Drama

Second Year
Compiled
By
Dr. Ashraf Ashy

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Critical Essay (Aristotle on Tragedy)

In the Poetics, Aristotle's famous study of Greek dramatic art,

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) compares tragedy to such other metrical forms
as comedy and epic. He determines that tragedy, like all poetry, is a
kind of imitation (mimesis), but adds that it has a serious purpose and
uses direct action rather than narrative to achieve its ends. He says that
poetic mimesis is imitation of things as they could be, not as they are —
for example, of universals and ideals — thus poetry is a more
philosophical and exalted medium than history, which merely records
what has actually happened.

The aim of tragedy, Aristotle writes, is to bring about a "catharsis"

of the spectators — to arouse in them sensations of pity and fear, and
to purge them of these emotions so that they leave the theater feeling
cleansed and uplifted, with a heightened understanding of the ways of
gods and men. This catharsis is brought about by witnessing some
disastrous and moving change in the fortunes of the drama's
protagonist (Aristotle recognized that the change might not be
disastrous, but felt this was the kind shown in the best tragedies —
Oedipus at Colonus, for example, was considered a tragedy by the
Greeks but does not have an unhappy ending).

According to Aristotle, tragedy has six main elements: plot,

character, diction, thought, spectacle (scenic effect), and song (music),
of which the first two are primary. Most of the Poetics is devoted to
analysis of the scope and proper use of these elements, with illustrative
examples selected from many tragic dramas, especially those of

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Sophocles, although Aeschylus, Euripides, and some playwrights whose
works no longer survive are also cited.

Several of Aristotle's main points are of great value for an

understanding of Greek tragic drama. Particularly significant is his
statement that the plot is the most important element of tragedy:

Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of action and life, of

happiness and misery. And life consists of action, and its end is a mode
of activity, not a quality. Now character determines men's qualities, but
it is their action that makes them happy or wretched. The purpose of
action in the tragedy, therefore, is not the representation of character:
character comes in as contributing to the action. Hence the incidents
and the plot are the end of the tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of
all. Without action there cannot be a tragedy; there may be one
without character. . . . The plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it
were, the soul of a tragedy: character holds the second place.

Aristotle goes on to discuss the structure of the ideal tragic plot and
spends several chapters on its requirements. He says that the plot must
be a complete whole — with a definite beginning, middle, and end —
and its length should be such that the spectators can comprehend
without difficulty both its separate parts and its overall unity.
Moreover, the plot requires a single central theme in which all the
elements are logically related to demonstrate the change in the
protagonist's fortunes, with emphasis on the dramatic causation and
probability of the events.

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 Aristotle has relatively less to say about the tragic hero because the
incidents of tragedy are often beyond the hero's control or not closely
related to his personality. The plot is intended to illustrate matters of
cosmic rather than individual significance, and the protagonist is
viewed primarily as the character who experiences the changes that
take place. This stress placed by the Greek tragedians on the
development of plot and action at the expense of character, and their
general lack of interest in exploring psychological motivation, is one of
the major differences between ancient and modern drama.

Since the aim of a tragedy is to arouse pity and fear through an

alteration in the status of the central character, he must be a figure
with whom the audience can identify and whose fate can trigger these
emotions. Aristotle says that "pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune,
fear by the misfortune of a man like ourselves." He surveys various
possible types of characters on the basis of these premises, then
defines the ideal protagonist as a man who is highly renowned and
prosperous, but one who is not pre-eminently virtuous and just, whose
misfortune, however, is brought upon him not by vice or depravity but
by some error of judgment or frailty; a personage like Oedipus.

In addition, the hero should not offend the moral sensibilities of

the spectators, and as a character he must be true to type, true to life,
and consistent.

The hero's error or frailty (harmartia) is often misleadingly explained

as his "tragic flaw," in the sense of that personal quality which
inevitably causes his downfall or subjects him to retribution. However,
overemphasis on a search for the decisive flaw in the protagonist as the

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key factor for understanding the tragedy can lead to superficial or false
interpretations. It gives more attention to personality than the
dramatists intended and ignores the broader philosophical implications
of the typical plot's denouement.

It is true that the hero frequently takes a step that initiates the
events of the tragedy and, owing to his own ignorance or poor
judgment, acts in such a way as to bring about his own downfall. In a
more sophisticated philosophical sense though, the hero's fate, despite
its immediate cause in his finite act, comes about because of the nature
of the cosmic moral order and the role played by chance or destiny in
human affairs. Unless the conclusions of most tragedies are interpreted
on this level, the reader is forced to credit the Greeks with the most
primitive of moral systems.

It is worth noting that some scholars believe the "flaw" was intended
by Aristotle as a necessary corollary of his requirement that the hero
should not be a completely admirable man.

Harmartia would thus be the factor that delimits the protagonist's

imperfection and keeps him on a human plane, making it possible for
the audience to sympathize with him. This view tends to give the "flaw"
an ethical definition but relates it only to the spectators' reactions to
the hero and does not increase its importance for interpreting the
tragedies.

The remainder of the Poetics is given over to examination of the other

elements of tragedy and to discussion of various techniques, devices,
and stylistic principles. Aristotle mentions two features of the plot, both
of which are related to the concept of harmartia, as crucial components
of any well-made tragedy.

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 These are "reversal" (peripeteia), where the opposite of what was
planned or hoped for by the protagonist takes place, as when Oedipus'
investigation of the murder of Laius leads to a catastrophic and
unexpected conclusion; and "recognition" (anagnorisis), the point when
the protagonist recognizes the truth of a situation, discovers another
character's identity, or comes to a realization about himself.

This sudden acquisition of knowledge or insight by the hero

arouses the desired intense emotional reaction in the spectators, as
when Oedipus finds out his true parentage and realizes what crimes he
has been responsible for.

Aristotle wrote the Poetics nearly a century after the greatest Greek
tragedians had already died, in a period when there had been radical
transformations in nearly all aspects of Athenian society and culture.
The tragic drama of his day was not the same as that of the fifth
century, and to a certain extent his work must be construed as a
historical study of a genre that no longer existed rather than as a
description of a living art form.

In the Poetics, Aristotle used the same analytical methods that he had
successfully applied in studies of politics, ethics, and the natural
sciences in order to determine tragedy's fundamental principles of
composition and content. This approach is not completely suited to a
literary study and is sometimes too artificial or formula-prone in its
conclusions.

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 Nonetheless, the Poetics is the only critical study of Greek drama to
have been made by a near-contemporary. It contains much valuable
information about the origins, methods, and purposes of tragedy, and
to a degree shows us how the Greeks themselves reacted to their
theater. In addition, Aristotle's work had an overwhelming influence on
the development of drama long after it was compiled. The ideas and
principles of the Poetics are reflected in the drama of the Roman
Empire and dominated the composition of tragedy in western Europe
during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries.

elements of drama

Drama is created and shaped by the elements of drama which are

listed as: role, character and relationships, situation, voice, movement,
space and time, language and texts, symbol and metaphor, mood and
atmosphere, audience and dramatic tension.

Atmosphere: the interaction between the audience and the mood of a

drama performance.

Character: a person or individual in the drama that may have defined

personal qualities and/or histories. Flat characters (or two dimensional
characters) demonstrate a lack of depth or change in the course of a
drama event. Rounded characters (or three dimensional characters)
feature more elaborate and complex traits and histories and are
changed by dramatic action in the drama event.

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Dramatic tension: drives the drama and keeps an audience interested.
The tension comes when opposing characters, dramatic action, ideas,
attitudes, values, emotions and desires are in conflict creating a
problem that needs to be resolved (or unresolved) through drama.

Language and texts: referring to the use of spoken or written words

that observe particular conventions and language registers that
communicate ideas, feelings and other associations. Texts refer to the
use of published texts, online materials and other compositions the
reference of which adds meaning to the drama.

Metaphor: creating an image or idea of one thing by saying it is

something else. For example, ‘He is a lion of a man.’ In drama, the use
of metaphor can be more subtle such as a metaphor of a mouse
created through a character having a squeaky voice and small darting
movements. Design and stylistic elements can also be metaphors for
characterisation or provide meaning in terms of theme.

Mood: describes the feelings and attitudes, often combined of the roles
or characters involved in dramatic action often supported by other
Elements of Drama as well as design elements. The mood is the
emotional impact intended by the playwright, director and/or other
members of the creative team.

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Relationships: refers to the qualities of the connection between two or
more characters or roles. That relationship may be fixed (largely
unchanged by the dramatic action) or variable (challenged or changed
by the dramatic action). The relationship may be cooperative (as in a
friendship), adversarial (as in enemies), neutral (neither positive nor
negative) or non-existent (as in total strangers). Those relationships will
be defined by shared interests, common objectives, cultural values
and/or human need.

Role: a performer can present in performance a role that represents an

abstract concept, stereotyped figure, or person reduced to a particular
dominant trait (occupation, human condition or social vocation) that
lacks depth or a backstory normally present in a ‘Character’.

Situation: the condition or circumstances in which a character or

characters are presented often at the opening of a performance.

Space: the place where dramatic action is situated and the qualities of
that place including temperature, features, light levels, population
levels and other environmental factors that may be presented to or
imagined by the characters/audience.

Symbol: symbolic parts of the scenography or design represent and add

further meaning to themes, narrative, emotion, mood and atmosphere.
Different colours are symbolic. Other symbols might be found in a
sound effect, music, style, images. Some symbols are literal while
others infer meaning.

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Time: both the time of day, time of the year and time in history or the
future. Time also reflects changes in time within a scene or drama
event. Time also refers to the flow of time over the length of a drama
event: fragmented time, cyclical time, linear time and so forth.

Drama is a composition of prose or poetry that is transformed into a

performance on stage. The story progresses through interactions
between its characters and ends with a message for the audience.
What are the different elements of drama? How are they related to
each other? How do they affect the quality and thereby the popularity
of a play? Read on to find out.

The six Aristotelian elements of drama are, plot, character, thought,

diction, spectacle, and song. Out of these, the first two are the most
important ones according to Aristotle.

Drama can be defined as a dramatic work that actors present on

stage. A story is dramatized, which means the characters and events in
the story are brought to life through a stage performance by actors
who play roles of the characters in the story and act through its events,
taking the story forward. In enacting the roles, actors portray the
character’s emotions and personalities. The story progresses through
verbal and non-verbal interactions between the characters, and the
presentation is suitably supplemented by audio and visual effects.

Through the characters involved, the story has a message to give. It

forms the central theme of the play around which the plot is built.
While some consider music and visuals as separate elements, others

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prefer to club them under staging which can be regarded as an
independent element of drama. Lighting, sound effects, costumes,
makeup, gestures or body language given to characters, the stage
setup, and the props used can together be considered as symbols that
are elements of drama. What dictates most other dramatic elements is
the setting; that is the time period and location in which the story takes
place. This Buzzle article introduces you to the elements of drama and
their importance.

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Theme
The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly
stated through dialog or action, or can be inferred after watching the
entire performance. The theme is the philosophy that forms the base of
the story or a moral lesson that the characters learn. It is the message
that the play gives to the audience.

For example, the theme of a play could be of how greed leads to one’s
destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority ultimately results in the
end of power. The theme of a play could be blind love or the strength
of selfless love and sacrifise, or true friendship. For example, the play
Romeo and Juliet, is based on a brutal and overpowering romantic love
between Romeo and Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally
leading them to self-destruction.

Plot
The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the
plot is the story that the play narrates. The entertainment value of a
play depends largely on the sequence of events in the story. The
connection between the events and the characters in them form an
integral part of the plot. What the characters do, how they interact, the
course of their lives as narrated by the story, and what happens to
them in the end, constitutes the plot. A struggle between two
individuals, the relation between them, a struggle with self, a dilemma,
or any form of conflict of one character with himself or another

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character in the play, goes into forming the story’s plot. The story
unfolds through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect
relationship. Generally, a story begins with exposing the past or
background of the main and other characters, and the point of conflict,
then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then come the
consequences of the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.

Characters
The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the
plot of the drama. Each character in a play has a personality of its own
and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in the play have the
responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main character in
the play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she
represents the theme of the play.

The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the antagonist or

villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the story,
some are only meant to take the story forward and some others appear
only in certain parts of the story and may or may not have a significant
role in it. Sometimes, these characters are of help in making the
audiences focus on the play’s theme or main characters. The way in
which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as
characterization. Here is a list of characters in Romeo and Juliet.

