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 Along These Lines
Writing Sentences and Paragraphs
with Writing from Reading Strategies

Seventh Edition

John Sheridan Biays, Professor Emeritus of English

Broward College

Carol Wershoven, Professor Emerita of English

Palm Beach State College

330 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10013

Vice President, Portfolio Management: Chris Hoag
Editorial Assistant: Andres Maldonado
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Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on page 459, which constitute an extension of

this copyright page.
PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and MYWRITINGLAB are exclusive trademarks in the United
States and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates.

Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are
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1 18

Annotated Instructor’s Edition

ISBN 10: 0-134-78235-6
ISBN 13: 978-0-134-78235-5
Student Edition
ISBN 10: 0-134-76784-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-134-76784-0
Loose-leaf Edition
ISBN 10: 0-134-78246-1
www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN 13: 978-0-134-78246-1
Contents
Preface for Instructors ix CHAPTER 3 Avoiding Run-on Sentences
and Comma Splices 36
Sentence-Level Skills:
Grammar for Writers 1 Run-on Sentences 36
Steps for Correcting Run-on Sentences 37
Grammar Step by Step 1 Comma Splices 39
Steps for Correcting Comma Splices 40
CHAPTER 1 The Simple Sentence 2 Chapter Test Avoiding Run-on Sentences and Comma
Splices 43
Recognizing a Sentence 2
Recognizing Verbs 3 CHAPTER 4 Beyond the Simple
Helping Verbs 5
More than One Main Verb 7 Sentence: Subordination 44
Recognizing Subjects 8 More on Combining Simple Sentences 44
More about Recognizing Subjects and Verbs 10 Option 4: Using a Dependent Clause to Begin a
Recognizing the Core Subject 10 Sentence 45
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases 10
Word Order 13 Option 5: Using a Dependent Clause to End a
More on Word Order 14 Sentence 45
Word Order in Questions 14 Using Subordinating Words: Subordinating
Words that Cannot Be Verbs 15 Conjunctions 45
Recognizing Main Verbs 15
Punctuating Complex Sentences 47
Verb Forms that Cannot Be Main Verbs 16
Chapter Test Beyond the Simple Sentence:
Chapter Test The Simple Sentence 20
Subordination 51

CHAPTER 2 Beyond the Simple

Sentence: Coordination 21 CHAPTER 5 Combining Sentences:
A Review of Your Options 52
Options for Combining Simple Sentences 22
Option 1: Using a Comma with a Coordinating Summary of Options for Combining Sentences 52
Conjunction 22 Chapter Test Combining Sentences: A Review of Your
Where Does the Comma Go? 23 Options 59
Placing the Comma by Using S–V Patterns 24
Compound Sentences 25
Learning the Coordinating Conjunctions 25 CHAPTER 6 Avoiding Sentence
Option 2: Using a Semicolon between Two Simple Fragments 60
Sentences 26
Avoiding Sentence Fragments 60
Option 3: Using a Semicolon and a Conjunctive
Recognizing Fragments: Step 1 61
Adverb 28
Punctuating after a Conjunctive Adverb 28 Recognizing Fragments: Step 2 62

Chapter Test Beyond the Simple Sentence: Correcting Fragments 65

Coordination 35 Chapter Test Avoiding Sentence Fragments 68

iii
iv Contents

CHAPTER 7 Using Parallelism in The Past Perfect Tense 115

Sentences 69 Some Tips about Verbs 118

Chapter Test Verbs: Past Tense 119
What Is Parallelism? 69
Achieving Parallelism 70
Chapter Test Using Parallelism in Sentences 75 CHAPTER 12 Verbs: Consistency
and Voice 120
CHAPTER 8 Using Adjectives and Consistent Verb Tenses 120

Adverbs 76 Active and Passive Voice 122

Avoiding Unnecessary Shifts in Voice 124
What Are Adjectives? 76 Chapter Test Verbs: Consistency and Voice 126
Adjectives: Comparative and Superlative Forms 77
What Are Adverbs? 79
CHAPTER 13 Making Subjects and Verbs
Hints About Adjectives and Adverbs 81
Do Not Confuse Good and Well, Bad and Agree 128
Badly 81
Pronouns Used as Subjects 129
Do Not Use More + -er, or Most + -est 82
Use Than, Not Then, in Comparisons 82 Special Problems with Agreement 130
Adjectives: Multiple Adjective Word Order 83 Identifying Count and Noncount Nouns 130
Using Articles with Nouns 131
Chapter Test Using Adjectives and Adverbs 84
Finding the Subject 133
Changed Word Order 135
Compound Subjects 136
CHAPTER 9 Correcting Problems with
Indefinite Pronouns 138
Modifiers 85 Collective Nouns 140
What Are Modifiers? 85 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree: A Review 141

Correcting Misplaced Modifiers 87 Chapter Test Making Subjects and Verbs Agree 144

Correcting Dangling Modifiers 89

Reviewing the Steps and the Solutions 91
Chapter Test Correcting Problems with Modifiers 94
CHAPTER 14 Using Pronouns Correctly:
Agreement and Reference 145
Pronouns and Their Antecedents 145
CHAPTER 10 Verbs: The Present
Agreement of a Pronoun and Its Antecedent 146
Tense 95
Special Problems with Agreement 147
The Simple Present Tense 96 Indefinite Pronouns 147
Irregular Verbs in the Simple Present Tense 99 Avoiding Gender Bias 147
The Simple Present Tense of Be, Have, Collective Nouns 149
and Do 99 Pronouns and Their Antecedents: Being Clear 151
The Present Progressive Tense 100 Chapter Test Using Pronouns Correctly: Agreement
The Present Perfect Tense 103 and Reference 155
Chapter Test Verbs: The Present Verb Forms 107

CHAPTER 15 Using Pronouns Correctly:

CHAPTER 11 Verbs: The Past Tense 108 Consistency and Case 156
The Simple Past Tense 109 Points of View and Pronoun Consistency 156
Irregular Verbs in the Simple Past Tense 109 Choosing the Case of Pronouns 159
More Irregular Verb Forms 111 Rules for Choosing the Case of Pronouns 160
The Past Progressive Tense 114 Problems in Choosing Pronoun Case 161
 Contents v

Choosing the Correct Pronoun Case in a Related Idiomatic Expressions that Use Prepositions 227
Group of Words 161 Common “Separable” Idiomatic
Common Errors with Pronoun Case 162 Expressions 228
Chapter Test Using Pronouns Correctly: Consistency Common “Inseparable” Idiomatic
Expressions 228
and Case 165

CHAPTER 16 Punctuation 166 Writing in Stages: The

The Period 167 Process Approach 231
The Question Mark 167
Learning by Doing 231
The Semicolon 168 Steps Make Writing Easier 231
The Comma 169
Other Ways to Use a Comma 175 CHAPTER 20 Writing a Paragraph:
The Apostrophe 178 Prewriting 233
The Colon 180
Beginning the Prewriting 234
The Exclamation Mark 182 Freewriting, Brainstorming, and Keeping a
The Dash 182 Journal 234
Finding Specific Ideas 236
Parentheses 182
Selecting an Idea 239
The Hyphen 183 Adding Details to an Idea 239
Quotation Marks 184 Focusing the Prewriting 241
Capital Letters 186 Marking Related Ideas 241
Mapping 242
Numbers 191
Forming a Topic Sentence 243
Abbreviations 192 Hints about Topic Sentences 244

CHAPTER 17 Spelling 195 CHAPTER 21 Writing a Paragraph:

Vowels and Consonants 195 Planning 251
Spelling Rule 1: Doubling a Final Consonant 196 Checking Your Details 251
Spelling Rule 2: Dropping the Final e 196 Adding Details When There Are Not
Spelling Rule 3: Changing the Final y to i 197 Enough 252
Eliminating Details that Do Not Relate to the
Spelling Rule 4: Adding -s or -es 198 Topic Sentence 253
Spelling Rule 5: Using ie or ei 198 From List to Outline 254
How Do You Spell It? One Word or Two? 201 Coherence 256
Words Whose Spelling Depends on Their Determining the Order of Details 256
Meaning 201 Where the Topic Sentence Goes 257
A List of Commonly Misspelled Words 203
CHAPTER 22 Writing a Paragraph:
CHAPTER 18 Words that Sound Alike/Look
Drafting and Revising 260
Alike 207
Drafting 260
Words that Sound Alike/look Alike 207
Revising a Draft 261
More Words that Sound Alike/look Alike 213
CHAPTER 23 Writing a Paragraph: Editing
CHAPTER 19 Using Prepositions
and Proofreading 266
Correctly 221
Editing and Proofreading Your Paragraph 266
Prepositions that Show Time 221 Giving Your Paragraph a Title 268
Prepositions that Indicate Place 222 Reviewing the Writing Process 269
Expressions that Use Prepositions 222 Critical Thinking and the Writing Process 270
vi Contents

Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through

Assignment 271 Assignment 318
Topics for Writing Your Own Paragraph 271 Topics for Writing Your Own Descriptive
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 274 Paragraph 318
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 319

CHAPTER 24 Writing a Narrative

CHAPTER 26 Writing an Illustration
Paragraph 275
Paragraph 320
What Is Narration? 275
Give the Narrative a Point 276 What Is Illustration? 320
Hints for Writing a Narrative Paragraph 277 Hints for Writing An Illustration Paragraph 321
Using a Speaker’s Exact Words in Narrative 279 Knowing What Is Specific and What Is
General 321
Writing the Narrative Paragraph in Steps 279
Writing the Illustration Paragraph in Steps 323
PREWRITING Narration 279
PREWRITING Illustration 323
Listing Ideas 280
Adding Specific Details by Brainstorming 280 Adding Details to an Idea 323
Focusing the Prewriting 282 Creating a Topic Sentence 324
Coherence: Grouping the Details and Selecting a Illustration 326
PLANNING
Logical Order 283
Unity: Selecting a Topic Sentence 283 DRAF TING AND REVISING Illustration 329

PLANNING Narration 289 Using Effective Transitions 329

EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING
DRAF TING AND REVISING Narration 293
Illustration 331
Transitions 294
Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through
EDI T ING AND PROOFRE ADING Narration 296 Assignment 333
Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through Topics for Writing Your Own Illustration
Assignment 298 Paragraph 334
Topics for Writing Your Own Narrative Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 335
Paragraph 300
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 301
CHAPTER 27 Writing a Process
Paragraph 336
CHAPTER 25 Writing a Descriptive What Is Process? 336
Paragraph 302 A Process Involves Steps in Time Order 337
Hints for Writing a Process Paragraph 337
What Is Description? 302
Writing the Process Paragraph in Steps 339
Hints for Writing a Descriptive Paragraph 303
Using Specific Words and Phrases 303 PREWRITING Process 339
Using Sense Words in Your Descriptions 306 Writing a Topic Sentence for a Process
Paragraph 340
Writing the Descriptive Paragraph in Steps 308
PREWRITING Description 308 PLANNING Process 341
Focusing the Prewriting 310 DRAF TING AND REVISING Process 344
Grouping the Details 310 Using the Same Grammatical Person 344
PLANNING Description 312 Using Transitions Effectively 345
Revised Draft of a Process Paragraph 347
DRAF TING AND REVISING Description 314
EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Process 348
Transitional Words and Phrases 314
Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through
EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Assignment 350
Description 316 Topics for Writing Your Own Process
Additional Focus on Supporting Details and Paragraph 351
Word Choice 316 Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 352
 Contents vii

