waste and
promotes sustainable consumption.
8. Education and Awareness
Farming enterprises often serve as educators in their communities:

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Training Programs: Many enterprises provide training on sustainable practices, helping
other farmers adopt eco-friendly techniques.
• Community Engagement: By promoting awareness of environmental issues and
sustainable practices, these enterprises foster a culture of sustainability within their
communities.
9. Policy Advocacy and Community Involvement
Farming-based enterprises often advocate for policies that promote a green economy:
• Engagement with Policymakers: These enterprises can influence agricultural policies
that support sustainable practices, fair trade, and environmental protection.
• Community Leadership: Many enterprises take a leadership role in their communities,
organizing efforts to promote sustainability and resilience against climate change.
10. Technological Innovation and Adoption
Farming enterprises are at the forefront of adopting and innovating technologies that promote
sustainability:
• Precision Agriculture: Using technology to optimize inputs like water, fertilizers, and
pesticides leads to higher efficiency and reduced environmental impact.
• Data-Driven Solutions: Implementing data analytics and IoT (Internet of Things) in
farming helps farmers make informed decisions, enhancing productivity while
minimizing waste.
Farming-based livelihood enterprises in the 21st century are increasingly influenced by climate
change, digitalization, and changing lifestyles. These factors are reshaping agricultural practices
and creating new opportunities and challenges for farmers. Here’s a detailed exploration of their
roles in this context:
1. Adaptation to Climate Change
Farming enterprises play a critical role in adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate
change:
• Resilient Agricultural Practices: Enterprises are adopting climate-resilient practices,
such as crop diversification, agroforestry, and improved irrigation techniques. These
practices enhance resilience to extreme weather events like droughts and floods.
• Research and Innovation: Many enterprises collaborate with research institutions to
develop climate-adaptive crop varieties and innovative agricultural technologies. This
research focuses on developing drought-resistant crops and improving pest and disease
management in a changing climate.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Water Management: Efficient water management practices, such as rainwater
harvesting and precision irrigation, are becoming essential for coping with water scarcity
and erratic rainfall patterns caused by climate change.
2. Digitalization in Agriculture
Digital technologies are transforming farming enterprises, improving efficiency and
productivity:
• Precision Agriculture: The use of sensors, drones, and GPS technology enables farmers
to monitor crop health, optimize input use, and increase yields while reducing waste.
Precision agriculture helps tailor farming practices to specific field conditions, enhancing
resource efficiency.
• Data-Driven Decision Making: Digital tools provide farmers with access to real-time
data on weather patterns, soil conditions, and market trends. This information helps them
make informed decisions, reducing risks and improving productivity.
• E-commerce and Market Access: Digital platforms facilitate direct marketing of
produce to consumers, bypassing traditional supply chains. This not only improves
farmers’ incomes but also enhances transparency in pricing and quality.
3. Changing Lifestyles and Consumer Preferences
Shifts in consumer behavior and lifestyles are impacting farming-based livelihood enterprises:
• Demand for Organic and Sustainable Products: As consumers increasingly prioritize
health and sustainability, there is a growing demand for organic and sustainably produced
food. Enterprises are responding by adopting organic farming practices and promoting
environmentally friendly products.
• Local Food Movements: The trend towards local food sourcing has gained traction, with
consumers seeking fresh produce from nearby farms. Farming enterprises are adapting
by establishing community-supported agriculture (CSA) programs and participating in
farmers' markets.
• Plant-Based and Alternative Proteins: Rising interest in plant-based diets and
alternative protein sources is prompting farming enterprises to diversify their production.
This includes growing pulses, legumes, and crops for plant-based food products.
4. Social and Economic Resilience
Farming enterprises contribute to the social and economic resilience of communities:
• Diversification of Income Sources: Many farmers are diversifying their enterprises to
include value-added products (e.g., jams, juices, and artisanal foods) and agritourism,
reducing dependence on single crops and increasing overall income stability.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.
 • Community Empowerment: By fostering cooperatives and farmer producer
organizations (FPOs), farming enterprises empower local communities, promoting
collective action, shared resources, and better bargaining power in markets.
• Job Creation: As farming enterprises grow and adopt new technologies, they create job
opportunities in rural areas, contributing to local economic development and reducing
migration to urban centers.
5. Environmental Stewardship
Farming enterprises are increasingly focused on sustainable practices that protect the
environment:
• Soil Health Management: Enterprises are adopting practices like cover cropping,
reduced tillage, and organic amendments to enhance soil health and fertility, which are
essential for sustainable agricultural productivity.
• Biodiversity Conservation: By promoting crop diversity and integrating conservation
practices into farming, enterprises help maintain ecosystems and protect wildlife habitats,
contributing to environmental sustainability.
6. Collaboration and Partnerships
Farming enterprises are forming partnerships to address challenges posed by climate change and
digitalization:
• Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborations between governments, NGOs, and the
private sector facilitate knowledge sharing, research funding, and the development of
innovative solutions to agricultural challenges.
• Knowledge Networks: Participating in networks and cooperatives allows farmers to
share best practices, access training, and benefit from collective resources, enhancing
their resilience in a changing landscape.
7. Education and Capacity Building
Farming enterprises are becoming centers for education and capacity building:
• Training Programs: Enterprises often conduct training for farmers on sustainable
practices, digital tools, and market access strategies, helping them adapt to new
challenges and opportunities.
• Raising Awareness: Through community outreach, farming enterprises promote
awareness of climate change issues and sustainable practices among consumers and other
stakeholders.

Compiled By: - Mr. M. A. Khedekar, Asst Prof of Agronomy, College of

Agriculture, Viladghat, Ahmednagar.