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Dialog
The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogs. The story is
narrated to the audiences through the interaction between the play’s
characters, which is in the form of dialogs. The contents of the dialogs
and the quality of their delivery have a major role to play in the impact
that the play has on the audiences. It is through the dialogs between
characters that the story can be understood.

They are important in revealing the personalities of the characters. The

words used, the accent, tone, pattern of speech, and even the pauses
in speech, say a lot about the character and help reveal not just his
personality, but also his social status, past, and family background as
given by the play. Monologues and soliloquies that are speeches given
to oneself or to other characters help put forward points that would
have been difficult to express through dialogs. “What’s in a name? That
which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet” from
Romeo and Juliet in which Juliet tells Romeo of the insignificance of
names or “To be, or not to be”, a soliloquy from Hamlet are some of
the greatest lines in literature.

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Setting
The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts.
The era or time in which the incidents in the play take place, influence
the characters in their appearance and personalities. The time setting
may affect the central theme of the play, the issues raised (if any), the
conflict, and the interactions between the characters. The historical and
social context of the play is also defined by the time and place where it
is set. The time period and the location in which the story is set, affect
the play’s staging. Costumes and makeup, the backgrounds and the
furniture used, the visuals (colors and kind of lighting), and the sound
are among the important elements of a play that dictate how the story
is translated into a stage performance.

The Merchant of Venice has been set in the 16th century Venice.
Romeo and Juliet has been set in the era between 1300 and 1600,
perhaps the Renaissance period which is the 14th and 15th centuries.

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Performance
It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story
has on the audiences is largely affected by the performances of the
actors. When a written play is transformed into a stage performance,
the actors cast for different roles, the way they portray the characters
assigned to them, and the way their performances are directed are
some important factors that determine the play’s impact. Whether an
actor’s appearance (includes what he wears and how he carries himself
on stage) suits the role he is playing, and how well he portrays the
character’s personality are determinants of how well the play would be
taken by the audiences. Different actors may play the same roles in
different renditions of a play.

A particular actor/actress in a certain role may be more or less

accepted and appreciated than another actor in the same role. As
different actors are cast for different roles, their roles are more or less
appreciated depending on their performances. The stage performances
of a play’s characters, especially those in lead roles, directly affect the
success and popularity of a play.

Although considered as a part of the staging, factors such as music and

visuals can be discussed separately as the elements of drama.

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Music
This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well
as music compositions that are used in the plays. The background
score, the songs, and the sound effects used should complement the
situation and the characters in it. The right kind of sound effects or
music, if placed at the right points in the story, act as a great
supplement to the high and low points in the play.

The music and the lyrics should go well with the play’s theme. If the
scenes are accompanied by pieces of music, they become more
effective on the audiences.

Visual Element
While the dialog and music are the audible aspects of drama, the
visual element deals with the scenes, costumes, and special effects
used in it. The visual element of drama, also known as the spectacle,
renders a visual appeal to the stage setup. The costumes and makeup
must suit the characters. Besides, it is important for the scenes to be
dramatic enough to hold the audiences to their seats. The special
effects used in a play should accentuate the portion or character of the
story that is being highlighted.

Apart from these elements, the structure of the story, a clever use of
symbolism and contrast, and the overall stagecraft are some of the
other important elements of drama.

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 The structure of the story comprises the way in which it is dramatized.
How well the actors play their roles and the story’s framework
constitute the structure of drama. Direction is an essential constituent
of a play. A well-directed story is more effective. Stagecraft defines how
the play is presented to the audiences. The use and organization of
stage properties and the overall setting of a play are a part of
stagecraft, which is a key element of drama.

Symbols are often used to give hints of the future events in the story.
They complement the other elements of a scene and make it more
effective. The use of contrasts adds to the dramatic element of a play. It
could be in the form of contrasting colors, contrasting backdrops, an
interval of silence followed by that of activity and noise, or a change in
the pace of the story.

The dramatization of a story cannot be called successful unless the

audiences receive it well. It may improve through constructive criticism
or due to improvisations introduced by the actors. And a generous
appreciation from the audiences encourages everyone involved in the
making of a play, to continue doing good work.

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tragedy
Aristotle defines tragedy in Book VI as "an imitation of an action
that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being
found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of
narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these
emotions" (51).

This definition crystallizes much of Aristotle's arguments

throughout the Poetics:

a tragedy is first and foremost the representation of human

action; the actions represented have serious, often dire consequences
and the characters represented are of elevated social status; the plot is
a complete, coherent whole, lasting long enough to represent
adequately the reversal of the hero's fortune; the language in which a
tragedy is composed employs tropes and other heightened or unusual
uses of speech and a mixture of different poetic meters; the mode of
imitation in a tragedy is drama as opposed to narrative; the tragedy
arouses pity and fear in the viewer and brings about catharsis.

The Greek word ‘tragedy’ etymologically refers to a ritual sacrifice for

the god Dionysos which came with a choral song. This tradition became
the basis for the development of dramatic tragedy in Greece. The
famous Aristotle described tragedy as:

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The imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude,
complete in itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind
brought in separately in the parts of the work; in a dramatic, not in a
narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to
accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. (qtd. in Cuddon: 926) and
Plots are either simple or complex, since the actions they represent are
naturally of this twofold description. The action, proceeding in the way
defined, as one continuous whole, I call simple, when the change in the
hero’s fortunes takes place without Peripety or Discovery, and complex
when it involves one or the other, or both. These should each of them
arise out of the structure of the Plot itself, so as to be the consequence,
necessary or probable, or the antecedents.

Aristotle’s tragic hero is a person who does experience misfortune by

his or her own fault, through inopportune misjudgement; therefore,
the plot should contain one main problem. Also quite usual for
tragedies, the story commences, in contrary to comedies, with
happiness and concludes in disaster which the heroes brought upon
themselves. It is moreover mentioned that tragedies involve persons of
high rank, that is kings or queens, and are centred upon great
individuals. Quite remarkable in connection with TMoV are the changes
that have taken place since the 16th century to what has been
associated with the term ‘tragedy’: it is no longer kings and queens or
other people in respectable positions, but the ordinary man with his
tragedy in everyday life (Cuddon: 926- 933). Consequently, in case
TMoV is read as a tragic drama, Shakespeare revolutionarily modified
the concepts of tragedy, since there is no royalty involved in the
miseries of the play.

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Dramatic Structure:
Since ancient times, writers have employed elements of dramatic
structure. Learn more about the elements of dramatic structure and
how to approach narrative structure to write your own story.

What Is Dramatic Structure?

Dramatic structure is the framework that allows a story’s plot to

unfold. Aristotle’s ancient Greek text on dramatic theory, Poetics, was
the first written work to examine story structure. Since then, writers
and readers have used various approaches to dramatic structure to
organize and analyze the plots of plays, poems, short stories, and
novels. Dramatic structure is typically broken up into acts, scenes, and
plot points. Examples of popular dramatic structures include the
threeact structure and five-act structure.

During the nineteenth century, German playwright Gustav Freytag

presented a plot diagram, commonly known as Freytag’s pyramid or
Freytag’s triangle. Freytag's analysis of structure—which centers
around a rising action, climax, and falling action—is now one of the
most common tools for storytellers.

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5 Key Elements of Dramatic Structure:

To learn more about dramatic structure, explore the five key elements
of a typical story.

1. Introduction: This early part of the story includes exposition—

backstory information about the setting and the protagonist, or main
character. After introducing the key elements of your story, present an
inciting incident—also known as an exciting force—that disrupts the
status quo of the story and sets the plot into motion.

2. Rising action: Following the inciting incident, the main character

enters a new world and moves toward a clear goal. The action rises
along with the stakes as the protagonist faces obstacles and trials.

3. Climax: The rising action culminates in a climax, or the turning

point of the story arc. At this stage, the protagonist faces their main
conflict head-on, opposing the antagonistic force of the story—typically
a villain.

4. Falling action: Immediately following the climax, the conflict

between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, creating
suspense about the final outcome. The falling action is often out of the
protagonist’s control.

5. Resolution: Sometimes called the denouement, the resolution of

a story concludes the plot, tying up loose ends and answering final
questions.

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 Merchant of Venice

Summary
A young Venetian, Bassanio, needs a loan of three thousand ducats
so that he can woo Portia, a wealthy Venetian heiress. He approaches
his friend Antonio, a merchant. Antonio is short of money because all
his wealth is invested in his fleet, which is currently at sea. He goes to a
Jewish moneylender, Shylock, who hates Antonio because of Antonio’s
anti-semitic behaviour towards him.

Shylock nevertheless agrees to make the short-term loan, but, in a

moment of dark humour, he makes a condition – the loan must be
repaid in three months or Shylock will exact a pound of flesh from
Antonio. Antonio agrees, confident that his ships will return in time.

Because of the terms of Portia’s father’s will, all suitors must choose
from among three caskets, one of which contains a portrait of her. If he
chooses that he may marry Portia, but if doesn’t he must vow never to
marry or court another woman. The Princes of Morocco and Arragon
fail the test and are rejected. As Bassanio prepares to travel to Belmont
for the test, his friend Lorenzo elopes with Shylock’s daughter,

Jessica.

Bassanio chooses the lead casket, which contains her picture, and
Portia happily agrees to marry him immediately.

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 Meanwhile, two of Antonio’s ships have been wrecked and Antonio’s
creditors are pressuring him for repayment. Word comes to Bassanio
about Antonio’s predicament, and he hurries back to Venice, leaving
Portia behind. Portia follows him, accompanied by her maid, Nerissa.
They are disguised as a male lawyer and his clerk. When Bassanio
arrives the date for the repayment to Shylock has passed and Shylock is
demanding his pound of flesh. Even when Bassanio offers much more
than the amount in repayment, Shylock, now infuriated by the loss of
his daughter, is intent on seeking revenge on the Christians. The Duke
refuses to intervene.

Portia arrives in her disguise to defend Antonio. Given the

authority of judgment by the Duke, Portia decides that Shylock can
have the pound of flesh as long as he doesn’t draw blood, as it is
against the law to shed a Christian’s blood. Since it is obvious that to
draw a pound of flesh would kill Antonio, Shylock is denied his suit.
Moreover, for conspiring to murder a Venetian citizen, Portia orders
that he should forfeit all his wealth. Half is to go to Venice, and half to
Antonio.

Antonio gives his half back to Shylock on the condition that Shylock
bequeaths it to his disinherited daughter, Jessica. Shylock must also
convert to Christianity. A broken Shylock accepts. News arrives that
Antonio’s remaining ships have returned safely. With the exception of
Shylock, all celebrate a happy ending to the affai

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Short Summary:

Merchant of Venice Summary

The merchant of Venice plot opens with Antonio who is a Venetian

Christian merchant, sitting in a state of depression. All his friends try to
cheer him up but fail to do so. Finally, Antonio is greeted by one of his
dear friends Bassanio, who wants to borrow some money from
Antonio. However, Antonio has all his money tied up on his ships.

Unable to provide his friend with a direct loan, Antonio decides to

approach Shylock, a Jewish moneylender for taking the loan in
Antonio’s name. Shylock decides to waive the interest in the loan but
states a very unusual condition. Should Antonio fail to pay the money
back, Shylock will be entitled to a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Antonio
happily signs the contract of the loan. This is a part of the Merchant of
Venice explanation which shows how Antonio is willing to help his
friend out.

Bassanio is given the money and then he visits Portia to marry her in
Belmont. Portia remains unmarried because of her father’s strange test
for the men who want to marry her. The men are asked to choose
between 3 caskets made of lead, silver, and gold. One amongst these
caskets has Portia’s picture in it. The man choosing the right casket will
be allowed to marry her. Several princes failed to choose the right one
according to the Merchant of Venice plot.

In the next part of the Merchant of Venice analysis, Bassanio arrives in

Belmont and chooses the right casket. He is allowed to marry Portia

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while Graziano, Basaanio’s companion, decides to marry Nerissa, who is
Portia’s friend.

Upon receiving a message regarding Antonio’s failure to repay the

loans, both Bassanio and Graziano leave for Belmont. Portia provides
them with 6000 ducats so that they can repay the loan and save
Antonio. Shortly after their departure, the ladies Portia and Nerissa
plan to dress themselves up as men and follow their suitors to Venice.
Antonio is arrested and brought to the Duke of Venice for a trial.