CHAPTER 28 Moving from Paragraphs to CHAPTER 29 Writing From Reading 390

Essays 353 What Is Writing from Reading? 391
Attitude 391
What Is an Essay? 353
Prereading 391
Comparing the Single Paragraph and the Essay 354 Why Preread? 391
Organizing an Essay 355 Forming Questions before You Read 392
An Example of the Prereading Step 392
Writing the Thesis 355
Reading 394
Hints for Writing a Thesis 356
An Example of the Reading Step 394
Writing the Essay in Steps 358 Rereading with Pen or Pencil 394
PREWRITING An Essay 358 An Example of Rereading with Pen or
Listing Ideas 359 Pencil 395
What the Notes Mean 396
PLANNING An Essay 361
Writing a Summary of a Reading 397
Hints for Outlining 361
PREWRITING Summary 397
Revisiting the Prewriting Stage 363
Selecting a Main Idea 398
DRAF TING AND REVISING An Essay 366
PLANNING Summary 399
Writing the Introduction 366
Where Does the Thesis Go? 366 DRAF TING AND REVISING Summary 400
Hints for Writing the Introduction 367
EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Summary 401
Writing the Body of the Essay 369
How Long are the Body Paragraphs? 370 The Role of Critical Thinking as You Read 402
Developing the Body Paragraphs 370 Writing a Reaction to a Reading 402
Writing the Conclusion 371 PREWRITING Reaction 402
Revising Your Draft 373 Selecting a Topic, Listing and Developing
Transitions within Paragraphs 374 Ideas 403
Transitions between Paragraphs 374
PLANNING Reaction 403
Revised Draft of an Essay 375
EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING An Essay 380 DRAF TING AND REVISING Reaction 404
Creating a Title 380 EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Reaction 404
Final Version of an Essay 380
Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through Writing about Agreement or Disagreement with a Point
Assignment 383 in a Reading 405
Topics for Writing Your Own Essay 384 PREWRITING Agree or Disagree 405
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing: An
Essay 387 PLANNING Agree or Disagree 406
Topics for Writing Your Own Narrative
DRAF TING AND REVISING Agree or
Essay 387
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing: Disagree 406
Narrative Essay 387 EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Agree or
Topics for Writing Your Own Descriptive Disagree 407
Essay 387
Topic for Critical Thinking and Writing: Writing for an Essay Test 407
Descriptive Essay 388 Before the Test: The Steps of Reading 407
Topics for Writing Your Own Illustration During the Test: The Stages of Writing 408
Essay 388 PREWRITING Essay Test 408
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing:
Illustration Essay 388 PLANNING Essay Test 408
Topics for Writing Your Own Process
DRAF TING AND REVISING Essay Test 408
Essay 388
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing: EDITING AND PROOFRE ADING Essay Test 408
Process Essay 389
Organize Your Time 409
viii Contents

Writing from Reading: A Summary of Options 409 Process: “My Immigrant Experience” by Eugene
Lines of Detail: A Walk-Through Volokh 440
Assignment 409 Reading Comprehension 442
Topics for Writing from Reading: “Part-Time Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 442
Job May Do Teenagers More Harm than Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 443
Good” 410
Process: “Seven Ways to Change the World” by Monica
Writing from Reading 411
Reading Comprehension: O Pioneers! 413 Bourgeau 444
Topics for Writing from Reading: Reading Comprehension 447
O Pioneers! 414 Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 447
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing: Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 447
O Pioneers! 414 The Multipattern Essay: “How Ramen Got Me Through
Adolescence” by Veronique Greenwood 449

Appendix: Readings for Reading Comprehension 451

Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 451
Writers 415 Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 451

Writing From Reading: “Marjory Stoneman Douglas:

Appendix: Basics of
Patron Saint of the Everglades” by Varla Ventura 415
Reading Comprehension 417
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 417
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 418
College Research 453
Narration: “First Comes Love” by Sonnie Trotter 419 Locating Material in Your College Library 453
Reading Comprehension 420 Online Catalog 453
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 420 Popular Subscription Services 453
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 420 Internet Search Engines 453
Narration: “Bullet to Blue Sky” by Yesenia De Jesus 422 Checking for Validity of Sources 454
Reading Comprehension 425 RAVEN 454
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 425 Acknowledging Your Sources 455
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 425
Gathering and Organizing Sources 455
Description: “The Girl with the Blue Skin” by Jordan Making a Record of Information about a
Barbour 427 Source 455
Reading Comprehension 429 Additional Information Needed for Online
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 429 Sources 456
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 430 Documenting Your Research: In-text Citations
Description: “A White Heron” by Sarah Orne and Bibliographic Information 456
Jewett 431 Incorporating Research 456
Reading Comprehension 432 Using Sources 456
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 433 Using Signal Verbs and Signal Phrases to
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 433 Introduce Information 457
Avoiding Plagiarism 457
Illustration: “Meet the Neighbors” by Peter
Lovenheim 434 Credits 459
Reading Comprehension 436 Index 461
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 436
Photo-Based Writing Topics
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 436
Writing a Paragraph 274
Illustration: “With a Job on the Side” by Anya
Writing a Narrative Paragraph 301
Kamenetz 437
Writing a Descriptive Paragraph 319
Reading Comprehension 438 Writing an Illustration Paragraph 335
Discussion Prompts/Writing Options 438 Writing a Process Paragraph 352
Topics for Critical Thinking and Writing 438 Moving from Paragraphs to Essays 385
Preface for Instructors
Students need more help than ever in becoming proficient writers and ef-
fective communicators. We applaud your ongoing commitment to helping
developing writers become confident learners, and we remain extremely
grateful for your ongoing trust in our work.
Along These Lines: Writing Sentences and Paragraphs with Writing
from Reading Strategies, 7/e, retains the intensive grammar coverage
and writing process instruction that adopters have praised, and the self-
contained chapters provide a flexible framework that can easily be adapted
for a host of learning styles and instructional preferences. Many caring
reviewers have offered insightful, practical, and creative revision sugges-
tions, and thanks to their collective wisdom, this updated edition is the
most engaging and visually appealing text to date. We hope you’ll agree and
that this updated edition serves you well in your quest to educate those stu-
dents who aspire for a college degree and the promise that it offers.

NEW FEATURES AND ENHANCEMENTS IN THE

SEVENTH EDITION
• Grammar chapters have been clarified and streamlined where
needed.
• More critical thinking boxes have been added to the writing
chapters to encourage students to develop the role critical thinking
plays in writing and reading.
• Significant improvements have been made to the Readings,
including the incorporation of many new readings on current and
interesting topics and one more reading than in the last edition.
The new readings include several short writing selections, two
essays written by students, a selection from literature, and a new
multi-mode essay.
• Improved questions and writing prompts have been added to
support the Readings. These new questions and writing prompts
better differentiate between reading comprehension and opportu-
nities for discussion.
• New, current, and engaging exercises and writing prompts on
topics interesting to students have been included in every chapter.
• New Appendix on the Basics of College Research has been
added to this edition. It is designed to give students the basics
about how to conduct library and Internet research and to help stu-
dents better evaluate the credibility and trustworthiness of online
sources.

ix
x Preface for Instructors

POPULAR FEATURES RETAINED

Based on positive feedback from current adopters and new reviewers, the
following popular and distinctive features have been retained:

The Grammar Chapters

• Grammar concepts taught step-by-step, as in “Two Steps to Check
for Sentence Fragments”
• A “Quick Question” opener in each chapter that provides an incen-
tive for students to preview a chapter’s content
• Three types of grammar exercises: Practice (simple reinforce-
ment), Collaborate (partner or group work), and Connect (“in
context” application of a grammar principle to a paragraph requir-
ing revision and/or editing)
• A Chapter Test at the end of chapters, ideal for class review or
quick quizzes

The Writing Chapters

• Visually appealing and easy-to-follow checklists and “Info Boxes”
that guide students through the writing process and help them
grasp basic principles and patterns
• Examples of an outline, draft, and final version of a formal
assignment
• A “Walk-Through” writing assignment at the end of each chapter
that guides students, step-by-step, through the stages of the writing
process
• Numerous, timely writing topics that promote critical-thinking
skills and spark collaborative or individual assignments

The Reading Sections

• A separate “Writing from Reading” chapter providing instruction on
prereading strategies, marking a selection, taking notes, summariz-
ing, and reacting to a writer’s premise, and writing timed papers for
in-class tests
• Carefully selected readings grouped in a separate appendix for
easy reference
• Writing options, including critical-thinking topics, inspired by a
reading selection’s content and designed to elicit informed, rea-
soned responses

Throughout the Text

• Engaging teaching tips in the Annotated Instructor’s Edition, in-
cluding tips tailored for English language learners and special em-
phasis on interactive class activities

WRITING RESOURCES AND SUPPLEMENTS

Annotated Instructor’s Edition for Along These Lines: Writing Sentences
and Paragraphs with Writing from Reading Strategies
ISBN 0134782356 / 9780134782355
 Preface for Instructors xi

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Along These Lines: Writing Sentences

and Paragraphs with Writing from Reading Strategies
ISBN 0134782488 / 9780134782485
Test Bank for Along These Lines: Writing Sentences and Paragraphs with
Writing from Reading Strategies
ISBN 0134782402 / 9780134782409
PowerPoint Presentation for Along These Lines: Writing Sentences and
Paragraphs with Writing from Reading Strategies
ISBN 013478250X / 9780134782508
Answer Key for Along These Lines: Writing Sentences and Paragraphs
with Writing from Reading Strategies
ISBN 013478247X / 9780134782478

Reach Every Student by Pairing This Text with MyLab Writing

MyLab™ is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you to reach
every student. By combining trusted content with digital tools and a flexible
platform, MyLab personalizes the learning experience and improves results
for each student. When students enter your developmental writing course
with varying skill levels, MyLab can help you identify which students need
extra support and provide them targeted practice and instruction outside of
class. Learn more at www.pearson.com/mylab/writing.
• Empower each learner: Each student learns at a different pace.
Personalized learning pinpoints the precise areas where each stu-
dent needs practice, giving all students the support they need —
when and where they need it — to be successful.
• MyLab Writing diagnoses students’ strengths and weaknesses
through a pre-assessment known as the Path Builder, and of-
fers up a personalized Learning Path. Students then receive
targeted practice and multimodal activities to help them improve
over time.
• Teach your course your way: Your course is unique. So whether
you’d like to build your own assignments, teach multiple sections,
or set prerequisites, MyLab gives you the flexibility to easily create
your course to fit your needs.
• Improve student results: When you teach with MyLab, student
performance improves. That’s why instructors have chosen MyLab
for over 15 years, touching the lives of over 50 million students.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to the following professionals for their comprehensive re-
views, practical advice, and creative suggestions regarding the Along These
Lines series:
Stephanie Alexander Mountwest Community and Technical College
Elizabeth Andrews South Florida State College
Elizabeth Barnes Daytona State College
Iris Chao Saddleback College
Patty Crockett Bishop State Community College
Mellisa Dalton Lanier Technical College
xii Preface for Instructors