In the next act of Litcharts Merchant of Venice, Portia and Nerissa

arrive in the court dressed as the doctor of law that everyone was
waiting for in order to give the results of the trial. She pleads with
Shylock to forgive Antonio, but Shylock states the authenticity of the
contract and refuses to take money from Bassanio on behalf of
Antonio. Portia agrees but states that Shylock can have the pound of
flesh without making Antonio bleed since it is not written anywhere in
the contract. Caught in his own tricks, Shylock is forced to let go of the
loan and turn to Christianity to pay for his evil deeds. All is well in the
end and Antonio’s wealth is restored as well.

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Detailed Summary: SCENE BY SCENE

Here is a more detailed look at what happens in each scene of The

Merchant of Venice, to help you look at the structure of the play and
interrogate it.

As you look at each act we’ve included some things to notice. These
are important character developments, or key questions that an acting
company might ask when they first go through the play together at the
start of rehearsal. If you work through these as you go, they will help
you to make sense of the play. It’s a good idea to have a copy of the
text nearby!

ACT 1 SCENE 1

The play opens with Antonio, a Venetian merchant, sharing with

his friends Salerio and Solanio that he feels ‘sad’, but does not know
why. His friends suggest that he is either worried about his ships, which
are ‘tossing on the ocean’ and full of valuable goods, or that he is ‘in
love’. Antonio rejects both of these ideas and Salerio and Solanio leave
when Bassanio, (Antonio’s ‘noble kinsman’) arrives. Bassanio admits to
Antonio that he has run out of his own money and is in need of
resources so that he can go to Belmont and woo Portia, an heiress.
Antonio commits to helping Bassanio and promises that he will find
someone to lend him the money, which he will then give to Bassanio.

27
ACT 1 SCENE 2

In Belmont, the heiress Portia and her waiting woman and friend
Nerissa discuss the intriguing ‘lottery’ that Portia’s father devised
before his death. Portia is unable to choose her own husband and
instead any suitor wishing to marry Portia must pick one of three
caskets. One is made of lead, one of silver and one of gold. If the suitor
chooses the casket that holds a portrait of Portia, then they win her
hand in marriage. Portia and Nerissa discuss the men who have recently
visited Belmont on this quest and Portia wittily dismisses them all as
unappealing, until Nerissa reminds her of when she once met ‘a
Venetian, a scholar and a soldier’, who both ladies agree is ‘the best
deserving a fair lady’.

ACT 1 SCENE 3

Back in Venice, Bassanio meets Shylock, a Jewish moneylender,

from whom he asks for a loan of ‘three thousand ducats for three
months’. In return, Antonio shall be ‘bound’ to repay the loan. In an
aside to the audience, Shylock admits that he hates Antonio for
numerous reasons. When Antonio arrives, Shylock reminds him of how
badly he’s been treated by Antonio in the past (‘you call me
misbeliever, cut-throat dog’), although he does agree to lend Antonio
the money.

However, if Antonio does not repay him by the appointed day then
Shylock will cut off a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Bassanio doesn’t want

28
his friend to agree to this, although Antonio is confident that his ships
will have returned ‘a month before the day’ and so he’ll be able to
repay Shylock. Antonio agrees to ‘seal unto this bond’.

ACT 2 SCENE 1
In Belmont, the Prince of Morocco tries to woo Portia and asks her
not to disregard him on account of his dark ‘complexion’. Portia
reminds the Prince that she cannot choose her own husband, but
instead she will be won by whoever succeeds in the task left by her
father. The Prince asks her to lead him to the caskets immediately.
Portia tells him that they will go after dinner and that before he
chooses he must swear to never marry anyone at all if he chooses the
wrong casket.

ACT 2 SCENE 2
‘The Clown’, Lancelet Gobbo, delivers a speech in which he admits
that he is considering running away from his master, Shylock. He says
Shylock is a ‘fiend’ and a ‘kind of devil’. He comes to the conclusion that
he ‘will run’, but is stopped by the arrival of Old Gobbo, his blind father.
Old Gobbo asks Lancelet for directions towards Shylock’s house.
Lancelet plays a trick on his father by pretending to be someone else,
giving Gobbo the wrong directions and pretending that Lancelet is
dead. When he finally reveals to his father who he is, Gobbo shares his
decision to leave Shylock.

29
Bassanio then enters and Lancelet asks if he can serve him instead.
Bassanio has already agreed to this previously, but he confirms it and
also agrees to let his friend Gratiano come to Belmont on the condition
that he tames his usually wild and rude behaviour.

ACT 2 SCENE 3
Shylock’s daughter Jessica says goodbye to Lancelet, who she is very
sorry to see leave. She asks him to deliver a letter to Lorenzo, who she
knows is having supper at Bassanio’s later and gives him some money.
Lancelet bids her a tearful farewell. Jessica then admits that she is
‘ashamed’ to be her father’s daughter and that she hopes her beloved
Lorenzo will stick to his promise of marrying her so she can become ‘a
Christian' and his ‘loving wife’.

ACT 2 SCENE 4
Lorenzo and his friends (Salerio, Solanio and Gratiano) discuss their
plan to disguise themselves as masquers and help Jessica to escape
from Shylock’s house. Lancelet delivers Jessica’s letter to Lorenzo, who
gives Lancelet money and asks him to tell Jessica that he ‘will not fail
her’. Lorenzo shares the contents of Jessica’s letter with Gratiano,
which says she’ll be dressed as a page and has money and jewels that
she’ll bring with her.

30
ACT 2 SCENE 5
Shylock instructs Lancelet to use his eyes to be the ‘judge’ of the
difference between himself and Bassanio before calling for Jessica. He
informs her that he is going out for supper, gives her the keys to the
house and tells her to ‘look to [his] house’ and ‘lock up [his] doors’.
Shylock is aware that a masque will be taking place that night, but he
also there is some ‘ill a-brewing’ as he dreamt ‘of money bags tonight’,
which he considers to be a bad omen.

ACT 2 SCENE 6
Gratiano and Salerio arrive at Shylock’s house, as instructed by
Lorenzo. They are concerned that he is late since they think lovers are
usually particularly punctual as they are keen to ‘seal love’s bonds’.
When Lorenzo eventually arrives he calls up for Jessica, who appears
disguised as a boy. She is embarrassed about her clothes, but Lorenzo
reassures her that it doesn’t matter and she needs to come straight
away. She throws down a casket of money, before going to fetch more
ducats and then exits with Lorenzo and Salerio. Antonio arrives and
finds Gratiano. Antonio tells Gratiano that he must sail to Belmont with
Bassanio tonight as ‘the wind is come about’.

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ACT 2 SCENE 7
In Belmont Portia shows the three caskets to the Prince of Morocco.
He must choose either the gold one (which bears the inscription ‘who
chooseth me shall gain what many men desire’), the silver (with the
inscription ‘who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserve’) or the
lead (‘who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath’). He
deliberates and then picks the gold. When he unlocks the casket the
Prince discovers a skull and a scroll with the warning ‘all that glisters is
not gold.’ He is so ‘grieved’ that he leaves immediately.

ACT 2 SCENE 8
Salerio tells Solanio that Bassanio and Gratiano have left on a ship and
that he is sure that Lorenzo is not on it. Solanio describes how Shylock
and the Duke of Venice went to search Bassanio’s ship, but arrived too
late. He also scathingly reports Shylock’s response to the discovery of
Jessica’s elopement, who he says cried ‘My daughter! O, my ducats! O,
my daughter!’ in the streets. Solanio expresses his hope that Antonio
returns Shylock’s money on time as he’s worried that ‘he shall pay’ if
not. Salerio’s concern stems from the news that a ship possibly holding
some of Antonio’s goods has been lost at sea.

ACT 2 SCENE 9
The Prince of Aragon is in Belmont to try and win Portia’s hand in
marriage. She shows him the three caskets and reminds him of the
terms of the challenge. The Prince considers the options and picks the

32
silver one. When he opens the casket he discovers ‘the portrait of a
blinking idiot’ and swiftly takes his leave.

A messenger arrives and tells Portia that ‘a young Venetian’ is at the

gate and that he has brought ‘gifts of rich value’. Both Portia and
Nerissa are curious to see who it is and Nerissa hopes that it is
Bassanio.

ACT 3 SCENE 1
Solanio and Salerio discuss the news that another of Antonio’s ships
has been lost. Shylock arrives and accuses them of being complicit in
Jessica’s elopement. They insult him and ask if he has heard the news
about Antonio’s ‘loss at sea’. Shylock cares only that Antonio will ‘look
to his bond’. Salerio doubts that Shylock will go through with taking
Antonio’s flesh and asks what it would be ‘good for?’ Shylock replies
with ‘to bait fish’ and once again explains how terribly Antonio has
treated him in the past, which leads him to ask ‘what’s his reason?’ and
point out that although he is of a different religion to Antonio, he also
has ‘hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions’ and is just
as much of a human being as a Christian; ‘if you prick us do we not
bleed?’ One of Antonio’s messengers then arrives to summon Solanio
and Salerio. Shylock and Tubal discuss the ring Jessica now has, which
belonged to her late mother. Shylock tells Tubal how valuable it is to
him.

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ACT 3 SCENE 2
Back in Belmont, Bassanio is about to choose one of the caskets, but
Portia asks him to ‘pause a day or two’ so that she won’t ‘lose [his]
company’ if he chooses wrong. She admits that she could teach him
how to pick the correct casket, but is reluctant to do so as then she
would be ‘forsworn’. Bassanio is desperate to make his choice
immediately since the present state of uncertainty is as torturous as
being ‘upon the rack’. Portia calls for music to play whilst Bassanio
makes his decision. Bassanio deliberates and then opts for the lead
casket, in which he discovers Portia’s portrait. Both Portia and Bassanio
are overjoyed that he chose correctly. Portia kisses him and gives him a
ring, which if he loses will ‘presage the ruin of [his] love’. Gratiano then
asks Bassanio if he is allowed to marry as he has fallen in love with
Nerissa. Bassanio agrees to the match.

Lorenzo, Jessica and Salerio then arrive and give Bassanio a letter. In
the letter Bassanio discovers that all of Antonio’s ‘ventures failed’ and
he explains to Portia that he had no wealth of his own, but borrowed
money from Antonio, his ‘dearest friend’. Salerio and Jessica explain
that Shylock is now determined to ‘have Antonio’s flesh’. Portia offers
to pay Shylock double what Antonio owed and after hearing Antonio’s
letter, urges Bassanio to travel swiftly to his friend.

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ACT 3 SCENE 3
Antonio is in jail and Shylock obsessively repeats that he will have his
bond. Solanio doubts that the Duke will let Shylock go ahead with
claiming the pound of flesh, but Antonio is convinced that ‘the Duke
cannot deny the course of law’. He sends Solanio away and prays that
Bassanio will come and visit him.

ACT 3 SCENE 4
Lorenzo tells Portia how ‘true a gentlemen’ Antonio is and that if she
knew him, she’d be even prouder of her willingness to help him. Portia
replies that since Antonio and Bassanio are so close, in her eyes she is
saving Bassanio if she saves Antonio. She then announces that she has
decided to withdraw to a monastery ‘to live in prayer and
contemplation’ with Nerissa until both of their husbands return. She
says that Lorenzo and Jessica can take the place of herself and Lord
Bassanio at Belmont while she is away.

After Lorenzo and Jessica leave, Portia instructs Balthasar to deliver a

letter to her cousin, Doctor Bellario, in Mantua and to bring back the
‘notes and garments’ that Bellario gives to him. Balthasar leaves with
the letter and Portia reveals to Nerissa that they will dress up as men
and go to Venice.

35
ACT 3 SCENE 5
Lancelet teases Jessica, saying that he’s scared that she has inherited
the sins of her father and that she is ‘damned’. He expresses his hope
that she’s in fact not Shylock’s daughter but Jessica points out that that
would make her a ‘bastard’ and then she might inherit the sins of her
mother, making her ‘damned by both father and mother’. Jessica points
out that she thinks she’ll be ‘saved’ by her husband as she’s now
become a Christian, like him. Lorenzo arrives and interrupts their
conversation, announcing that Lancelet has got a woman pregnant
before instructing him to get dinner ready. Lorenzo asks Jessica what
she thinks of Portia and she expresses her admiration for Portia.