Linda Hasty Motlow State Community College

Gregg Heitschmidt Surry Community College
Johnnerlyn Johnson Sandhills Community College
Therese Jones Lewis University
Cassi Lapp Northwest Arkansas Community College
Ann Moore Florence-Darlington Technical College
Deana Pendley Copiah-Lincoln Community College
Sandra Valerio Del Mar College
The updates and additions to this text would not have been possible
without the help, support, and collaboration of a great many people. We are
greatly indebted to the outstanding professionals at Pearson and Ohlinger
Studios for the work they put into and the guidance given to making this
edition a reality. We also thank the reviewers, whose comments helped to
shape the most recent edition:
Elizabeth Andrews South Florida State College
Carolyn Briggs Marshalltown Community College
Carolyn Davis Pima Community College
Zeba Mehdi Central Piedmont Community College
Darice Moore St. Petersburg College
Marjorie Wikoff St. Petersburg College
We extend our deepest gratitude to Steven Jolliffe and Richard
McCarthy for taking on the lion’s share of revisions. Steve selected the new
readings, wrote new questions and writing prompts to accompany them,
and wrote the new appendix. Steve and Richard updated the text, wrote
new exercise items and writing prompts throughout the text, and wrote
new critical thinking boxes for the writing chapters. Steve and Richard are
creative and knowledgeable instructors—they excel at inspiring student in-
terest and at knowing just where to add a subtle change that makes all the
difference. We also thank Steve for his dedicated partnering throughout the
editing and production stages.
We are grateful for Nancy Doherty Schmitt, Development Editor, for
her keen eye, her thoughtful suggestions, and her vision and guidance.
There have been many hands who have contributed to this text throughout
many editions, but Nancy has brought new clarity and unity to this com-
pletely updated edition.
We also want to pay tribute to all the unsung heroes in the classroom
who help struggling students overcome adversity, find their voice, and
reach their potential. We are humbled by your dedication and resilience,
and you exemplify effective teaching at its best.
Finally, and most importantly, we send heartfelt thanks to the thou-
sands of students who have intrigued, impressed, and inspired us through
the years. You have taught us far more than you can ever imagine, and you
have made our journey extraordinary along all lines.
Sentence-Level Skills:
Grammar for Writers

Grammar Step by Step

In this part of the book, you’ll be working with the basics of grammar. If you
are willing to memorize certain rules and work through the activities here,
you will be able to apply grammatical rules automatically as you write.
Mastering the practical parts of grammar will improve your writing, help-
ing you become a more confident writer who is better prepared for future
courses.

1
 C HAPTE R 1 The Simple Sentence

Quick Question
True or False: There is only one verb in
this sentence: Students should come to
class on time.
(After you study this chapter, you will
be confident of your answer.)

Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to:
❶ Identify subjects and verbs in sentences.
❷ Identify action verbs and being verbs in sentences.
❸ Identify helping verbs in sentences.
❹ Identify the subjects of sentences.
❺ Identify prepositional phrases and correct word order.
❻ Use verbs correctly in sentences.
Identifying the crucial parts of a sentence is the first step in many writing
decisions: how to punctuate, how to avoid sentence fragments, and how
to be sure that subjects and verbs agree (match). Moving forward to these
decisions requires a few steps backward—to basics.

❶ Identify subjects and RECOGNIZING A SENTENCE

verbs in sentences.
Let’s start with a few definitions. A basic unit of language is a word.
examples: dog, rock, table

2
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 3

A group of related words can be a phrase.

examples: broken glass, in the water, brand new car
When a group of words contains a subject and a verb, it is called a clause.
When the word group has a subject and a verb and makes sense by itself, it
is called a sentence or an independent clause.
If you want to check whether you have written a sentence and not just
a group of related words, you first have to check for a subject and a verb.
Locating the verbs first can be easier.

RECOGNIZING VERBS ❷ Identify action verbs

and being verbs in
Verbs are words that express some kind of action or being. Action verbs sentences.
tell what somebody or something does.

action verbs:
Grandparents hold valuable information about family history.
She writes a daily blog.
The class posts on the discussion board every Monday.
You wrote a paper in English class last term.
Marco completed the job application.
My brother drives like a maniac.
The team studies together in the library.
I believe her story.

Sometimes a verb tells what something or somebody is. Such verbs are
called being verbs. Words like feels, looks, seems, smells, sounds, and
tastes are also part of the group called being verbs. Look at some examples
of being verbs and their functions in the following sentences:

being verbs:
A book is a common birthday gift.
The instructor looks tired today.
I feel good.
Steve is a good swimmer.
He seems fascinated by his phone.
They are the best students in my class.
I felt angry after hearing the news.
His garage is a disaster zone.

Exercise 1 Practice: Recognizing Action Verbs

Underline the action verbs in the following sentences.
1. The mother hugged the child.
2. On Tuesday, traffic blocked the intersection.
3. The Web site loaded slowly.
4. Most old people remind me of my grandparents.
5. The pet store opens at 11:00 a.m.
6. Nick never goes to a gym on the weekends.
4 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

7. A city bus takes me to work in the morning.

8. Karen needs your help after school.

Exercise 2 Practice: Recognizing Being Verbs

Underline the being verbs in the following sentences.
1. My study habits were not effective.
2. The blueberry pie tastes delicious.
3. Your dog was a good and loyal friend.
4. Snapchatting seems fun.
5. Jade Beach is a popular gathering place for students.
6. Professor Duvale is a well-known blues musician.
7. Your plan for improvement sounds clear and reasonable.
8. The ocean looks magnificent today.

Collaborate Exercise 3 Collaborate: Writing Sentences with Specific Verbs

With a partner or group, write two sentences using each of the verbs listed.
Each sentence must have at least five words. When you have completed the
exercise, share your answers with another group or with the class. The first
one is done for you.
1. verb: dragged
sentence 1: I dragged the heavy bag across the floor.
sentence 2: Lori dragged herself to class on Friday morning.
2. verb: smells
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
3. verb: argues
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
4. verb: seem
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
5. verb: chatted
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
6. verb: wins
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 5

7. verb: was
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
8. verb: were
sentence 1:
sentence 2:

Helping Verbs ❸ Identify helping verbs

The verb in a sentence can be more than one word. There can be helping in sentences.
verbs in front of the main verb (the action verb or being verb) in state-
ments. Questions often have a helping verb. Do, does, and did are used in
questions without the verb to be or another helping verb. The Info Box lists
some frequently used helping verbs.

INFO BOX Common Helping Verbs

am had might were
can has must will
could have shall would
did is should
do/does may was

Here are some examples of sentences with main and helping verbs:
main and helping verbs:
You should have answered the telephone. (The helping verbs are
should and have.)
The restaurant will notify the lucky winner. (The helping verb is will.)
Babies can recognize their mothers’ voices. (The helping verb is can.)
I am thinking about eating pizza for both lunch and dinner. (The
helping verb is am.)

Exercise 4 Practice: Recognizing the Complete Verb: Main and

Helping Verbs
Underline the complete verb (both main and helping verbs) in each of the
following sentences.
1. Caroline has studied Spanish since she was seven.
2. Did she build her snowman by herself?
3. I will be taking my final exams next week.
4. Annette should have apologized for being late.
5. Tina and Stan are paying for their son’s trip to Spain.
6. My little nephew can sing really funny songs.
7. By Friday, I must make a decision about surgery.
8. Does this class end at 4:00 p.m.?
6 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

Collaborate
Exercise 5 Collaborate: Writing Sentences with Helping Verbs
Complete this exercise with a partner or group. First, ask one person to add
at least one helping verb to the verb given. Then work together to write two
sentences using the main verb and the helping verb(s). Appoint one spokes-
person for your group to read all your sentences to the class. Notice how
many combinations of main and helping verbs you hear. The first one is done
for you.
1. verb: complained
verb with helping verb(s): must have complained
sentence 1: My supervisor must have complained about me.
sentence 2: She must have complained twenty times yesterday.
2. verb: denying
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
3. verb: forgive
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
4. verb: said
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
5. verb: given
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
6. verb: expecting
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
7. verb: broken
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
8. verb: encourage
verb with helping verb(s):
sentence 1:
sentence 2:
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 7

More than One Main Verb

Helping verbs can make the verb in a sentence longer than one word, but
there can also be more than one main verb.
more than one main verb:
Antonio begged and pleaded for the last piece of cake.
I ran to the car, tossed my hiking gear in the trunk, and jammed the
key in the ignition.
The tutor reviews verbs and explains sentence structure.

Exercise 6 Practice: Recognizing Main Verbs

Some of the sentences that follow have one main verb; some have more than
one main verb. Underline all the main verbs in each sentence.
1. Every weekend, my brother drives to his girlfriend’s house, honks
his car horn, and waits for her in his car.
2. Kansky and Stamos sell silver rings and leather belts at the flea
market.
3. Alicia borrowed my clothes but rarely returned them.
4. My favorite place on campus has private study rooms.
5. Your mother called and invited us to lunch this weekend.
6. A drunk driver shattered one car’s taillight, smashed another’s front
end, and skidded into a trash can.
7. Felice ordered a hamburger for lunch and cut it into small pieces.
8. Some of the animals in his paintings look like dragons or other
fantastic creatures from an imaginary world.

Exercise 7 Practice: Recognizing Verbs in a Selection from

“The Tell-Tale Heart”
This selection is from “The Tell-Tale Heart,” a horror story by Edgar Allan
Poe. In it, an insane murderer has killed an old man and buried him under
the floor. When the police arrive, they find nothing, but the murderer is con-
vinced that he—and the police—can hear the old man’s heart beating under
the floor. In this selection, the murderer describes what he feels as he hears
the heart beat louder and louder.
Underline all the verbs in the selection. Notice how a careful choice of
verbs can make writing exciting and suspenseful.

The officers were satisfied. My manner had convinced them. I was singularly

at ease. They sat, and while I answered cheerfully, they chatted of familiar things.

But, ere* long, I felt myself getting pale and wished them gone. My head ached,

and I fancied* a ringing in my ears: but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing

became more distinct—it continued and became more distinct: I talked more
8 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

freely to get rid of the feeling: but it continued and gained definitiveness—until, at

length,* I found that the noise was not within my ears.

No doubt I now grew very pale—but I talked more fluently, and with a

heightened voice. Yet the sound increased—and what could I do? . . . I gasped for

breath—and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly, more vehemently;*

but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and

with violent gesticulations,* but the noise steadily increased. Why would they not

be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the

observation of the men—but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! What could I

do? I foamed—I raved—I swore! . . . It grew louder—louder—louder! And still the

men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God!

—no, no! They heard!—they suspected!—they knew!