ACT 4 SCENE 1
In a court in Venice, the Duke expresses his regret that Antonio is
‘come to answer’ such an ‘inhumane wretch’ but Antonio says he
understands that ‘no lawful means’ will help him escape. Bassanio
offers to pay Shylock double the amount he lent to Antonio but Shylock
refuses and claims that he just wants justice.

The Duke announces that he has sent for ‘Bellario, a learned doctor’,
to judge the case. Nerissa, disguised as male lawyer’s clerk, arrives and
gives a letter to the Duke. The letter says that Bellario is too sick to
come, but that he is sending a ‘young doctor of Rome’ called Balthasar
to oversee the trial. Portia then arrives, disguised as Balthasar. She
delivers a speech on how mercy cannot be forced before stating that
‘there is no power in Venice’ which will be able to override Shylock’s
bond and Shylock is delighted. However, Portia then draws attention to

36
the fact that there is no mention of blood in the bond and that if
Shylock causes Antonio to lose even ‘one drop of Christian blood’ then
his ‘lands and goods’ will be confiscated by the state of Venice. Shylock
realises that it will be impossible to take the flesh without blood and
offers to ‘let the Christian go’ if he receives money instead. Portia
refuses this deal and declares that Shylock can have his bond or nothing
else. Shylock realises that he has been defeated and wishes to leave,
but Portia won't let him go. She announces that ‘in the laws of Venice’
if any alien? is proved to have tried to kill one of its citizens then their
goods will be seized and one half will be given to the victim and the
other half will go to ‘the privy coffer of the state’. Moreover, the Duke
will decide if the offender lives or dies. The Duke of Venice declares
that he will let Shylock live but that half of his wealth must be given to
Antonio and the other half will go to the state. Antonio says if Shylock
converts to Christianity and leaves his wealth to Jessica and Lorenzo
when he dies, then he can keep his half. Shylock agrees and departs.

The Duke asks ‘Balthasar’ to join him for dinner, but Portia refuses.
The Duke tells Antonio that he must reward ‘Balthasar’, but Portia
refuses all money, asking for Bassanio's ring as a reward instead.
Bassanio does not recognise Portia and refuses to hand it over telling
‘Balthasar’ that it was a gift that he vowed never to ‘sell, nor give, nor
lose’. Antonio then persuades Bassanio to give ‘Balthasar’ the ring.

37
ACT 4 SCENE 2
Still dressed in their disguises, Portia asks Nerissa to deliver the legal
documents to Shylock. Gratiano catches up with Portia and gives her
Bassanio’s ring (thinking she is ‘Balthasar’ the lawyer). Nerissa then tells
Portia that she’s going to see if she can persuade Gratiano to give her
his ring, even though she had made him swear to keep it when she
initially gave it to him.

ACT 5 SCENE 1
Lorenzo and Jessica are in Belmont. They talk about famous classical
lovers? as they look at the moonlit sky. They then learn that Portia and
Bassanio are both on their way back, separately. Portia and Nerissa get
there first and instruct Lorenzo to tell everyone that they never left
Belmont. Bassanio and Gratiano then arrive, along with Antonio and
others. Portia welcomes her husband home and Bassanio introduces
her to Antonio. Nerissa and Gratiano instantly start arguing about the
ring that Nerissa gave to Gratiano and which she has noticed he no
longer has.

Gratiano then reveals that Bassanio also gave his ring away and
Portia declares that she will not share a bed with Bassanio until she
sees the ring again. Bassanio tries to get Portia to understand why he
gave it away, but she continues to scold him for being unfaithful.
Antonio attempts to intervene to get Portia to sympathise with
Bassanio. She then gives him ‘another’ ring, which tells him to look
after ‘better than the other’. Bassanio realises that it is the same ring
that he gave away. Nerissa then gets out her ring before Portia

38
confesses that ‘Portia was the doctor’ and Nerissa was the clerk. She
also gives Antonio a letter which tells him that three of his ships have
made it safely into the harbour. Nerissa shares the news that Jessica
and Lorenzo will receive Shylock’s wealth when he dies. Portia and
Nerissa seem to forgive their husbands and the play concludes with
Antonio alive and wealthy once more.

39
1- Characterization:

a) Portia

Portia is a character in Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice.

She’s not exactly like the characters usually classed as strong women in
Shakespeare (like Rosalind or Lady Macbeth) because she isn’t called on
to make a stand on anything, do something courageous, or defy some
of the obstacles stacked up against women in Elizabethan times. But
she’s not one of the oppressed women either.

Portia is one of Shakespeare’s women who appear disguised as men

through most of their presence on the stage. Apart from the dramatic
function of this trick, Shakespeare used a gender switch as a way of
putting less strain on the audience’s suspension of disbelief. The boy
actor would come on as a woman then, soon after, disguise herself as a
man and, being a male himself, appear more realistic, and that would
be a little more comfortable for the actor – a boy playing a boy. He
would do that through most of the play then reveal himself as a woman
in the last scene.

Portia, an only child, has recently lost her wealthy father, a citizen of
Belmont. He has doted on her and, unusually for the time, educated
her to the point where she has become a legal scholar. She is also
beautiful, and knowing that because of her beauty and because of her
wealth, she will be pursued by the good and the bad, many of them

40
fortune hunters, he devised a scheme to try and ensure that she would
end up with a worthy husband. He has stipulated that wooers would
have to choose one of three caskets – gold, silver, and lead. One of
them would contain her portrait and the first to choose that would be a
suitable husband. One of the suiters is the penniless Bassanio of Venice.
He has borrowed the money to try his luck with Portia from his friend
Antonio, a Venetian merchant.

Antonio has had to borrow the money to lend Bassanio from a Jewish
moneylender, Shylock, as his ships are late and he won’t have the
money until they arrive. Shylock has jokingly said that if Antonio is late
with the payment the penalty will be a pound of his flesh. Antonio has
agreed to that.

In the event, the ships are late. At the same time, Shylock’s daughter
has eloped with a Christian and taken his money and jewellery. He is
enraged by the way the Christians have behaved and demands his
pound of flesh. He appeals to the Duke to hold a trial and give him his
rights.

In the meantime, Bassanio has chosen the right casket and is engaged
to Portia. He learns that the Duke of Venice doesn’t know how to deal
with the case and asks Portia to disguise herself as a famous young law
scholar and act as a judge in the case, which she does. There is a court
case in which Portia shows a great deal of knowledge, creativity and
intelligence, and while granting Shylock the pound of Antonio’s flesh,

41
rules that it is illegal for anyone to shed a drop of Christain blood. He
can cut his pound of flesh from Antonio’s body but he can’t shed any
blood or cut an ounce more or less than the pound. Shylock is therefore
defeated.

Portia’s main claim to fame in the halls of English dramatic literature

is that she delivers one of the most famous monologues, filled with
some of Shakespeare’s most beautiful poetry, expressing some of the
wisest sentiments that exist in any play: The quality of mercy is not
strained.

As a character in a Shakespeare play, Portia is interestingly different

from most characters. She doesn’t actually have a dramatic role in the
story, although that sounds ridiculous as her conduct of the trial and
her judgment are hugely dramatic. However, she plays little part in the
development of the main story. It is a story about Venetian society and
the relationship between Christians and Jews with its set of characters
that develop the story. There is a trial in the story and that’s where
Portia comes in. She, an outsider, and Shylock, a major character in the
main story, dominate this long scene.

Although we see Portia as a virtuous, honest young woman,

somewhat playful, and with a sense of humour, none of her
characteristics play any part in the drama in the sense that Juliet’s or
Cleopatra’s or Lady Macbeth’s qualities and personalities are organic to
the drama. All we need from Portia is that she be a good lawyer. What

42
kind of person she is is neither here nor there. Juliet’s impatience, Lady
Macbeth’s ambition, and Cleopatra’s fickleness are major plot drivers:
they are all central characters in the story of the play they are in. Portia
is not.

b- Shylock
There were not many Jews in Elizabethan London but those that were
there did not have a comfortable time. They were outcasts and
suffered extreme discrimination. Not many ordinary people had ever
encountered a Jew and when playwrights put Jewish characters on the
stage they presented them as villains. Audiences hissed and booed and
threw things at the actors who played them. It was forbidden to
employ Jews and they were not allowed to enter the professions or
conduct legitimate business and so, in order to survive they had to live
on their wits. Many of them became money lenders, lending out money
for interest. Jews therefore became associated with money-lending and
those who borrowed from them accused them of charging
unreasonable rates so the prejudice of their being thieves and
swindlers took root and lasted for centuries.

The stereotype of the Jew as a mean, dishonest money-grabbing

individual has persisted, even into the twenty-first century. And
Shakespeare has been accused of being anti-Semitic as a result of his
portrayal of Shylock in that way in The Merchant of Venice.

43
 But nothing could be further from the truth. It is true that
Shakespeare presents Shylock as a bitter, Christian-hating,
moneygrabbing, stingy man, dressed in the gabardine that set Jews
apart from other citizens, but he gives Shylock a strong reason for
hating Christians and wanting to get revenge for how they have treated
him and the Jewish community.

Shakespeare also gives us insight into the inner Shylock – not only his
bitterness and anger but also his more sympathetic feelings such as the
hurt he has experienced, his thoughts about the injustice of
antiSemitism and his isolation from normal society. Throughout the
action of the play we see how nasty the Christians are – their shameless
selfishness and brutal discrimination against Jews. Shakespeare makes
Shylock’s hatred even more dramatic by having Shylock’s daughter
elope with a Christian.

In The Merchant of Venice Shakespeare created a small Christian

society of wealthy merchants and their friends – mainly young men
who had nothing to do but hang around and gossip. Shakespeare
makes them attractive people on the surface but on closer examination
they are all thoroughly nasty. One of the merchants, Antonio, is having
a problem with his ships being late in returning to Venice. One of his
friends, Basanio, asks him for money. He needs it to woo a wealthy
woman and has no money himself but, if successful, and he marries
Portia he will be able to pay it back very easily. Antonio’s money is all
tied up in his business, which is in trouble and the only way he can help
his friend is to borrow from a money-

44
 He approaches Shylock and even while asking for help he is
unforgivingly insulting to him. He tells him that his ships will be in the
port in three days and then he will be able to pay. Shylock agrees to
lend him the money. He says, just as a little gambling game, more or
less as a little joke, if he isn’t repaid in three months Antonio should
give him a pound of his flesh. Antonio agrees to that.

The ships are lost in a storm and just at that time Shylock’s daughter,
Jessica, runs off with a Christian, taking money and jewellery with her.
Shylock, burning for revenge against the Christians generally, takes
Antonio to court to claim his pound of flesh. The Duke doesn’t know
how to deal with it but Basanio, successful in his suit, recruits his clever
fiancé Portia, who is schooled in matters of law, to appear as a judge,
disguised as a man. The trial takes place and Portia grants Shylock the
pound of flesh, and counsels him to show mercy.

Shylock takes out his knife to cut the flesh from the area close to
Antonio’s heart and she stops him and tells him that it is against the law
for anyone to shed a drop of Christian blood. Shylock pauses and she
rules that for threatening the life of a Christian he will have to forfeit all
his possessions and convert to Christianity. The play ends with an image
of a miserable Shylock and the Christian community celebrating their
victory in grand style.

In The Merchant of Venice Shakespeare is decidedly not anti-Semitic.

45
It is just the opposite. We are definitely attracted to the Christians and
we can see how horrific Shylock’s intention is but that is outweighed by
the provocation he is subjected to: his social shunning, attempts to
exploit him, daily insults about him and his religion, and the dramatic
acts of the abduction of his daughter and the stealing of his property.

Any writer who could write Shylock’s speech about being a Jew
can see the anti-Semitic dialectic of his time for what it was.
Shakespeare was far more in tune with the twenty-first century attitude
than the sixteenth and seventeenth century view.

Two young Christian layabouts encounter Shylock just after his

daughter has run off with Lorenzo. He is highly distraught but they
mock him. He is furious and it all comes out at last.

In the way Shakespeare ends the play he shows how deeply-rooted

anti-Semitism was in his time. A Twenty-first century audience will feel
sorry for Shylock but an Elizabethan audience would probably have
cheered.

All that shows how universal Shakespeare was in his perception of

the world around him – how it was before his time, how it was in his
time, and how it will be after his time. How will this play look in four
hundred years from now? Audiences will most certainly find it relevant
to their time as well.

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2-Themes of Merchant of Venice

William Shakespeare, the master of dramatics in the English literary

tradition, has incorporated certain unique themes in the play Merchant
of Venice. The play is, to this day, universally read, analyzed, critiqued
and taught all over the world. Not only that, the characters Antonio,
Portia and even Shylock the Jew are widely acclaimed.

The Merchant of Venice is a play whose central theme can be

identified as the conflict between selflessness and self interest. This
main theme drives the plot and moves the play forward, influencing the
action of the central characters. Other themes include greed, the cyclic
increase of hatred, mercy, prejudice and the opposites- playing versus
perception. This essay on Merchant of Venice is an analysis; themes
that dominate this play have been explored and explained.

The main theme of The Merchant of Venice is the conflict between

self interest and love. On the surface level, the major difference
between Shylock the Jew and the Christian characters of the play is
their level of compassion. On one hand, the Christians value the
importance of human relationships over their business contacts. Unlike
them, on the other hand, Shylock is heavily invested in material gain.

However, Shylock is agonized over his loss of money, reportedly

running through the streets lamenting for them. He even goes as far as
calling his ducats his daughter, suggesting that he values money as

47
much as his own child. Hence in Shylock’s case, greed overpowers
compassion. However, when we inspect closely, this difference
between the two opposite characters breaks down.

In Act III, Scene I, Shylock’s dissatisfaction is not due to the monetary

loss of the ring, rather the fact that his daughter sold the token of love
from his dead wife. Hence, we see that certain human relationships do
seem to hold more importance in Shylock’s life than money. We also
see that Shylock makes a strange demand from Antonio- a pound of his
flesh in exchange of money. Hence, we can conclude that Shylock’s
resentment is much deeper rooted than his monetary greed.

Equally complicated is the case of the Christian characters of The

Merchant of Venice. One of the major Merchant of Venice themes
being love versus money, we do see some materialistic views in the
apparently ‘good’ characters too. Even though Bassanio and Portia
grow to love each other, it was not the case of pure love initially.

Bassanio’s main motivation in asking her hand in marriage was due to

his humungous debt, and that he needed Portia’s money to clear it.
After taking money from Antonio, Bassanio insists that this act of
lending him money was an investment on Antonio’s part. Even though
the latter likes to lend money solely out of a moral responsibility,
Bassanio seems eager to view their correspondence as a business
matter. One of the highlights of The Merchant of Venice themes was
Shylock’s argument.

48
 He eloquently states that Jews, just like Christians, are human beings.
Antonio’s hate for Shylock, the latter argues, is only because of his
religious identity. Hence, even though the Christians speak about mercy
the most, in fact, they are showing prejudice towards Shylock.
Therefore, there is a constant conflict of the themes love and self
interest. Hence this is the central theme of The Merchant of Venice.

The divine nature of mercy is yet another one of the driving themes of
the play. The conflict between the Christians and Shylock reaches its
peak over the issue of the extent of mercy. Even though the law is in
Shylock’s favour, which the Christian characters also acknowledge, they
still expect him to show mercy even though it means the violation of
the contract.

In a sense, Shylock too is right as he wants to remain true to the

contract. During the final trial, Shylock asks the disguised Portia what
might possibly force him to become merciful. Portia stresses that the
quality of mercy is never strained, clarifying what remains at stake in
the argument. As God is merciful and it is an attribute of the almighty
himself, humans should also exhibit mercy. God’s power is greater than
any earthly power, law or majesty. We can trace this understanding of
mercy, as narrated by Portia, as the manner in which the difference
between the Old and New Testament was understood by the Christians
of Elizabethan period. ‘Old Testament God’ is the epitome of strict
adherence to regulations and divine rules, giving harsh punishment to
the ones who go astray. On the contrary, God’s attributes in the New

49
Testament is heralded by human-like qualities such as mercy; and the
emphasis has shifted to the adherence of spirit.

Hence, the spirit of the law gets more precendence over the letter of
the law. God is a forgiver in the New Testament. Rather than outright
punishment, God offers salvation to those who want to be forgiven,
actively seeking mercy. There was of course, strong anti-Jewish and
pro-Christian agenda concealed in Portia’s warning against pursuing the
law strictly.

Renaissance drama had it’s limitations, and thus, minorities like

Shylock had to be portrayed as a villain. Hence, his character was
written to fit into the theme of good versus evil. Shylock is therefore,
unable to show compassion to his adversaries by default. The audience
of the sixteenth century would not expect a character like Shylock to
show any mercy, therefore, it was up to the Christian actors to play this
role. Once Portia successfully turned Shylock’s most powerful weapon-
the law, against him, it gave her the opportunity to exercise the mercy
that she advocates so effectively. Yet, she corners Shylock, strips him of
the bond, his money, estate and dignity.

She is the one who forces him to kneel and beg. The question remains
whether it was right to return Shylock only half of his goods, taking
away what might be more valuable to him- his profession and religion.
The characters force Shylock to convert, and thus disable him from his
moneylending profession.

50
 According to Shylock, this was the reason behind Antonio’s behaviour
such as taunting and spitting on him in public. Hence, we see that it is
self-interst that gives rise to this act of mercy, not from his concern for
the fellow man. Contrary to how Portia presents, the play Merhant of
Venice does not manage to incorporate mercy is such a sweet, gracefull
and selfless theme.

Accumulation of hatred is another one of the play’s main themes.

Shylock claims throughout that he is only applying whatever lessons he
has learnt from his Christian neighbours. This claim of his becomes an
essential part of his argument during the trial as well as his character. In
his very first appearance, Shylock’s mission is revealed as solely to
mean harm to Antonio. However, this resentment of his is inspired by
the injuries and insults that Antonio subjected to him in the past.

One could argue that Antonio fully realizes his culpability in this
situation when he was nearly executed. When the trial ends, Antonio
still remains unfair to Shylock, demanding that he convert to their
religion. However, he inflicts upon him no other punishment. Other
Christians such as Gratiano threaten Shylock; however, Antonio is no
longer seen kicking on spitting on Shylock. We can say that the Duke, as
well as Antonio, puts an end to this conflict by depriving it of the
injustices it needs to fuel it.

51
 A main theme we would like to discuss in this essay on Merchant of
Venice is prejudice. The prejudice runs deep and strong on both sides.
The Christian side hates Shylock vehemently just because of his Jewish
beliefs. On the other hand, Shylock hates them in return. However, the
audience is given legitimate reasoning behind Shylock’s behaviour and
prejudice.

These reasons include their religious opposition to his profession of

moneylending or usury, persecution and hindrance to both his business
and his self respect. The Merchant of Venice also reveals how Shylock
lives under a double standard and the cruel nature of Christian hatred
of Jews. Shylock, though expected to show mercy, is not shown any in
return from the dominating and ruling class of Christians in the play.

In the analysis, themes of money and materialism come under close

scrutiny among The Merchant of Venice themes. The importance of
money to Christians has been illustrated here. To most of the Christian
characters, money is definitely of the most importance even though
Antonio is shown as a compassionate and humane merchant. We
observe that the metaphors of devotion and love are often cast in
terms of money, hence it is evident that even the value of human
relationships. Even compassion and love are seen as agreements on
contract basis.

Finally, The Merchant of Venice is also replete with playing and

perception as one of its major themes. In the play, it is shown that

52
appearances can be deceiving. In the three casks trial, the cask that was
the most ugly outwardly has the most rewarding interior. This
symbolizes the disconnect between appearance on the outside and
character on the inside.

This theme is however, somewhat contradictory to the question of

perception and prejudice among the characters of the play. Shylock’s
famous utterance begs us to question, does a Jew not have eyes, do the
minorities not feel pain? He urges the audience to delve further into his
nature and motivations rather than ostracizing him as Jewish and as a
villain.

The main theme of The Merchant of Venice is the conflict between

self interest and love. On the surface level, the major difference
between Shylock the Jew and the Christian characters of the play is
their level of compassion. On one hand, the Christians value the
importance of human relationships over their business contacts. Unlike
them, on the other hand, Shylock is heavily invested in material gain.

However, Shylock is agonized over his loss of money, reportedly

running through the streets lamenting for them. He even goes as far as
calling his ducats his daughter, suggesting that he values money as
much as his own child. Hence in Shylock’s case, greed overpowers
compassion. However, when we inspect closely, this difference
between the two opposite characters breaks down.

53
 Act III, Scene I, Shylock’s dissatisfaction is not due to the monetary
loss of the ring, rather the fact that his daughter sold the token of love
from his dead wife. Hence, we see that certain human relationships do
seem to hold more importance in Shylock’s life than money. We also
see that Shylock makes a strange demand from Antonio- a pound of his
flesh in exchange of money. Hence, we can conclude that Shylock’s
resentment is much deeper rooted than his monetary greed.

Equally complicated is the case of the Christian characters of The

Merchant of Venice. One of the major Merchant of Venice themes
being love versus money, we do see some materialistic views in the
apparently ‘good’ characters too. Even though Bassanio and Portia
grow to love each other, it was not the case of pure love initially.

Bassanio’s main motivation in asking her hand in marriage was due to

his humungous debt, and that he needed Portia’s money to clear it.
After taking money from Antonio, Bassanio insists that this act of
lending him money was an investment on Antonio’s part. Even though
the latter likes to lend money solely out of a moral responsibility,
Bassanio seems eager to view their correspondence as a business
matter. One of the highlights of The Merchant of Venice themes was
Shylock’s argument.

He eloquently states that Jews, just like Christians, are human beings.
Antonio’s hate for Shylock, the latter argues, is only because of his
religious identity. Hence, even though the Christians speak about mercy

54
the most, in fact, they are showing prejudice towards Shylock.
Therefore, there is a constant conflict of the themes love and self
interest. Hence this is the central theme of The Merchant of Venice.

The divine nature of mercy is yet another one of the driving themes of
the play. The conflict between the Christians and Shylock reaches its
peak over the issue of the extent of mercy. Even though the law is in
Shylock’s favour, which the Christian characters also acknowledge, they
still expect him to show mercy even though it means the violation of
the contract.

In a sense, Shylock too is right as he wants to remain true to the

contract. During the final trial, Shylock asks the disguised Portia what
might possibly force him to become merciful. Portia stresses that the
quality of mercy is never strained, clarifying what remains at stake in
the argument. As God is merciful and it is an attribute of the almighty
himself, humans should also exhibit mercy.

God’s power is greater than any earthly power, law or majesty. We can
trace this understanding of mercy, as narrated by Portia, as the manner
in which the difference between the Old and New Testament was
understood by the Christians of Elizabethan period. ‘Old Testament
God’ is the epitome of strict adherence to regulations and divine rules,
giving harsh punishment to the ones who go astray.

55
On the contrary, God’s attributes in the New Testament is heralded by
human-like qualities such as mercy; and the emphasis has shifted to the
adherence of spirit.

Hence, the spirit of the law gets more precendence over the letter of
the law. God is a forgiver in the New Testament. Rather than outright
punishment, God offers salvation to those who want to be forgiven,
actively seeking mercy. There was of course, strong anti-Jewish and
pro-Christian agenda concealed in Portia’s warning against pursuing the
law strictly.

Renaissance drama had it’s limitations, and thus, minorities like

Shylock had to be portrayed as a villain. Hence, his character was
written to fit into the theme of good versus evil.

Shylock is therefore, unable to show compassion to his adversaries by

default. The audience of the sixteenth century would not expect a
character like Shylock to show any mercy, therefore, it was up to the
Christian actors to play this role. Once Portia successfully turned
Shylock’s most powerful weapon- the law, against him, it gave her the
opportunity to exercise the mercy that she advocates so effectively.
Yet, she corners Shylock, strips him of the bond, his money, estate and
dignity.

She is the one who forces him to kneel and beg. The question remains
whether it was right to return Shylock only half of his goods, taking
away what might be more valuable to him- his profession and religion.

56
The characters force Shylock to convert, and thus disable him from his
moneylending profession.

According to Shylock, this was the reason behind Antonio’s behaviour

such as taunting and spitting on him in public. Hence, we see that it is
self-interst that gives rise to this act of mercy, not from his concern for
the fellow man. Contrary to how Portia presents, the play Merhant of
Venice does not manage to incorporate mercy is such a sweet, gracefull
and selfless theme.