*ere: before
*fancied: imagined
*at length: after a time
*vehemently: furiously
*gesticulations: gestures

❹ Identify the subjects RECOGNIZING SUBJECTS

of sentences.
After you learn to recognize verbs, you can easily find the subjects of sen-
tences because subjects and verbs are linked. If the verb is an action verb,
for example, the subject will be the word or words that answer the question
“Who or what is doing that action?” Follow these steps to identify the subject:
sentence with an action verb:
TEACHING TIP The cat slept on my bed.
Step 1: Identify the verb: slept
Step 2: Ask, “Who or what slept?”
Step 3: The answer is the subject: The cat slept on my bed. The cat is
the subject.
If the verb is a being verb, the same steps apply to finding the subject.
sentence with a being verb:
TEACHING TIP
Clarice is his cousin.
Step 1: Identify the verb: is
Step 2: Ask, “Who or what is his cousin?”
Step 3: The answer is the subject: Clarice is his cousin. Clarice is the
subject.
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 9

Just as there can be more than one verb, there can be more than one subject.
examples:
Coffee and a doughnut are a typical snack for my dad.
His father and grandfather own a landscaping service.

Exercise 8 Practice: Recognizing Subjects in Sentences

Underline the subjects in the following sentences.
1. The students like to sit outside in the sun.
2. Sylvia Jong might have gone to the wrong classroom.
3. Biology and algebra are difficult subjects for me.
4. An owl woke me in the middle of the night.
5. Lorraine and Pierre have family members in Haiti.
6. Smoking is becoming an expensive and socially unacceptable habit.
7. Greed and arrogance led Carter into a mess he could not get out of.
8. Peanuts can cause dangerous allergic reactions in some people.

Exercise 9 Collaborate: Adding Subjects to Sentences Collaborate

Working with a partner or group, complete the following paragraph by add-

ing subjects to the blank lines. Before you fill in the blanks, discuss your
answers and try to come to an agreement about the worst movie, the worst
music video, and so on. When you have completed the paragraph, share your
answers with another group or with the class.

This year has seen many achievements in the arts and entertainment,

but it has also seen many creative disasters. On movie screens, there have

been some terrible movies. Without a doubt, ___________________________

was the worst movie of the year. It should never have been made. On televi-

sion, ___________________________ was the worst and also the most irritating

show. Every time I see it, I want to turn it off or kick in the television screen.

___________________________ and ___________________________ take the prize

for the worst actor and actress of the year. They should consider other careers.

In the field of music, ___________________________ ranks as the least successful

music video of the year. ___________________________ is the most annoying song

because the radio played it far too often. Last, ___________________________ is

the most annoying singer.

10 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

MORE ABOUT RECOGNIZING SUBJECTS AND VERBS

Recognizing the Core Subject
When you look for the subject of a sentence, look for the core word or
words; do not include descriptive words around the subject. Look for the
noun (people, places, or things), not for the words that describe it.
the core subject:
Interesting digital texts are needed to engage students.
Cracked sidewalks and rusty railings made the neighborhood
unwelcoming.

❺ Identify prepositional Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

phrases and correct Prepositions are usually short words that often signal a kind of position or
word order. possession, as shown in the following Info Box.

TEACHING TIP
INFO BOX Some Common Prepositions
about before by inside on under
above below down into onto up
across behind during like over upon
after beneath except near through with
among beside for of to within
around between from off toward without
at beyond in

TEACHING TIP A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and its object.

Here are some prepositional phrases. In each one, the first word is the prep-
osition; the other words are the object of the preposition.
prepositional phrases:
about the house of mice and men
around the bend off the mark
between two trees on the stairs
during class up the big hill
near my shoes with his friends

An old memory trick can help you remember prepositions. Think of

a house. Now, think of a series of words you can put in front of the house.
around the house through the house
by the house to the house
behind the house near the house
between the houses under the house
over the house on the house
off the house from the house
These words are prepositions.
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 11

You need to know about prepositions because they can help you iden-
tify the subject of a sentence. Here is an important grammar rule about
prepositions:
Nothing in a prepositional phrase can ever be the subject of a
sentence.
Prepositional phrases describe people, places, or things. They may
also describe the subject of a sentence, but they never include the subject.
Whenever you are looking for the subject of a sentence, begin by putting
parentheses around all the prepositional phrases:
parentheses and prepositional phrases:
The park (behind my apartment) has a playground (with swings and
slides).
Nothing in the prepositional phrase can be the subject. Once you have
eliminated these phrases, you can follow the steps to find the subject of the
sentence.
Step 1: Identify the verb: has
Step 2: Ask, “Who or what has?”
Step 3: The answer is the subject: The park. The park is the subject.
By marking off the prepositional phrases, you are left with the core of
the sentence. There is less to look at.
(Across the street) a child (with a teddy bear) sat (among the flowers).
subject: child
The student (from Jamaica) won the contest (with ease).
subject: student

Exercise 10 Practice: Recognizing Prepositional Phrases, Subjects,

and Verbs
Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.
Then underline the subjects and verbs, putting S above the subject and V
above the verb.

1. Two of my family members graduated from Columbia High School

in 2017.

2. The athlete ran across the track and flew over the finish line.

3. A bunch of chocolates and a card lay on the desk.

4. The girl with the long black hair was new to the neighborhood.

5. The mud on my shoes came from a deep puddle in front

of the steps.
12 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

6. Nothing except a huge bowl of ice cream can soothe the pain

of that algebra test.

7. The employees worked over a long weekend to complete the

project behind the new building.

8. At one point, the troops were driving through dangerous territory

without clear directions.

Collaborate Exercise 11 Collaborate: Writing Sentences with Prepositional Phrases

Do this exercise with a partner. First, add one prepositional phrase to the
core sentence. Then ask your partner to add a second prepositional phrase
to the same sentence. For the next sentence, switch places. Let your partner
add the first phrase; you add the second. Keep switching places throughout
the exercise. When you have completed the exercise, share your sentences
(the ones with two prepositional phrases) with the class. The first one is
done for you.
1. core sentence: Employees are concerned.
Add one prepositional phrase: Employees are concerned about their
paychecks.
Add another prepositional phrase: Employees at the central plant are
concerned about their paychecks.

2. core sentence: Eduardo studied.

Add one prepositional phrase:
___________________________________________________________
Add another prepositional phrase:

3. core sentence: The lecture began.

Add one prepositional phrase:
___________________________________________________________
Add another prepositional phrase:

4. core sentence: A man in black appeared.

Add another prepositional phrase:

Add another prepositional phrase:

 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 13

Word Order
When we speak, we often use a simple word order: first, the subject; then,
the verb. For example, someone would say, “He lost the key.” He is the sub-
ject that begins the sentence; lost is the verb that comes after the subject.
However, not all sentences use such a simple word order. Prepositional
phrases, for example, can change the word order. To identify the subject
and verb, follow these steps:
prepositional phrase and changed subject–verb order:
Behind the cabinet was a box of coins.
Step 1: Mark off the prepositional phrases with parentheses: (Behind
the cabinet) was a box (of coins). Remember that nothing in a
prepositional phrase can be the subject of a sentence.
Step 2: Find the verb: was
Step 3: Who or what was? A box was. The subject of the sentence is
box.
After you change the word order of this sentence, you can see the subject
(S) and the verb (V) more easily.
S V
A box of coins was behind the cabinet.

(Even though coins is a plural word, you must use the singular verb
was because box is the singular subject.)

Exercise 12 Practice: Finding Prepositional Phrases, Subjects, and

Verbs in Complicated Word Order
Put parentheses around the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.
Then underline the subjects and verbs, putting an S above each subject and
a V above each verb.

1. Across the street from my grandmother’s store is an empty lot TEACHING TIP

with cracked cement.

2. By a border of yellow daisies stood a black dog with a yellow collar.

3. Behind all Mario’s tattoos and muscles hid a shy man with a longing

for approval.

4. Inside her desk is a new tablet in a zippered case.

5. From somewhere in the darkened room came the loud sound

of someone snoring happily.

6. Among the stuff for sale on the table is a faded photograph

of someone fishing in a boat.

14 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

7. Through the halls echoed the sound of happy parents waiting

to greet their children.

8. Beyond the horizon is a new adventure.

More on Word Order

The expected word order of a subject followed by a verb will change when
a sentence starts with There is(are), There was(were), Here is(are), or
Here was(were). In such cases, look for the subject after the verb:
S–V order with There is(are), Here is(are):
V S S
There are a supermarket and a laundromat near my apartment.
V S
Here is my best friend.

TEACHING TIP To understand this pattern, you can change the word order:
S S V
A supermarket and a laundromat are there, near my apartment.
S V
My best friend is here.

You should also note that even when the subject comes after the verb, the
verb has to match the subject. For instance, if the subject refers to more
than one thing, the verb must refer to more than one thing:
There are a supermarket and a laundromat near my apartment. (Two
things, a supermarket and a laundromat, are near my apartment.)

Word Order in Questions

Questions have a different word order. The main verb and helping verb are
not next to each other, except in short questions (often called tag questions).
word order in questions:
question: Did you study for the test?
(tag question version: You studied for the test, didn’t you?)
subject: you
verbs: did, study
To understand this concept, you can think about answering the question.
If someone accused you of not studying for the test, you might say, “I did
study for it.” You would use two words as verbs.
question: Will she take that history course next semester?
(tag question version: She’ll take that history course next
semester, won’t she?)
subject: she
verbs: will, take
question: Is Charles making the coffee?
subject: Charles
verbs: is, making
 Chapter One The Simple Sentence 15

Exercise 13 Practice: Recognizing Subjects and Verbs in Questions

and Here is(are), There is(are) Word Order
Underline the subjects and verbs in the following sentences, putting an S
above each subject and a V above each verb.

1. There is somebody with a barking dog next door.

2. Have we driven off the main road and missed the right exit?

3. Do you expect an answer to that question?

4. Here is our chance for a quick snack.

5. Would Ms. Sung like a gift card for her birthday?

6. Over on the next block there are a barber shop and a shoe store.

7. There was a long line at the concert.

8. Can I borrow your calculator for the test?

Words that Cannot Be Verbs ❻ Use verbs correctly

Sometimes there are words that look like verbs in a sentence, but they are in sentences.
not verbs. Such words include adverbs (words like always, often, nearly,
never, ever) that are placed close to the verb but are not verbs. Another
word that is not a verb is not. Not is placed between a helping verb and a
main verb, but it is not part of the verb. When you are looking for verbs in a
sentence, be careful to eliminate words like often and not.
They will not accept his credit card. (The complete verb is will accept.)
Mark can often repair his truck by himself. (The complete verb is
can repair.)
Be careful with contractions.
He hasn’t called Maria since last weekend. (The complete verb is has
called. Not is not a part of the verb, even in contractions.)
Don’t you speak Spanish? (The complete verb is do speak.)
Won’t you come to the movie? (The complete verb is will come. Won’t
is a contraction for will not.)

Recognizing Main Verbs

If you are checking to see if a word is a main verb, try the pronoun test.
Combine your word with this simple list of pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we,
and they. A main verb is a word such as look or pulled that can be combined
with the words on this list. Now try the pronoun test.
For the word look: I look, you look, he looks, she looks, it looks, we
look, they look
16 Sentence-Level Skills: Grammar for Writers

For the word pulled: I pulled, you pulled, he pulled, she pulled, it
pulled, we pulled, they pulled
But the word never can’t be used alone with the pronouns:
I never, you never, he never, she never, it never, we never, they never
(Never did what?)
Never is not a verb. Not is not a verb either, as the pronoun test indicates:
I not, you not, he not, she not, it not, we not, they not (These combi-
nations don’t make sense because not is not a verb.)

TEACHING TIP Verb Forms that Cannot Be Main Verbs

There are two verb forms that are not main verbs. An -ing verb by itself can-
not be the main verb, as the pronoun test shows.
For the word taking: I taking, you taking, he taking, she taking, it tak-
ing, we taking, they taking
If you see an -ing verb by itself, correct the sentence by adding a helping verb.
He taking his time. (Taking, by itself, cannot be a main verb.)
correction: He is taking his time.
The other verb form that cannot be the main verb is called an infinitive.
An infinitive is the form of the verb that has to placed in front of it. The Info
Box lists some common infinitives.

INFO BOX Some Common Infinitives

to call to eat to live to smile
to care to fall to make to talk
to drive to give to run to work

Try the pronoun test and you’ll see that infinitives can’t be main verbs:
For the infinitive to live: I to live, you to live, he to live, she to live, we
to live, they to live
If you see an infinitive being used as a verb, correct the sentence by adding
a main verb.
He to live in a better house.
correction: He wants to live in a better house.
The infinitives and the -ing verbs just don’t work as main verbs. You must
put a verb with them to make a correct sentence.

Exercise 14 Practice: Correcting Problems with Infinitive or -ing Verb

Forms
Most—but not all—of the following sentences are faulty; an -ing verb or an
infinitive may be taking the place of a main verb. Correct the sentences that
have errors.

1. Nobody in the store paying attention to the customers.

2. A lack of quality jobs in our state sending many people into debt.
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authors of the detested interim, published, in A.D. 1555, his
Propositiones de libero arbitrio, in defence of Melanchthon’s
synergism. The leaders of the Gnesio-Lutherans, Arnsdorf in
Eisenach, Flacius in Jena, and Musacus in Weimar, felt that
they durst not remain silent, and so they maintained, as alone
the genuine Lutheran doctrine, that the natural man cannot
co-operate with the workings of Divine grace upon him, but
can only oppose them. By order of the Duke John Frederick
they prepared at Weimar, in A.D. 1559, as a new manifesto of
the restored Lutheranism, a treatise containing a refutation of
all the heresies that had hitherto cropped up within the
Lutheran church. One of those invited to take part in the
work, Victorin Strigel, professor at Jena, was made to suffer
for the sympathy which he evinced for synergism by enduring
close and severe imprisonment. The duke, however, soon
again became more favourable to Strigel, who in A.D. 1560
vindicated himself at a public disputation in Weimar against
Flacius, and was soon afterwards called to Leipzig. When in
A.D. 1561 the duke set up a consistory in Weimar, and
transferred to it the right hitherto exclusively exercised in
Jena of ecclesiastical excommunication and the censorship of
theological books, and the Flacian party opposed this
“Cæsaro-papism” with unmeasured violence, all the
adherents of the party were driven out of Jena and out of the
whole territory, and their places filled with Melanchthonians.
This victory of Philippism, however, was of but short duration.
In order to regain the lost electoral rank, the duke allowed
himself to be beguiled into taking part in the so-called
Grumbach affair. He was cast into the imperial prison, and his
brother John William, who now assumed the government,
hastened, in A.D. 1567, to restore the overthrown theological
party. Even in electoral Saxony interest in the Catholicizing
synergism, at least, after Melanchthon’s death, in A.D. 1560,
was gradually lost sight of in proportion as the controversy
about the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord’s Supper gradually
gained prominence.
§ 141.8. The Flacian Controversy about Original Sin,
A.D. 1560-1575.―In the heat of the controversy with Strigel at
the conference at Weimar, in A.D. 1560, Flacius had committed
himself to the statement that original sin in man is not
something accidental, but something substantial. His own
friends now urged him to retract this proposition, which his
opponents had branded as Manichæan. Its author had not
indeed intended it in the bad sense which it might be
supposed to bear. Flacius, however, was of a character too
dogged and obstinate to agree to recall what he had uttered.
Expelled with the rest of the Lutherans in A.D. 1562, and not
recalled with them in A.D. 1567, he wandered without any
fixed place of abode, driven away from almost every place
that he entered, until shortly before his death he recalled his
overhasty expression. He died in the hospital at Frankfort-on-
the-Maine, in A.D. 1575. In him a powerful character and an
amazing wealth of learning were utterly lost in consequence
of unpropitious circumstances, which were partly his fault and
partly his misfortune.

§ 141.9. The Lutheran Doctrine of the Lord’s

Supper.―The union effected by the Wittenberg Concord of
A.D. 1536 (§ 133, 8) with the South German cities, which
originally favoured Zwinglian views, had been in many cases
threatening to dissolve again, and the attacks of the men of
Zürich obliged Luther in A.D. 1544 to compose his last
“Confession of the Holy Sacrament against the Fanatics.” The
breach with the Zwinglians was now seen to be irreparable,
but it appeared as if it were yet possible to come to an
understanding with the more profound theory of the Lord’s
Supper set forth by Calvin. To carry out this union was a
thought very dear to the heart of Melanchthon. He had the
conviction, not indeed that the Lutheran doctrine of the real
presence of the body and blood in the bread and wine is
erroneous, but rather that by the Calvinistic doctrine of a
spiritual enjoyment of the body and blood of Christ in the
supper by means of faith no essential element of religious
truth was lost, and so he sought thereby to get over the
difference in confession and doctrine. But with this
explanation the strict Lutherans were by no means satisfied,
and long continued and extremely passionate discussions
were carried on in the various Lutheran countries, especially
in Lower Saxony, in the Palatinate, and in the electorate. But
the controversy was not restricted to the question of the
supper; it rather went back upon a deeper foundation. Luther,
carrying out the principles of the third and fourth œcumenical
councils, had taught that the personal connection of the two
natures in Christ implies a communication of the attributes of
the one to the other, communicatio idiomatum, that therefore
Christ, since He has by His ascension entered again upon the
full exercise of His attributes, is, as God-Man, even in respect
of His body, omnipresent, ubiquitas corporis Christi, and
refused to allow himself to be perplexed by the
incomprehensibility for the human understanding of an
omnipresent body. It is here that we come upon the radical
distinction between Luther’s view and that of Zwingli and
Calvin, according to which the body of Christ cannot be at
one and the same time in heaven at God’s right hand and on
the earth in bread and wine. But Calvin, as well as Zwingli,
from his very intellectual constitution, could only regard the
Lutheran doctrine of the ubiquity of the glorified body of
Christ as an utter absurdity, and so, repudiating the
communicatio idiomatum, he taught that the glorification of
Christ’s body is restricted to its transfiguration, and that now
in heaven, as before upon the earth, it can be present only in
one place. A necessary consequence of this view was the
rejection of His corporeal presence in the supper, and at the
very most the admission of a communication in the sacrament
to believers of a spiritual influence from the glorified body of
Christ.―The ablest vindicator of the Lutheran doctrine of the
supper in this aspect of its development was the
Württemberg reformer John Brenz (§ 133, 3). In the
Syngramma Suevicum of A.D. 1525 (§ 131, 1), he has taken
his place most decidedly on the side of Luther, and this he
had also done again, in A.D. 1529, at the Marburg Conference
(§ 132, 4). Then in A.D. 1559, as provost in Stuttgart, in
consequence of the doubtful attitude of a Swabian pastor on
the question of the supper, he summoned a synod at
Stuttgart, before which he laid a confession which expressed
the doctrine of the supper and the ubiquity in strict
accordance with Lutheran views. In defence of the idea of
ubiquity he quoted Ephesians iv. 10, as affording sufficient
Scripture support. The synod unanimously adopted it, and the
duke gave approval to this Confessio et doctr. theologor. et
ministror. Verbi Dei in Ducatu Wirtb. de vera præsentia Corp.
et sang, J. Chr. in Cœna Domini, by ordering that all
preachers should adopt it, and that it should have symbolic
authority throughout the Württemberg church. Melanchthon,
who had hitherto been on particularly intimate terms with
Brenz, was very indignant at this “unseasonable” creed-
making in “barbarous Latin.” Brenz, however, would not be
deterred from giving more adequate expression and
development to the objectionable dogma, and for this
purpose published, in A.D. 1560, his book, De personali unione
duarum natur. in Christo.

§ 141.10. Cryptocalvinism in its First Stage, A.D. 1552-

1574.―The struggle of the Gnesio-Lutherans against Calvin’s
doctrine of the supper, and the secret favour shown toward it
by several Lutheran theologians, was begun in A.D. 1552 by
Joachim Westphal, pastor in Hamburg. Calvin and Bullinger
were not slow in giving him a sharp rejoinder. In a yet more
violent form the dispute broke out in Bremen, where the
cathedral preacher Hardenberg, and in Heidelberg, where the
deacon Klebitz, entered the lists against the Lutheran dogma.
In both cases the struggle ended in the defeat of Lutheranism
(§ 144, 1, 2). In Wittenberg, too, the Philippists George Major,
Paul Eber, Paul Crell, etc., supported by the very influential
court physician of the electoral court of Saxony, Caspar
Peucer, Melanchthon’s son-in-law, from A.D. 1559 successfully
advanced the interests of Cryptocalvinism. Melanchthon
himself, however, was not to live to see the troubles that
arose over this, a truly gracious dispensation of Providence on
behalf of a man already sorely borne down and trembling
with hypochondriac fears, to have him thus delivered a rabie
theologicorum. He died on 19th April, A.D. 1560. While the
Elector Augustus, A.D. 1553-1586, intended that his
Wittenberg should always be the main stronghold of strict
Lutheranism, the Philippists were always coming forward with
more and more boldness, and sought to prepare the way for
themselves by getting all places filled with members of their
party. They persuaded the elector to give a nominative
authority throughout Saxony to a collection of Melanchthonian
doctrinal and confessional documents compiled by them,
Corpus doctrinæ Philippicum s. Misnicum, 1560. The
Wittenberg Catechism, Catechesis, etc., ad usum scholar.
puerilium, 1571, set forth a doctrine of the sacraments and
the person of Christ so manifestly Calvinistic, that even the
elector was obliged to give way on account of the strong
objections brought against it. The Philippists, however,
succeeded in satisfying him by the Consensus Dresdensis, of
10th Oct., A.D. 1571, to this extent, that after the death of
Duke John William, in the exercise of his authority as regent,
he was induced to expel the Lutheran zealots Wigand and
Hesshus from Jena, and in A.D. 1573 had more than a
hundred clergymen of the duchy of Saxony deposed. In
Breslau their interests were also zealously advanced by the
influential imperial physician, John Krafft, to whom the
Emperor Maximilian II. had granted a patent of nobility in
A.D. 1568, with the new name of Crato von Crafftheim.
Another Silesian physician, Joachim Curæus, also a scholar of
Melanchthon, published in A.D. 1574, without any indication of
author’s name, place of publication, or date of issue, his
Exegesis perspicua controversiæ de cœna, which represented
Melanchthon’s doctrine of the Lord’s Supper as the only
tenable one, controverted that of the Lutherans as popish,
eulogized that of the Reformed church as one most honouring
to God, and urgently counselled union with the Calvinists. The
warm recommendation of this treatise on the part of the
Wittenberg Philippists, however, rather contributed to its
failure. For now, at last, even the elector had become
convinced of the danger that threatened Lutheranism through
hints given him by the princes, and information obtained from
intercepted letters. The Philippists were banished, their chiefs
thrown into prison, Peucer being confined for twelve years,
A.D. 1574-1586. A thanksgiving service in all the churches and
memorial medal celebrated the rooting out in A.D. 1574 of
Calvinism, and the final victory of restored Lutheranism.―In
Denmark, Nicholas Hemming, pastor and professor at
Copenhagen, distinguished alike by adequate scholarship and
rich literary activity, and by mildness and temperateness of
character, and hence designated the Preceptor of Denmark,
was the recognised head of the Melanchthonian school. As a
decided opponent of the doctrine of ubiquity, though
otherwise on all points, and especially in his doctrine of the
Lord’s Supper, a good Lutheran, he fell under the suspicion of
the German Gnesio-Lutherans as a Cryptocalvinist, and was
accordingly opposed by them. In A.D. 1579, by order of the
Elector Augustus, his brother-in-law, the King of Denmark
removed him from his offices in Copenhagen, appointing him
to a canonry in the cathedral at Roeskilde, where in A.D. 1600
he died.