Accumulation of hatred is another one of the play’s main themes.

Shylock claims throughout that he is only applying whatever lessons he
has learnt from his Christian neighbours. This claim of his becomes an
essential part of his argument during the trial as well as his character.

In his very first appearance, Shylock’s mission is revealed as solely to

mean harm to Antonio. However, this resentment of his is inspired by
the injuries and insults that Antonio subjected to him in the past.

One could argue that Antonio fully realizes his culpability in this
situation when he was nearly executed. When the trial ends, Antonio
still remains unfair to Shylock, demanding that he convert to their
religion. However, he inflicts upon him no other punishment. Other
Christians such as Gratiano threaten Shylock; however, Antonio is no
longer seen kicking on spitting on Shylock. We can say that the Duke, as

57
well as Antonio, puts an end to this conflict by depriving it of the
injustices it needs to fuel it.

A main theme we would like to discuss in this essay on Merchant of

Venice is prejudice. The prejudice runs deep and strong on both sides.
The Christian side hates Shylock vehemently just because of his Jewish
beliefs. On the other hand, Shylock hates them in return. However, the
audience is given legitimate reasoning behind Shylock’s behaviour and
prejudice.

These reasons include their religious opposition to his profession of

moneylending or usury, persecution and hindrance to both his business
and his self respect. The Merchant of Venice also reveals how Shylock
lives under a double standard and the cruel nature of Christian hatred
of Jews. Shylock, though expected to show mercy, is not shown any in
return from the dominating and ruling class of Christians in the play.

In the analysis, themes of money and materialism come under close

scrutiny among The Merchant of Venice themes. The importance of
money to Christians has been illustrated here.

To most of the Christian characters, money is definitely of the

most importance even though Antonio is shown as a compassionate
and humane merchant. We observe that the metaphors of devotion
and love are often cast in terms of money, hence it is evident that even
the value of human relationships. Even compassion and love are seen
as agreements on contract basis.

58
 Finally, The Merchant of Venice is also replete with playing and
perception as one of its major themes. In the play, it is shown that
appearances can be deceiving. In the three casks trial, the cask that was
the most ugly outwardly has the most rewarding interior. This
symbolizes the disconnect between appearance on the outside and
character on the inside.

This theme is however, somewhat contradictory to the question of

perception and prejudice among the characters of the play. Shylock’s
famous utterance begs us to question, does a Jew not have eyes, do the
minorities not feel pain? He urges the audience to delve further into his
nature and motivations rather than ostracizing him as Jewish and as a
villain.

In William Shakespeare's THe merchant of Venice, the mains themes

are racism, love and friendship. Racism is shown through Shylock and
Antonio, Love is a theme through Portia and Bassanio and friendship is
through Antonio and Bassanio.

Racism is a main theme in Shakespeare's play because it is universal

and is still being faced today. Racism is evident throughout the play be
the characters Shylock and ANtonio. Shylock, is reffered to as 'The Jew'
all throughout the play by all the other characters who are Christian.
Before Bassanio joins the bond, Shylock says, "if you prick us, do we not
bleed?." meaning all people are the same and that we 'Jews' should not
be treated differently. In the play, the first conflict is between Antonio

59
and AShylock because of the issue of racism. Therefore, racism is a
main theme in The Merchant Of Venice.

Another theme is love. Love is portrayed in this play through Portia

and Bassanio. Without the theme of love, ANtonio would not have
made a bond with Shylock and therefor leaving no entertainment plot
in the story. Bassanio married Portia by choosing the correct casket of
lead which says, "he shall hazard all he hath", which is a sub-plot in the
play. THus, love is a main theme in the Merchant of Venice.

In WIlliam Shakespeare's play, the theme of friendship is present. THe

universal theme of friendship is presented through Bassanio and
Antonio. Antonio, the Merchant of Venice, is a kind and generous friend
to Bassanio and he lends money to Bassanio for th elove of Portia.

ANtonio then agrees to 'seal unto this bond' with Shylock accepting
that if he does not pay back what he owes, a pound of Antonio's flesh
will be taken. If it weren't for friendship, then this issue would not have
been raised, leaving no plot. Hence, friendship is main theme in
Shakespeare's play.

William Shakespeare's THe Merchant Of Venice is a complex play

with a romantic weaving of tales without logic, where the audience is
poised between a fairytale and reality.

60
Greed vs. Generosity

The primary grievance that Antonio has against Shylock is that he is

greedy—for charging interest to those who borrow money from him
when they are in need. The Venetians implicitly contrast Shylock's
greed with the generosity that they show one another. For instance,
Antonio is willing to place his whole "purse and person" at Bassanio's
disposal and regularly saves other Christians from having to pay
interest to Shylock by paying off their debts for them.

It seems that, like love or mercy, generosity is limitless, unbounded.

However, The Merchant of Venice also frequently begs the question of
whether friends aren't using friends, or lovers their lovers, for
materialistic reasons. For instance, why is the perpetually indebted
Bassanio so intent on wooing the rich Portia? And as Portia's and
Nerissa's anger over the rings that their husbands give away in the final
scene reflects, even the freest gift-giving comes with strings attached,
like the rules governing Shylock's more frankly capitalistic contracts.

61
Law, Mercy and Revenge

Both the central action of The Merchant of Venice—Shylock's attempt

to revenge himself on the Christian Antonio—and the romantic
subplot—between Bassanio and Portia—explore the relationship
between law, mercy, and revenge.

Shakespeare's contemporary, the philosopher Francis Bacon, defined

revenge as a "kind of wild justice." When one private individual decides
to revenge himself on another, he is going outside the official justice
system. And yet, as the phrase "wild justice" suggests, the revenger is
responding to what he sees as a "higher law." The revenger takes the
law into his own hands when he feels that the state is not capable of or
refuses to enforce justice.

Therefore, while law and revenge are technically opposed to each

other, since revenge is illegal, they also overlap. Shylock, pursuing
Antonio's "pound of flesh," exposes the intimate connection between
law and revenge. He seeks vengeance against Antonio precisely by
sticking to the letter of the law within the Venetian justice system.

In the courtroom scene of Act 4, scene 1, both the Duke and Portia
present mercy as a better alternative to the pursuit of either law or
revenge. Shylock explicitly refuses to show mercy, while the Christians,
in sparing Shylock's life in the end, claim that they have.

62
 Yet, when they do, Shylock himself asks to be killed. He says that,
having had all of his possessions confiscated and his religious identity
revoked (which would also make it impossible for him to work as a
money-lender, since Christians were not allowed to practice usury), he
has nothing left to live for. The question of who is or is not merciful,
therefore remains open.

Love and Friendship:

In connection with mercy and generosity, The Merchant of Venice

also explores love and friendship between its characters. The central
romantic relationship of the play is that between Bassanio and Portia.

Their marriage is paralleled by several others: the elopement of

Shylock's daughter, Jessica, with the Christian, Lorenzo; and the
marriage of Portia's servant, Nerissa, to Bassanio's companion,
Gratiano. In addition, numerous critics have suggested that the
strongest friendship in the play—between Antonio and Bassanio—also
approaches romantic love. In addition, the play shows how strong the
amicable ties are that connect all the various Venetian characters.

Given the generosity that they motivate between characters, love and
friendship might seem to offer alternatives to the ugly emotions of

63
prejudice, greed, and revenge on display in The Merchant of Venice.
However, beginning with Bassanio's borrowing money from his friend
Antonio in order to woo Portia, the play also demonstrates that the
apparent purity of love and friendship can be tainted by selfish
economic concerns.

In addition, love and friendship are also at the mercy of the law,
as seen in Portia's being subject to the terms of her father's riddle of
the caskets.

64
Reality and Idealism

The Merchant of Venice is structured partly on the contrast between

idealistic and realistic opinions about society and relationships. On the
one hand, the play tells us that love is more important than money,
mercy is preferable to revenge, and love lasts forever. On the other
hand, more cynical voices tell us that money rules the world, mercy
alone cannot govern our lives, and love can evaporate after marriage.

The play switches abruptly between these different attitudes.

Shakespeare organizes the shifts between idealism and realism by
associating the two concepts with the play's two locations. Venice is
depicted as a city of merchants, usurers, and cynical young men.
Belmont, in contrast, is the land where fairytales come true and
romance exists.

Mercy

Merchant of Venice begs the question, does mercy exist in the world?
Between religious intolerance and personal revenge, the play seems
devoid of a merciful being.

However, against all the odds, Portia does manage to bring about some
mercy in Venice. When Shylock faces execution for his crimes, Portia
persuades the Duke to pardon him. She then persuades Antonio to

65
exercise mercy by not taking all of Shylock's money from him. Here,
Portia's presence turns the proceedings away from violence and toward
forgiveness. Portia does, therefore, succeed in transmitting some of her
idealism into Venice. Act IV ends with the suggestion that idealism can
sometimes survive in the real world.

Prejudice

Throughout the play, and as of Act 3, Scene 4, Launcelot Gobbo is still

trying to reconcile his affection for Jessica with his belief that all Jews
are devils. This theme continually recurs in the clown scenes, and it
seems as though Shakespeare is deliberately making fun of the
Christian's attitudes toward the Jews.

The function of a clown is to misunderstand people and undermine

their assumptions by asking simple, obvious questions. By highlighting
the confusion of biblical texts, and raising pragmatic questions about
the conversion of Jews, Launcelot, in his clownish ways, demonstrates
the absurdities and complications that arise from the automatic
damnation of a religious faith. Ultimately, he prevents the play from
simplifying life too much. Beneath the apparently clear-cut cultural
divisions in the play is an awareness of the complexities of real life.

66
The conflict between justice and mercy

Shakespeare’s courtroom scene dramatizes a conflict between

justice and mercy—the competing claims of an angry Shylock and a
desperate Bassanio. This argument mirrors several smaller disputes and
personal crises throughout The Merchant of Venice. Shakespeare’s
characters must frequently weigh their sense of grievance against their
sense of generosity. By placing the conflict at the center of his play,
Shakespeare suggests that the pains of sacrifice are inescapable. It is
human to resent, and it is human to forgive.

The courtroom scene enacts a crisis all humans must someday

face: whether to pardon an enemy or insist on revenge. Portia speaks
on behalf of mercy, arguing that we must always forgive one another
because we are constantly hoping for our own share of forgiveness
from an all-knowing God. Likewise, the Duke demonstrates the virtues
of mercy when he ignores the letter of the law and waves away his right
to take Shylock’s life. On the other hand, Shylock represents the all-too-
human desire for justice.

He has evidence of Antonio’s oath and simply wants to carry out

the terms of the agreement. Portia frightens him when she begins to
argue in Shylock’s own terms. Invoking the supremacy of justice, she
says he may have a pound of flesh but not a drop of blood, with the
threatened penalty of death if he does not follow her terms exactly.

67
 Mercy and justice—forgiveness and vengeance—spar relentlessly
in this climactic scene.

Shakespeare has laid the thematic groundwork for his climax by

repeatedly noting the virtues of a merciful way of life. Antonio takes on
heroic stature when he forgives Bassanio’s countless debts and
encourages him to find love.

Portia tempers Nerissa’s severity when she says we must be

merciful unto others as well as unto ourselves. Portia forgives Bassanio
for leaving Belmont on the night of their engagement, putting aside her
own wishes and encouraging him to help his friend. Jessica and Lorenzo
repeatedly note the necessity of good humor; it is in the nature of
lovers to stray and to make false promises, so we must try to laugh and
see what is best in one another.

Each of these characters acts as an occasional spokesperson for

the mild-mannered, magnanimous approach to life.

On the other hand, several of Shakespeare’s characters crave

justice in moments of weakness. Despite his constant sacrifices,
Antonio becomes irritating when he seems to brood on his sense of
perpetual martyrdom, and Gratiano urges him to abandon his silent
grievances and enjoy his life.

68
 Long before the courtroom scene, Shylock embodies the human
desire for revenge, asking why he should cooperate with Antonio when
Antonio has ignored him and called him a cur. The Prince of Arragon
seems absurd when he claims Portia on the grounds that he deserves
her, and the message in the silver casket rebukes him for thinking that
we are ever naturally entitled to happiness. In our discomfort and
selfabsorption, we make the error of Shakespeare’s characters and
insist on justice in a patently unjust world.