§ 141.11. The Frankfort Compact, A.D. 1558, and the

Naumburg Assembly of Princes, A.D. 1561.―After the
disgraceful issue of the Worms Conference of A.D. 1557
(§ 137, 6), the Protestant princes, the electors Augustus of
Saxony, Joachim of Brandenburg, and Ottheinrich of the
Palatinate, with Philip of Hesse, Christopher of Württemberg,
and the Count-palatine Wolfgang, who were gathered
together about the Emperor Ferdinand, consulted as to the
means which they should employ to insure and confirm the
threatened unity of the evangelical church of Germany. The
result of their deliberations was, that they agreed to sign a
statement drawn up by Melanchthon and known by the name
of the Frankfort Compact, in which they declared anew
their unanimous attachment to the doctrine set forth in the
Augustana, the Variata, and the Saxonica (§ 136, 8), and in
regard to controversial questions that had been discussed
within the church expressed themselves in moderate terms as
inclined to the views of Melanchthon. The Flacian party in
Jena hastened to set forth their opposing sentiments in the
manifesto of A.D. 1559, already referred to, in which the strict
Gnesio-Lutheranism was laid down in the hardest and boldest
manner possible.―The divisions that arose within the
Lutheran church after Melanchthon’s death and the imminent
reassembling of the Tridentine Council led the evangelical
princes of Germany, who, with the exception of Philip of
Hesse, all belonged to a new generation, once more to put
forth every effort to restore unity by adoption of a common
evangelical confession. At the Assembly of Princes
appointed to meet for this purpose at Naumburg in
A.D. 1561, most of them appeared personally. There was no
thought of preparing a new confession, because it was feared
that in those times of agitation it might be impossible to draw
up such a document, or that, even if they succeeded in doing
so, it might not close the breach, but rather widen it. Thus
the only alternative remaining was to attempt the healing of
the schism by reverting to the standpoint of the Augsburg
Confession. But then the question arose whether the original
form of statement of A.D. 1530, or its later elaboration of
A.D. 1540, should be taken as the basis of union
negotiations.―This at least was to be said in favour of the
latter, that it had been unanimously adopted as the common
confession of all the evangelicals of Germany at the peace
Conference of Worms in A.D. 1540, where even Calvin had
signed it, and at Regensburg in A.D. 1541 (§ 135, 2, 3); and
now Philip of Hesse and Frederick III. of the Palatinate came
forward decidedly in its favour. But all the more persistently
did the Duke John Frederick of Saxony oppose it, and make
every endeavour to get the rest of the princes to give their
votes in favour of the Augsburg Confession of A.D. 1530. But
the duke’s further wish to have added to it the Schmalcald
Articles found very little favour. Finally a compromise was
effected, in accordance with which, in a newly drawn up
preface, the Apology of the Augustana, as well as the edition
of A.D. 1540, was acknowledged, while the Schmalcald
Articles, as well as the Confessio Saxonica (§ 136, 8) and the
Frankfort Compact, were passed over in silence. John
Frederick now demanded the adoption of an express
condemnation of the Calvinising Sacramentarians. This led to
a hot discussion between him and his father-in-law, the
elector-palatine. He took his departure on the following day
without having received his dismissal, leaving behind him a
sharply worded protest. Ulrich of Mecklenburg also refused to
subscribe, but allowed himself at last to be persuaded into
doing so. At the sixteenth session two papal legates
personally delivered to the princes a brief inviting them to
attend the council. This latter, however, was returned
unopened when they discovered in the address the usual but
artfully concealed formula “dilecto filio.” Also the demand of
the imperial embassy accompanying the legates to take part
in the council was determinedly rejected, because that would
mean not revision but simply a continuation of the previous
sessions of the council, at which the evangelical doctrine had
already been definitely condemned.

§ 141.12. The Formula of Concord, A.D. 1577.―Already

for a long time had the learned chancellor Jac. Andreä of
Tübingen wrought unweariedly for the restoration of peace
among the theologians of the Lutheran church. In order also
to win over the general membership in favour of peace, he
attempted in six popular discourses, delivered in A.D. 1573, to
instruct them in reference to the points in dispute and proper
means for overcoming these differences. He was so
successful in his efforts, that he soon ventured to propose
that these lectures should be made the basis of further
negotiations. But when Martin Chemnitz, the most
distinguished theologian of his age, pronounced them
unsuitable for that purpose, Andreä wrought them up anew in
accordance with Chemnitz’s critical suggestions into the so
called “Swabian Concord.” But even in this form they did not
satisfy the theologians of Lower Saxony. The Swabian
theologians, however, in their criticisms and emendations, had
answered various statements in it, and in A.D. 1576 they
produced a new union scheme, drafted by Luc. Osiander,
called the “Maulbronn Formula.” The Elector Augustus of
Saxony then summoned a theological convention at Torgau,
at which, besides Andreä and Chemnitz, there were also
present Chytræus from Rostock, as well as Körner and Andr.
Musculus from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. They wrought up the
material thus accumulated before them into the “Book of
Torgau,” of A.D. 1576. In regard to this book also the
evangelical princes delivered numerous opinions, and now at
last, in obedience to the order of the princes, Andreä,
Chemnitz, Selnecker (§ 142, 4), Chytræus, Musculus, and
Körner retired into the cloister of Berg at Magdeburg in order
to make a final revision of all that was before them. Thus
originated, in A.D. 1577, the Book of Berg or the Formula of
Concord, in two different forms, first in the most compressed
style possible in what is known as the Epitome, and then
more completely in the document known as the Solida
declaratio. This document dealt with all the controverted
questions that had been agitated since A.D. 1530 in twelve
articles. It set forth the doctrine of the Person of Christ,
giving prominence to the theory of ubiquity, as the basis of
the doctrine of the supper, leaving it, however, undetermined
in accordance with the teaching of Brenz, whether the
ubiquity is to be regarded as an absolute or as a relative one,
if only it be maintained that Christ in respect of His human
nature, therefore in respect of His body, is present “ubicunque
velit,” more particularly in the holy supper. An opportunity was
also found in treating of the synergistic questions to set forth
the doctrine of predestination, although within the Lutheran
church no real controversy on this subject had ever arisen.
Luther, who at first (§ 125, 3) had himself given expression to
a particularist doctrine of election, had gradually receded
from that position. It was so too with Melanchthon, only with
this important difference, that whereas Luther, afterwards as
well as before, excluded every sort of co-operation of man in
conversion, Melanchthon felt himself obliged to admit a
certain degree of co-operation, which even the censure of
Calvin himself could not lead him to repudiate. When now the
Formula of Concord, rejecting synergism in the most decided
manner, affirmed that since the fall there was in men not
even a spark remaining, ne scintillula quidem, of spiritual
power for the independent free appropriation of offered
grace, it had gone over from the platform of Melanchthon to
that which Calvin, following the course of hard, logical
consistency, had been driven to adopt, in the assertion of a
doctrine of absolute predestination. The formula was thus in
the main in agreement with the speculation of Calvin. But it
declined to accept the conclusions arrived at in Calvinism by
declaring that while man indeed of himself wanted the power
to lay hold upon Divine grace and co-operate with it in any
way, he was yet able to withstand it and refuse to accept it.
In this way it was able to hold by the express statements of
Scripture which represent God as willing that all men should
be saved, and salvation as an absolute work of grace, but
condemnation as the consequence of man’s own guilt. It
regards the salvation of men as the only object of Divine
predestination, condemnation as merely an object of the
Divine foreknowledge.―At a later period an attempt was
made to set at rest the scruples that prevailed here and there
by securing at Berg, in February, A.D. 1580, the adoption of an
addition to it in the form of a Præfatio drawn up by Andreä as
a final determination of the controversy. The character of this
new symbolical document, in accordance with its occasion
and its aim, was not so much that of a popular exposition for
the church, but rather that of a scientific theological treatise.
For that period of excitement and controversy it is quite
remarkable and worthy of high praise for its good sense,
moderation, and circumspection, as well as for the accuracy
and clearness with which it performed its task. The fact that
nine thousand of the teachers of the church subscribed it
affords sufficient proof of it having fulfilled the end
contemplated. Denmark and Sweden, Holstein, Pomerania,
Hesse, and Anhalt, besides eight cities, Magdeburg, Dantzig,
Nuremberg, Strassburg, etc., refused to sign from various and
often conflicting motives. In A.D. 1581 Frederick II. of
Denmark is said indeed to have thrown it into the fire. Yet in
later years it was adopted in not a few of these regions, e.g.
in Sweden, Holstein, Pommerania [Pomerania], etc. The
Elector Augustus of Saxony, in the Book of Concord, brought
out a collection of all general Lutheran confessional writings
which, signed by fifty-one princes and thirty-five cities, was
solemnly promulgated on the anniversary of the Augsburg
Confession, 25th June, A.D. 1580. By this means the whole
Lutheran church of Germany obtained a common corpus
doctrinæ, and the numerous collections of confessional and
doctrinal documents acknowledged by the church, which
hitherto separate national churches had drawn up for this
purpose, henceforth lost their authority.

§ 141.13. Second Stage of Cryptocalvinism, A.D. 1586-

1592.―Yet once more the Calvinising endeavours of the
Philippists were renewed in the electorate of Saxony under
Augustus’ successor Christian I., who had obtained this
position in A.D. 1586, through his relationship with the family
of the count-palatine. His chancellor Nicholas Crell filled the
offices of pastors and teachers with men of his own views,
abolished exorcism at baptism, and had even begun the
publication of a Bible with a Calvinising commentary when
Christian died, in A.D. 1591. The Duke Frederick William of
Altenburg, as regent during the minority, immediately re-
introduced strict Lutheranism, and, preparatory to a church
visitation, had a new anti-Calvinistic standard of doctrine
compiled in the so called Articles of Visitation of A.D. 1592,
which all civil and ecclesiastical officers in Saxony were
required to accept. In short, clear, and well defined theses
and antitheses the doctrinal differences on the supper, the
Person of Christ, baptism, and election were there set forth.
In reference to baptism, the anti-Calvinistic doctrine was
promulgated, that regeneration takes place through baptism,
and that therefore every baptized person is regenerate. The
most important among the compilers of these Articles of
Visitation was Ægidius Hunnius, shortly before called to
Wittenberg, after having, from A.D. 1576 to 1592, as professor
at Marburg, laboured with all his might in opposition to the
Calvinising of Hesse. He had also, by his defence of the
doctrine of ubiquity, in his “Confession of the Doctrine of the
Person of Christ” in German, in A.D. 1577, and his Latin
treatise, “Libelli IV. de pers. Chr. ejusque ad dexteram
sedentes divina majestate,” in A.D. 1585, shown himself an
energetic champion of strict Lutheranism. He died in
A.D. 1603.―The unfortunate chancellor Crell, however, who
had made himself hateful to the Lutherans as the promoter
and chief instigator of all the Calvinising measures of the
deceased elector, and yet more so by his energetic
interference with the usurpations of the nobles, suffered an
imprisonment of ten years in the fortress of Königstein, and
was then, after a trial conducted in the most arbitrary
manner, declared to be a traitor and an enemy of the public
peace, and executed in A.D. 1601.
§ 141.14. The Huber Controversy, A.D. 1588-
1595.―Samuel Huber, reformed pastor in the Canton Bern,
became involved in a controversy with Wolfgang Musculus
over the doctrine of election. Going even beyond the Lutheran
doctrine, he affirmed that all men are predestinated to
salvation, although through their own fault not all are saved.
Banished from Bern in A.D. 1588, after a disputation with
Beza, he entered the Lutheran church and became pastor at
Württemberg. Here he charged the Professor Gerlach with
Cryptocalvinism, because he taught that only believers are
predestinated to salvation. The controversy was broken off by
his call to Wittenberg. But even his Wittenberg colleagues,
Polic. Leyser and Ægidius Hunnius, fell under the suspicion of
Cryptocalvinism, and were accordingly opposed by him. When
all disputation and conferences had failed to get him to
abandon his doctrine, and parties began to be formed among
the students, he was, in A.D. 1594, removed from Wittenberg.
With increasing rancour he continued the controversy, and
wandered about Germany for many years in order to secure a
following for his theory, but without success. He died in
A.D. 1624.

§ 141.15. The Hofmann Controversy in Helmstadt,

A.D. 1598.―The great influence which the study of the
Aristotelian philosophy in connection with that of humanism
obtained in the Julius University founded at Helmstadt in
A.D. 1576, seemed to its theological professor, Daniel
Hofmann, to threaten injury to theological study, and to be
prejudicial to pure Lutheran doctrine. He therefore attached
himself to the Romists (§ 143, 6), and took advantage of the
occasion of the conferring of doctor’s degrees to deliver a
violent invective against the incursions of reason and
philosophy into the region of religion and revelation. In
consequence of this his philosophical colleagues complained
of him to the senate as a reproacher of reason, and as one
injurious to their faculty. That court obliged him to retract and
apologise, and then deprived him of his office as professor of
theology.
 § 142. Constitution, Worship, Life, and
Science in the Lutheran Church.

In reference also to the ecclesiastical

constitution, by holding firmly to the standpoint and
to the working out of the system which it had
sketched out in its confession and doctrinal teaching,
the Lutheran church sought to mediate between
extremes, although, amid the storms from without
and from within by which it was threatened, it was
just at this point that it was least successful. It
reflected its character more clearly and decidedly in
its order of worship than in its constitution.―The
Reformation at last relaxed that hierarchical ban
which for centuries had put an absolute restraint
upon congregational singing, and had excluded the
use of the vernacular in the services of the church.
Even within the limits of the Reformation era, the
German church song attained unto such a wonderful
degree of excellence, as affords the most convincing
evidence of the fulness, power, and spirituality, the
genuine elevation and fresh enthusiasm, of the
spiritual life of that age. The sacred poetry of the
church is the confession of the Lutheran people, and
has accomplished even more than preaching for
extending and deepening the Christian life of the
evangelical church. No sooner had a sacred song of
this sort burst forth from the poet’s heart, than it was
everywhere taken up by the Christian people of the
land, and became familiar to every lip. It found
entrance into all houses and churches, was sung
before the doors, in the workshops, in the market-
places, streets, and fields, and won at a single blow
whole cities to the evangelical faith.―The Christian
life of the people in the Lutheran church combined
deep, penitential earnestness and a joyfully confident
consciousness of justification by faith with the most
nobly steadfast cheerfulness and heartiness natural
to the German citizen. Faithful attention to the
spiritual interests of their people, vigorous ethical
preaching, and zealous efforts to promote the
instruction of the young on the part of their pastors,
created among them a healthy and hearty fear of
God, without the application of any very severe
system of church discipline, a thorough and genuine
attachment to the church, strict morality in domestic
life, and loyal submission to civil
authority.―Theological science flourished especially
at the universities of Wittenberg, Tübingen,
Strassburg, Marburg, and Jena.
§ 142.1. The Ecclesiastical Constitution.―As a mean
between hierarchism and Cæsaro-papism, between the
intrusion of the State into the province of the church, and the
intrusion of the church into the province of the State, the
ecclesiastical constitution of the Lutheran church was
theoretically right in the main, though in practice and even in
theory many defects might be pointed out. It presented at
least a protest against all commingling or subordinating of
one or the other in these two spheres. Owing to the urgent
needs of the church, the princes and magistrates, in the
character of emergency-bishops, undertook the supreme
administration and management of ecclesiastical affairs, and
transferred the exercise of these rights and duties to special
boards called consistories, made up of lay and clerical
members, which were to have jurisdiction over the clergy, the
administration of discipline, and the arranging and enforcing
of the marriage laws. What had been introduced simply as a
necessity in the troubled condition of the church in those
times came gradually to be claimed as a prescriptive right.
According to the Episcopal System, the territorial lord as such
claimed to rank and act as summus episcopus. After
introducing some cautious modifications that were absolutely
indispensable, the canon law actually left the foundation of
jurisprudence untouched. The restoration of the biblical idea
of a universal priesthood of all believers would not tolerate
the retaining of the theory of an essential distinction between
the clergy and the laity. The clergy were properly designated
the servants, ministri, of the church, of the word, of the altar,
and all restrictions that had been imposed upon the clergy,
and distinguished them as an order, were removed.
Hierarchical distinctions among the clergy were renounced, as
opposed to the spirit of Christianity; but the advantage of a
superordination and subordination in respect of merely
human rights, in the institution of such offices as those of
superintendents, provosts, etc., was
recognised.―Ecclesiastical property was in many cases
diverted from the church and arbitrarily appropriated by the
greed and rapacity of princes and nobles, but still in great
part, especially in Germany, it continued in the possession of
the church, except in so far as it was applied to the
endowment of schools, universities, and charitable
institutions. The monasteries fell under a doom which by
reason of their corruptions they had richly deserved. A
restoration of such establishments in an evangelical spirit was
not to be thought of during a period of convulsion and
revolution.―Continuation, § 165, 5.

§ 142.2. Public Worship and Art.―While the Roman

Catholic order of worship was dominated almost wholly by
fancy and feeling, and that of the reformed church chiefly by
the reason, the Lutheran church sought to combine these two
features in her services. In Romish worship all appealed to
the senses, and in that of the Calvinistic churches all appealed
to the understanding; but in the Lutheran worship both sides
of human nature were fully recognised, and a proportionate
place assigned to each. The unity of the church was not
regarded as lying in the rigid uniformity of forms of worship,
but in the unity of the confession. Altars ornamented with
candles and crucifixes, as well as all the images that might be
in churches, were allowed to remain, not as objects of
worship, but rather to aid in exciting and deepening devotion.
The liturgy was closely modelled upon the Romish ritual of
the mass, with the exclusion of all unevangelical elements.
The preaching of the word was made the central point of the
whole public service. Luther’s style of preaching, the noble
and powerful popularity of which has probably never since
been equalled, certainly never surpassed, was the model and
pattern which the other Lutheran preachers set before
themselves. Among these, the most celebrated were Ant.
Corvin, Justus Jonas, George Spalatin, Bugenhagen, Jerome
Weller, John Brenz, Veit Dietrich, J. Mathesius, Martin
Chemnitz. It was laid down as absolutely essential to the idea
of public worship, that the congregation should take part in it,
and that the common language of the people should be
exclusively employed. The adoration of the sacrament on the
altar, as well as the Romish service of the mass, were set
aside as unevangelical, and the sacrament of the supper was
to be administered to the whole congregation in both kinds.
On the other hand, it was admitted that baptism was
necessary, and might and should be administered in case of
need by laymen. The customary formulary of exorcism in
baptism was at first continued without dispute, and though
Luther himself attached no great importance to it, yet every
attempt to secure its discontinuance was resisted by the later
Gnesio-Lutherans as savouring of Cryptocalvinism. Yet it
should be remembered that such orthodox representatives of
Lutheranism as Hesshus, Ægidius Hunnius, and Martin
Chemnitz, as well as afterwards John Gerhard, Quenstedt,
and Hollaz, were only in favour of its being allowed, but not
of its being regarded as necessary. Spener again declared
himself decidedly in favour of its being removed, and in the
eighteenth century it passed without any serious opposition
into disuse throughout almost the whole of the Lutheran
church, until re-introduced in the nineteenth century by the
Old Lutherans (§ 176, 2).―The church festivals were
restricted to celebrations of the facts of redemption; only
such of the feasts of Mary and the saints were retained as
had legitimate ground in the Bible history; e.g. the days of
the apostles, the annunciation of Mary, Michael’s Day,
St. John’s Day, etc. Art was held by Luther in high esteem,
especially music. Lucas Cranach, who died in A.D. 1553, Hans
Holbein, father and son, and Albert Dürer, who died in
A.D. 1528, placed their art as painters at the service of the
gospel, and adorned the churches with beautiful and
thoughtful pictures.

§ 142.3. Church Song.―The character common to the

sacred songs of the Lutheran church of the sixteenth century
is that they are thoroughly suited for congregational
purposes, and are truly popular. They are songs of faith and
the creed, with a clear impress of objectivity. The writers of
them do not describe their subjective feelings, nor their
individual experiences, but they let the church herself by their
mouths express her faith, her comfort, her thanksgiving, and
adoration. But they are also genuinely songs of the people;
true, simple, hearty, bright, and bold in expression, rapid in
movement, no standing still and looking back, no elaborate
painting and describing, no subtle demonstrating and
teaching. Even in outward form they closely resemble the old
German epics and the popular historical ballad, and were
intended above all not merely to be read, but to be sung, and
that by the whole congregation. The ecclesiastical authorities
began to introduce hymn-books into the several provinces
toward the end of the seventeenth century. Previously there
had only been private collections of sacred songs, and the
hymns were distinguished only by the words of the opening
line; and so widely known were they, that the mentioning of
them was sufficient to secure the hymn so designated being
sung by the congregation present at the public service.―The
sacred songs of the Reformation age possess all these
characteristics in remarkable degree. Among all the sacred
poets of that time Luther stands forth pre-eminent. His
thirty-six hymns or sacred poems belong to five different
classes.