By pitting mercy against justice in his climactic scene, Shakespeare

suggests that everyone struggles with competing urges to complain and
forgive. Shylock demands the flesh the law has promised him, and
Portia argues that the world is too complex to be governed by rigid
laws. Portia, Antonio, and Lorenzo all occasionally look past their own
problems and behave generously, whereas other characters cannot
overcome a gnawing sense of grievance and injustice. In five tolerant,
effortless acts, Shakespeare shows us that we are destined to have
these arguments—with others and with ourselves—every day of our
lives.

69
The theme of conflict :

One of the most controversial plays of its period, The Merchant of

Venice remembers many question. When the reasons are addressed, it
can be said that The Merchant of Venice is a rich work on religious,
moral, class and gender discrimination. When the work is examined on
different topics as stated, the aim of the play and the writing purpose
of Shakespeare can be grasped. First of all, in this essay, it is aimed to
reveal the characteristics of the main character Shylock and the
messages he wants to give, and to bring the goals of Shakespeare to
light. In addition, verses, showing the conflict between Christian and
Jewish in the play, will be specified and the atmosphere of the period
will be reflected.

The Merchant of Venice is a striking work written by Shakespeare

in the 16th century. While the exact date of writing of the work is
uncertain, it is not known whether Shakespeare personally witnessed
the religious features of the period. The conflict between Christianity
and Judaism, which are familiar in every period, has been a hostility for
centuries. The beginning of the conflict dates back to the crucifixion of
the prophet Jesus. According to the medieval conception, Jews are the
murderers of Jesus and this conception continues even today. We
consider that the 16th century Venice, Venice is the most powerful and
liberal place of the period and it has become famous all over the world
by legal rules. In addition, ghettoization first appeared in Venice. Jews
who were excluded as minority groups in Venice, were ghettorized
through legal means. Jews, who were prevented from getting a

70
profession and were prohibited from seisin, were isolated from the
society. As a result, they started to use usury and interest. According to
the Christian people, interest was regarded as ill-gotten. People who
opposed this understanding were accused of irreligion and isolated
from the society. The conflict between Christians, who adhere to
religious values,and minority group Jews is a major event witnessed by
history. It is possible to clearly see this conflict and hostility in The
Merchant of Venice.

Even though The Merchant of Venice is a comedy genre, it is

closer to the tragedy. The reason for being called comedy might be to
hide the real tragedy behind comedy elements in the play. The
humiliation, abstraction, marginalization and suffering of people who
have opposed religion are the elements that feed the tragedy.

The character Shylock is clearly experiencing this tragic flaw in

the play. Whether the play is anti-Jewish or pro-Jewish can be
interpreted differently according to the reader or the audience. It is
possible to see both the humanity of the Jews and the injustice and ugly
face of Christians in the play.

The characters that give life to opposing religions reflect this in a

realistic way. For instance, Shylock is a Jew and Antonio is a Christian.
The conversations between them prove the hostility. Both characters
argue that their religion is the best. Shylock hates Antonio throughout
the play. The main reason for hatred is, of course, religious conflict.

71
Tragicomedy.

A type of Elizabethan and Jacobean drama which intermin- gled

both the standard characters and subject matter and the standard plot-
forms of tragedy and comedy. Thus, the important agents in
tragicomedy included both people of high degree and people of low
degree, even though, according to the reigning critical theory of that
time, only upper-class charac- ters were appropriate to tragedy, while
members of the middle and lower classes were the proper subject
solely of comedy; see decorum. Also, tragicom- edy represented a
serious action which threatened a tragic disaster to the pro- tagonist,
yet, by an abrupt reversal of circumstance, turned out happily. As John
Fletcher wrote in his preface to The Faithful Shepherdess (c. 1610),
tragi- comedy "wants [i.e., lacks] deaths, which is enough to make it no
tragedy, yet brings some near it, which is enough to make it no comedy,
which must be a representation of familiar people. . . . A god is as lawful
in [tragicomedy] as in a tragedy, and mean people as in a comedy." (See
comedy and tragedy.) Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice is by these
criteria a tragicomedy, be-cause it mingles people of the aristocracy
with lower-class characters (such as the Jewish merchant Shylock and
the clown Launcelot Gobbo), and also be- cause the developing threat
of death to Antonio is suddenly reversed at the end by Portia's
ingenious casuistry in the trial scene.

Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher in Philaster, and numerous

other plays on which they collabo- rated from about 1606 to 1613,
inaugurated a mode of tragicomedy that em- ploys a romantic and

72
fastmoving plot of love, jealousy, treachery, intrigue, and disguises, and
ends in a melodramatic reversal of fortune for the protago- nists, who
had hitherto seemed headed for a tragic catastrophe. Shakespeare
wrote his late plays Cymbeline and The Winter's Tale, between 1609
and 1611, in this very popular mode of the tragicomic romance. The
name "tragicom- edy" is sometimes applied also to plays with double
plots, one serious and the other comic; see double plots, under plot

The Merchant of Venice as a Tragi-Comedy

The Merchant of Venice has generally been classified as a

romantic comedy which means a play containing a number of romantic
elements and a number of comic elements, skillfully and artistically
mixed together. But almost every romantic comedy of Shakespeare has
a number of serious elements too, and some of these serious elements
come very close to becoming tragic which makes the play a tragi
comedy.

We think that Shakespeare’s whole intention from the very

beginning was to write a play containing all three elements – serious
and tragic, comic and romantic. The casket story is a supreme example
of romance. Although Portia can be won as a wife only through a choice
of the right casket which on the surface seems to be a kind of lottery,
yet the successful choice made by Bassanio is, in its essence, wholly
romantic. The love of Jessica and Lorenzo is even more romantic
because of the great danger to which both the lovers expose
themselves by running away together.

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 The friendship between Antonio and Bassanio between two
males is also romantic. In this play Shakespeare violates all the three
classical unities the unity of time, the unity of place, and the unity of
action and this violation is also romantic. There is plenty of in this play
too.

The conflict between the devil in Launcelot and the conscience in

him his very amusing. His be-fooling of his aged, blind father is as
example of farcical humour. But it is the sense of humour and the wit of
Portia and of Gratiano which impart to the play a truly comic quality.
We find Portia’s brilliant wit when she pokes fun at her English suitor:

“How oddly he is suited! I think he bought his doublet in Italy, his round
hose in France, his bonnet in Germany and his behavior everywhere.”
The bond story which is the principal story of the play contains much
off the stuff that is tragic enough and seems to offer the most
unpromising material for a comedy. Antonio signs the fatal bond to
fetch money for his friend from Shylock. As time passes, Antonio does
little to prevent the forfeiture of the bond when three months pass
away he is in the clutches of Shylock.

When Shylock is requested in the trail scene to shoe mercy to

Antonio he invokes the law and demands the “penalty and forfeit” of
his bond. Then everybody is on the brink of a tragedy. Shylock is about
to cut off the pound of flesh from Antonio’s body just then Portia

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defeats the cruel purpose of the Jew by her “legal quibble”, “the bond
doth give thee not jot of blood”. She bids Shylock –

“Take then the bond, take thou the pound of flesh;

But in the cutting it if thou dost shed

One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods

Are by the laws of Venice confiscate

Unto the state of Venice.”

The Jew as failed in his purpose of revenge on Antonio is let off on

condition that he be turned into a Christian and give his property to his
daughter and son-in-law. The situation which was fraught with tragedy
is reversed and takes a turn towards happy ending. Shylock now a
tragic figure leaves the court a broken man. There is joy all around.
Thus the drama ends happily for Antonio but tragically for Shylock. Thus
the very mingling of the comic tragic elements makes The Merchant of
Venice a tragi-comedy (or a romantic comedy).

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Some notes about the play

William Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice was written around in

1600. The play takes place in the 17th century. The play is about the
bloodthirsty Jewish moneylender who lends money to the Merchant of
Venice, Antonio, a Christian. And later cannot pay it back. In the
Merchant of Venice, Judaism and Christianity aren't just religions; they
are constructed as racial (and even nation) identities as well.

The central themes of the play are justice and mercy, love and
hate, appearance and reality, and value and worth. After watching the
play, the common question that comes in audience's mind is "Is Shylock
a villain or victim? " In my opinion, I think Shylock is a victim.

Shakespeare was clever when he designed Shylock's character

because he is a fully developed character that dually is a stereotype.

Shylock is a victim as a result of the bad treatment he is getting from

the Venetians because of being a Jew.

His overreaction towards the bad treatment is what makes him a

villain but he is not actually a villain. Life for the Jews in the Elizabethan
period was often very hard. They were not given equal rights as the
Christians. There were many restrictions for them. They had to follow
unfair rules. If the Jews committed any mistakes, then they were
punished very badly without any evidence that they were guilty and if

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the Christians did the same mistake then they were not given any
punishment. So, Shylock always wanted the Christians to feel the same
pain that they feel, when they are punished for no reason.

We see this when he says, "The villainy you teach me I will

execute ". This means that he is doing the same thing that his Christians
neighbours have taught him and nothing is wrong or unfair in it. This
claim becomes an integral part of his character and his argument in the
court.

In the court Shylock says, he wants pound of flesh of Antonio.

When asked "why? " Shylock chooses his word very carefully and
replies "It will feed my revenge ".

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Some questions…

Q1- Discuss Shylock’s dramatic function in The Merchant of Venice.

What do critics mean when they suggest that Shylock is “too large” for
the play? Does he fulfill or exceed his role?

In order to ensure that we understand Shylock as a threat to the

happiness of Venice’s citizens and lovers, Shakespeare uses a number
of dramatic devices to amplify Shylock’s villainy. In doing so, however,
he creates a character so compelling that many feel Shylock comes to
dominate the play, thereby making him “too large.” Certainly, Shylock is
a masterful creation. At his cruelest, he is terrifying, even more so
because all of his schemes exist within the framework of the law.

Seen in this light, Shylock becomes a kind of bogeyman, turning

Venetian society’s own institutions on themselves. On the other hand,
Shylock is also pitiable, even sympathetic, at times. He has been harshly
handled by Venetian society and has seen his daughter elope with one
of the same men who despise him. His passionate monologue in Act III,
scene i reveals that he feels the same emotions as his opponents, and
we cannot help but see him as a man. In fact, Shylock’s character is so
well-rounded and intricate that many see him as the only interesting
figure in a play that is not, in theory, supposed to center about him.
Shylock’s scenes are gripping and fascinating, and many critics believe
the play deflates every time he makes an exit.

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Q2- In the end, how comic is The Merchant of Venice? Does the final
act succeed in restoring comedy to the play?

The Merchant of Venice contains all of the elements required of a

Shakespearean comedy, but is often so overshadowed by the character
of Shylock and his quest for a pound of flesh that it is hard not to find in
the play a generous share of the tragic as well. Lovers pine and are
reunited, a foolish servant makes endless series of puns, and genteel
women masquerade as men—all of which are defining marks of
Shakespearean comedy. In sharp contrast to these elements, however,
Shakespeare also presents Shylock, a degraded old man who has lost
his daughter and is consumed with a bloody greed. The light language
of the play’s comedic moments disappears for whole scenes at a time,
and Antonio’s fate is more suspenseful than funny. The final act
redeems the play’s claims to be a comedy, piling on the necessary
humor and serendipity, but the rest of the play is overcast by the fact
that Antonio may soon pay Bassanio’s debt with his life.

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Q3- Discuss the relationship between Jessica and Shylock. Are we
meant to sympathize with the moneylender’s daughter? Does
Shakespeare seem ambivalent in his portrayal of Jessica?

In looking at the relationship between Jessica and Shylock, we are

again forced to walk a fine line between sympathizing with and
despising Shylock. For all intents and purposes, the play should label
Shylock’s mistreatment by his own daughter as richly deserved. After
all, he is spiteful, petty, and mean, and in his more cartoonish or evil
moments, it is hard to imagine why Jessica should stay. At other times,
however, Jessica’s escape seems like another cruel circumstance
inflicted on Shylock, and her behavior offstage borders on heartless.
Shylock is never more sympathetic than when he bemoans the fact that
Jessica has taken a ring given to him in his bachelor days by his wife and
has traded it for a monkey, the most banal of objects. Nor is Jessica
ever able to produce satisfactory evidence that life in her father’s house
is miserable. Her seeming indifference to Antonio’s fate—she and
Lorenzo are more interested in the price of bacon—makes us wonder
whether Jessica is actually more selfish and self-absorbed than the
father she condemns. While Shylock is no saint, his resolve to collect his
debt only seems to strengthen beyond reason after he discovers that
Jessica has fled.