1. There are free translations of Latin hymns: “Praised be

Thou, O Jesus Christ;” “Thou who art Three in unity;” “In
our true God we all believe;” “Lord God, we praise do
Thee;” “In the midst of life we are aye in death’s
embraces;” “Come God, Creator, Holy Ghost,” etc.
2. There are reproductions of original German songs:
“Death held our Lord in prison;” “Now pray we to the
Holy Ghost;” “God the Father with us be;” “Let God be
praised, blessed, and uplifted.”
3. We have also paraphrastic renderings of certain psalms:
“Ah, God in heaven, look down anew” (Ps. xii.); “Although
the mouth say of the unwise” (Ps. xiv.); “Our God, He is a
 castle strong” (Ps. xlvi.); “God, unto us right gracious be”
(Ps. lxvii.); “Had God not been with us this time”
(Ps. cxxiv.); “From trouble deep I cry to Thee” (Ps. cxxx.),
etc.
4. We have also songs composed on particular Scripture
themes: “There are the holy ten commands;” “To Isaiah
the prophet this was given” (Isa. vi.); “From heaven on
high I come to you” (Luke ii.); “To Jordan, where our
Lord has gone,” etc.
5. There are, finally, poems original in form and contents:
“Dear Christians, let us now rejoice;” “Jesus Christ, our
Saviour true;” “Lord, keep us by Thy word in hope.”405

After Luther, the most celebrated hymn-writers in the

Lutheran church of the sixteenth century are Paul Speratus,
reformer in Prussia, who died in A.D. 1554; Nicholas Decius,
first a monk, then evangelical pastor at Stettin about
A.D. 1524. Paul Eber, professor and superintendent in
Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1569, author of the hymns,
“When in the hour of utmost need;” “Lord Jesus Christ, true
Man and God;” and one of which our well-known “Jesus, Thy
blood and righteousness,” is a paraphrase.406 Hans Sachs,
shoemaker in Nuremberg, who died in A.D. 1567, wrote during
the famine in that city in A.D. 1552 the hymn, “Why art thou
thus cast down, my heart?” John Schneesing, pastor in
Gothaschen, who died in A.D. 1567, wrote “Lord Jesus Christ,
in Thee alone.” John Mathesius, rector and deacon in
Joachimsthal, who also delivered sermons on Luther’s life,
died in A.D. 1565, wrote a beautiful morning hymn, and other
sweet sacred pieces. Nicholas Hermann, who died in
A.D. 1561, precentor at Joachimsthal, wrote out Mathesius’
sermons in hymns, “The happy sunshine all is gone,” the
burial hymn, “Now hush your cries, and shed no tear,” etc.
Michael Weisse closes the series of hymn-writers of the
Reformation age. He was a German pastor in Bohemia,
translator and editor of the sacred songs of the Bohemian
Hussites, and died in A.D. 1540. He wrote “Christ the Lord is
risen again,” and the burial hymn to which Luther added a
verse, “Now lay we calmly in the grave.”407

§ 142.4. In the period immediately following, from A.D. 1560

to A.D. 1618, we meet with many poetasters who write on
sacred themes in doggerel rhymes. Even those who are poets
by natural endowment, and inspired with Divine grace, are
much too prolific; but they have bequeathed to us a genuine
wealth of beautiful church songs, characterized by healthful
objectivity, childlike simplicity, and a singular power of
appealing to the hearts of the great masses of the people.
But a tendency already begins to manifest itself in the
direction of that excessive subjectivity which was the vice of
hymn-writers in the succeeding period; the doctrinal element
too becomes more and more prominent, as well as
application to particular circumstances and occasions in life;
but the objective confession of faith is always still
predominant. Among the sacred poets of this period the most
important are Bartholmaus Ringwaldt, pastor in
Brandenburg, who died in A.D. 1597, author of “’Tis sure that
awful time will come;” Nicholas Selnecker, at last
superintendent in Leipzig, who died in A.D. 1592, as
Melanchthon’s scholar suspected at one time of
Cryptocalvinism, but, after he had taken part in the
composition of the Formula of Concord, the object of the
most bitter hatred and constant persecution on the part of
the Cryptocalvinists of Saxony: he wrote, “O Lord my God, I
cry to Thee;” Martin Schalling, pastor at Regensburg and
Nuremberg, who died in A.D. 1608, wrote, “Lord, all my heart
is fixed on Thee;” Martin Böhme or Behemb, pastor in
Lusatia, who died in A.D. 1621, author of “Lord Jesus Christ,
my Life, my Light.” The series closes with Philip Nicolai, a
violent and determined opponent of Calvinism, who was
latterly pastor in Hamburg, and died in A.D. 1608. His vigorous
and rhythmical poetry, with its deep undertone of sweetness,
is to some extent modelled on the Song of Songs. He wrote
“Awake, awake, for night is flying;” the chorale in
Mendelssohn’s “St. Paul,” “Sleepers, wake, a voice is calling,”
is a rendering of the same piece.―Continuation, § 159, 3.

§ 142.5. Chorale Singing.―The congregational singing,

which the Reformation made an integral part of evangelical
worship, was essentially a reproduction of the Ambrosian
mode (§ 59, 5) in a purer form and with richer fulness. It was
distinguished from the Gregorian style preeminently by this,
that it was not the singing of a choir of priests, but the
popular singing of the whole congregation. The name chorale
singing, however, was still continued, and has come to be the
technical and appropriate designation of the new mode. It is
further distinguished from the Gregorian mode by this other
characteristic, that instead of singing in a uniform monotone
of simple notes of equal length, it introduces a richer rhythm
with more lively modulation. And, finally, it is characterized by
the introduction of harmony in place of the customary unison.
But, on the other hand, the chorale singing may be regarded
as a renewal of the old cantus firmus, while at the same time
it sets aside the secular music style and the artificialities of
counterpoint and the elaborate ornamentation with which the
false taste of the Middle Ages had overlaid it. The
congregation sang the cantus firmus or melody in unison, the
singers in the choir gave it the accompaniment of a harmony.
The organ during the Reformation age was used for support,
and accompanied only in elaborate, high-class music. But the
melody was pitched in a medium key, which as the leading
voice was called Tenor. The melodies for the new church
hymns were obtained, partly by adaptation of the old tunes
for the Latin hymns and sequences, partly by appropriation of
popular mediæval airs, especially among the Bohemian
Brethren, partly also and mainly by the free use of the
popular song tunes of the day, to which no one made any
objection, since indeed the spiritual songs were often
parodies of the popular songs whose airs were laid hold upon
for church use. The few original melodies of this age were for
the most part composed by the authors of the hymns
themselves or by the singers, and were the outflow of the
same inspiration as had called forth the poems. They have
therefore been rarely equalled in impressiveness, spiritual
glow, and power by any of the more artistic productions of
later times. Acquaintance with the new melodies was spread
among the people by itinerant singers, chorister boys in the
streets, and the city cornet players. From the singers or those
who adapted the melodies are to be distinguished the
composers, who as technical musicians arranged the harmony
and set it in a form suitable for church use. George Rhaw,
precentor in Leipzig, afterwards printer in Wittenberg, and
Hans Walter, choirmaster to the elector, both intimate
friends of Luther, were amongst the most celebrated
composers of their day. The evangelical church music reaches
its highest point of excellence toward the end of the sixteenth
century. The great musical composer, John Eccart, who was
latterly choirmaster in Berlin, and died in A.D. 1611, was the
most active agent in securing this perfection of his art. In
order to make the melody clearer and more distinctly heard, it
was transferred from the middle voice, the tenor, to the
higher voice or treble. The other voices now came in as
simple concords alongside of the melody, and the organ,
which had now been almost perfected by the introduction of
many important improvements, now came into general use
with its pure, rich, and accurate full harmony, as a support
and accompaniment of the congregational singing. The
distinction too between singers and composers passed more
and more out of view. The skilled artistic singing was thus
brought into closer relations with the congregational singing,
and the creative power, out of which an abundant supply of
original melodies was produced, grew and developed from
year to year.
§ 142.6. Theological Science.―Inasmuch as the
Reformation had its origin in the word of God, and supported
itself upon that foundation alone the theologians of the
Reformation were obliged to give special attention to biblical
studies. John Förster, who died in A.D. 1556, and John
Avenarius, who died in A.D. 1576, both of Wittenberg,
compiled Hebrew lexicons, which embodied the results of
independent investigations. Matthias Flacius, in his Clavis
Scr. s., provided what for that time was a very serviceable aid
to the study of Scripture. The first part gives in alphabetical
order an explanation of Scripture words and forms of speech,
the second forms a system of biblical hermeneutics. Exegesis
proper found numerous representatives. Luther himself
beyond dispute holds the front rank in this department. After
him the most important Lutheran exegetes of that age are for
the New Testament, Melanchthon; Victorin Strigel, who wrote
Hyponm. in Novum Testamentum; Flacius, with his Glossa
compendiaria in Novum Testamentum; Joachim Camerarius,
with his Notationes in Nov. Testamentum; Martin Chemnitz,
with his Harmonia IV. Evangeliorum, continued by Polic.
Leyser, and completed at last by John Gerhard: for the Old
Testament, especially John Brenz, whose commentaries are
still worthy of being consulted. Of less consequence are the
numerous commentaries of the comprehensive order,
compiled by the once scarcely less influential David Chytræus
of Rostock, who died in A.D. 1600. The series of Lutheran
dogmatists opens with Melanchthon, who published his Loci
communes in A.D. 1521. Martin Chemnitz, in his Loci
theologici, contributed an admirable commentary to
Melanchthon’s work, and it soon became the recognised
standard dogmatic treatise in the Lutheran church. In
A.D. 1562 he published his Examen Conc. Trident., in which he
combated the Romish doctrine with as much learning and
thoroughness as good sense, mildness, and moderation.
Polemical theology was engaged upon with great vigour amid
the many internal and external controversies, conducted often
with intense passion and bitterness. In the department of
church history we have the gigantic work of the Magdeburg
centuriators, the result of the bold scheme of Matthias
Flacius. By his Catalogus testium veritatis he had previously
advanced evidence to show that at no point in her history had
the church been without enlightened and pious heroes of
faith, who had carried on the uninterrupted historical
continuity of evangelical truth, and so secured an unbroken
succession from the early apostolic church till that of the
sixteenth century.―Continuation, § 159, 4.

§ 142.7. German National Literature.―The Reformation

occurred at a time when the poetry and national literature of
Germany was in a condition of profound prostration, if not
utter collapse. But it brought with it a reawakening of creative
powers in the national and intellectual life of the people.
Under the influence and stimulus of Luther’s own example
there arose a new prose literature, inspired by a broad, liberal
spirit, as the expression of a new view of the world, which led
the Germans both to think and teach in German. It was
mainly the intellectual friction from the contact of one fresh
mind with another in regard to questions agitated in the
Reformation movement that gave to the satirical writings of
the age that brilliancy, point, and popularity which in the
history of German literature was not attained before and
never has been reached since. In innumerable fugitive sheets,
in the most diverse forms of style and language, in poetry
and prose, in Latin and German, these satires poured forth
contempt and scorn against and in favour of the Reformation.
As we have on the Catholic side Thomas Murner (§ 125, 4),
and on the Reformed side Nicholas Manuel (§ 130, 4), so we
have on the Lutheran side John Fischart, far excelling the
former two, and indeed the greatest satirist that Germany has
yet produced. To him we are mainly indebted for the almost
incessant stream of anonymous satires of the sixteenth
century. He belonged, like Sebastian Brandt and Thomas
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