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Julius Caesar

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Summary:

Julius Caesar opens with a scene of class conflict, the plebeians versus
the tribunes. The plebeians are celebrating Caesar's victory over the
sons of Pompey, one of the former leaders of Rome. The tribunes
verbally attack the masses for their fickleness in celebrating the defeat
of a man who was once their leader.

Caesar enters Rome accompanied by his supporters and a throng of

citizens. It is the feast of Lupercalia, February 15, a day when two men
run through the street and strike those they meet with goatskin thongs.
Caesar orders Mark Antony to strike his wife Calpurnia in order to cure
her barrenness.

A soothsayer calls out to Caesar as he passes and warns him against the
ides of March, March 15. Caesar ignores the man and dismisses him as
a dreamer. Upon seeing Cassius, Caesar informs Antony that he would
rather be surrounded by men who are fat and happy than thin men like
Cassius. He is worried that Cassius is dangerous because he "thinks too
much" (1.2.193-196). Antony tells him not to worry about Cassius.

Meanwhile, Brutus and Cassius meet and talk about how much power
Caesar has gained. During their conversation they are interrupted three
times by cheers from the crowd. Cassius informs Brutus that he is
forming a plot against Caesar and wants Brutus to join it. Brutus tells

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him he cannot commit to anything immediately. Casca soon joins them,
and informs them that the cheers they heard were Caesar turning
down the crown. According to Casca, Antony offered Caesar a crown
three times, and three times he refused it.

Casca meets with Cicero and tells the orator that there are many
strange things happening in Rome that night, such as a lion in the
streets and an owl screeching during the day. Cicero tells him that men
construe omens the way they see fit. Cassius eventually arrives and
learns from Casca that the senators are planning on making Caesar a
king the next morning. He starts to tell Casca about the plot to kill
Caesar, but Cinna shows up and interrupts him. He hands Cinna some
letters to plant anonymously in Brutus' home and invites Casca to
dinner that night in order to convince him to join the conspiracy.

Brutus discovers the letters from Cinna, not knowing who wrote them.

He reads one of the letters and interprets it as a request to prevent

Caesar from seizing power. Brutus attributes the letter to Rome as a
whole, saying, "O Rome, I make thee promise" (2.1.56), implying that
he will carry out what he perceives as the will of the Roman people.

Brutus meets with Cassius and the other conspirators and shakes all
their hands, agreeing to join their plot. He convinces them to only kill
Caesar, and not his most loyal friend Antony, because he does not want

83
them to "seem too bloody" (2.1.162). After the other men leave, Brutus
is unable to sleep. His wife Portia finds him awake and begs him to tell
her what is troubling him. At first he refuses, but after she stabs herself
in the thigh to prove her strength and ability to keep a secret he agrees
to inform her.

Meanwhile, Caesar's wife Calpurnia dreamt of a statue of Caesar

bleeding from a hundred wounds. Caesar, naturally superstitious,
orders the priests to kill an animal and read the entrails to see if he
should go to the Senate that day. The priests tell him that the animal
did not have a heart, a very bad sign. However, Decius, one of the
conspirators, arrives and reinterprets Calpurnia's dream to mean that
all of Rome sucked the reviving blood of Caesar for its benefit. Caesar
finally agrees with him that it is laughable to stay home on account of a
dream. The other conspirators, including Brutus and Cassius, arrive at
his house to escort him to the Senate House.

On the way to the Senate House Caesar is approached by the same

soothsayer that previously warned him about the ides of March. He
again refuses to listen to the man and continues. A man named
Artemidorus then comes up to him and tries to give him a letter
revealing the entire conspiracy, but Decius cleverly tells Caesar the
Trebonius has a suit he would like Caesar to read instead. Caesar
refuses to look at what Artemidorus offers him on account of its being
personal. He explains, "What touches us ourself shall be last served"
(3.1.7).

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The conspirators arrive at the Senate House and Caesar assumes his
seat. A man named Metellus kneels before him and petitions to have
his banished brother returned to Rome. Caesar refuses, but is surprised
when Brutus and then Cassius come forward and plead for the brother
as well. However, he continues to refuse to change the sentence even
as all of the conspirators gather around him. On Casca's comment,
"Speak hands for me" (3.1.76) the group attacks Caesar, stabbing him
to death.

The conspirators, now led by Brutus and Cassius, dip their hands in
Caesar's blood and prepare to run to the streets crying out "peace,
freedom, and liberty" (3.1.111). Antony arrives and begs them to let
him take the body and give Caesar a public eulogy. Brutus agrees,
overriding Cassius' misgivings about allowing Antony to speak. They
move out into the streets of Rome and Cassius and Brutus split up in
order to speak to the plebeians.

Brutus defends his murder of Caesar on the grounds that he was

removing a tyrant who was destroying the freedom of all Romans. He
ends his speech by asking the crowd if they want him to commit suicide
for what he has done, to which they reply, "Live, Brutus, live, live!"
(3.2.44). Next, Brutus allows Antony to speak and returns home.

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Antony takes full advantage of his speech and informs the crowd that
Caesar was a selfless man who cared for Rome above everything. The
highlight of his speech is when he pulls out Caesar's will and reads from
it, telling the citizens that Caesar has given every Roman a part of his
inheritance, in both land and dachmas. The plebeians now believe
Caesar to have been great and good, seize his body and vow revenge
upon Brutus and the rest of the conspirators. Their rioting develops into
pure anarchy. Antony comments that he has done his part in creating
social upheaval, and now must wait to see what happens.

Brutus and Cassius are forced to flee the city, and in the meantime the
young general Octavius Caesar, loyal to Julius Caesar, arrives and allies
with Antony. He, Antony and Lepidus form a second triumvirate and
prepare to purge the city of anyone who is against them. They map out
their plans to scour the city and make a list of names of those whom
they wish to kill, including relatives and friends.

Cassius and Brutus set up camp in Sardis, located in what is now

western Turkey. Cassius arrives with his army at the campsite where
Brutus is waiting for him, but is furious with Brutus for having ignored
letters he sent asking Brutus to release a prisoner. Brutus has instead
punished the man for accepting bribes, an act which provided one of
the reason's for Caesar's murder. Cassius and Brutus argue until
Cassius, in exasperation, pulls out his dagger and asks Brutus to kill him
if he hates so. Of course, Brutus refuses. The two men embrace and
forget their differences.

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Next, Brutus sadly informs Cassius that his wife Portia is dead. She
swallowed live embers after Antony and Octavius assumed power.
When two underlings enter the tent, Brutus stops talking about Portia
and focuses on the military matters at hand. In fact, when one of the
men asks him about his wife, he denies having heard any news about
her. Brutus convinces Cassius during the strategy meeting that it would
be best for them to march to where Antony and Octavius are located in
Philippi (near modern Greece) in order to defeat them before they get
too strong, gaining additional soldiers on their march. Cassius
reluctantly agrees to Brutus' plan and departs for the night.

Brutus calls some men into his tent in case he needs to send them away
as messengers during the night. He makes them go to sleep. He himself
stays up reading, but he is disturbed by the ghost of Julius Caesar who
appears. The ghost tells Brutus that he is his "evil spirit" (4.2.353) and
that he will be on the battlefield at Philippi. Brutus is so shaken by this
image that he wakes up all the men in his tent and sends them to
Cassius with orders that Cassius should depart before him the next
morning.

On the battlefield at Philippi, Antony and Octavius agree to their battle

plans. They meet with Brutus and Cassius before entering battle, but
only exchange insults. Battle is imminent. All four men return to their
armies to prepare for war.

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In the middle of the battle Brutus sees a chance to destroy Octavius'
army and rushes away to attack it. He leaves Cassius behind. Cassius,
less militarily adept, quickly begins losing to Antony's forces. Even
worse, Pindarus misleads him, telling him Titinius has been taken by the
enemy near Cassius' tents. Upon hearing this news, Cassius orders
Pindarus to kill him. After completing the task, Pindarus flees. Brutus
arrives, finds his friend dead and remarks, "O Julius Caesar, thou art
mighty yet" (5.3.93).

Cato is quickly killed, and Lucillius, a man pretending to be Brutus, is

soon captured and handed over to Antony. Antony recognizes him and
tells his soldiers to keep attacking until they capture Brutus. Brutus,
now almost completely defeated, begs several of his soldiers to kill him.
They all refuse and leave him rather than carrying his blood on their
hands. Finally, Strato accepts Brutus' request. Brutus runs into his
sword as Strato holds it for him, killing himself.

Antony and Octavius arrive and find Brutus dead upon the ground.

Antony remarks, "This was the noblest Roman of them all" (5.5.67).
Octavius, unemotional through all of the carnage, merely ends the play
with the lines, "So call the field to rest, and let's away / To part the
glories of this happy day" (5.5.79-80).

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Detailed summary:

Act One, Scene One

Two Roman tribunes, Flavius and Murellus, see the common people
parading in the streets instead of working in their shops. They demand
to know why the men are not working. A cobbler informs them that the
people are celebrating Caesar's victory. Murellus is infuriated by this
information, and calls the workers, "you blocks, you stones" (1.1.34).
He then tells them that Caesar has not defeated an enemy, but rather
that Ceasar has killed the sons of Pompey the Great. Pompey previously
ruled Rome along with Caesar until their alliance fell apart, at which
point they went to battle over the right to rule.

Flavius's speech then causes the commoners to be ashamed of

celebrating Caesar's victory. They depart in a more sober mood. Flavius
and Murellus then prepare to remove the imperial crowns placed on all
the statues of Caesar and next decide to drive the commoners back into
their houses in an effort to prevent Rome from celebrating Caesar's
victory.

Act One, Scene Two

Julius Caesar triumphantly returns to Rome on the festival of

89
Lupercalia, celebrated on February 15. He is followed by Antony and
Brutus, their wives, and many followers. Caesar tells Antony to strike
his wife Calpurnia during the festival (during which two men, including
Antony, run through the street of Rome and hit those they meet with
goatskin thongs) to rid her of her sterility. Antony responds with,
"When Caesar says 'Do this', it is performed" (1.2.12).

A soothsayer approaches Caesar and calls out for attention. Caesar

allows him to speak, and the man tells Caesar, "Beware the ides of
March" (1.2.25). Caesar ignores this warning and calls the man a
dreamer. Caesar then leaves with his assembled men.

Brutus and Cassius remain on the stage. Cassius tells Brutus that he has
noticed Brutus acting more serious lately. Brutus tells him that he is
"with himself at war" (1.2.48) and that Cassius should not worry about
it. After a shout and cheering from offstage, Brutus remarks he is afraid
the people will crown Caesar king. Cassius is thrilled to hear this, and
tells Brutus that they were both born as free men the same way Caesar
was. He tells Brutus a story in which he and Caesar were holding a
swimming contest across the Tiber river, and Caesar started to drown.
Cassius claims that he rescued Caesar and carried him to the shore. He
then complains that Caesar has become so powerful that even though
he once saved Caesar's life, he must now bow before him.

Cassius then tells Brutus that "Brutus" is just as good a name as

"Caesar", and that both names could just as easily rule Rome. He

90
invokes the image of Brutus' ancestor who founded the Roman
Republic and expelled the former kings. Brutus, afraid that Caesar will
become a king, struggles to decide whether to join Cassius in taking
action against Caesar, but ultimately decides against it.

Caesar returns, accompanied by his followers. He turns to Antony and

remarks, "Let me have men about me that are fat, / Sleek-headed men,
and such as sleep a-nights. / Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look. /
He thinks too much. Such men are dangerous" (1.2.193-196). Antony
dismisses Caesar's concern, but Caesar is not convinced that Cassius is
completely trustworthy. He tells Antony to come with him and let him
know if there is anything to be worried about.

Casca remains onstage with Brutus and Cassius and tells them that the
three shouts they heard were because Antony offered Caesar the crown
three times, but he turned it down each time. Casca then says that
Caesar swooned and fell down with his mouth foaming at the lips.
(Caesar was considered to be epileptic, called the "falling sickness".)
When Caesar awoke, he begged to be forgiven for his infirmary. Casca adds
that the people forgave Caesar and worshipped him even more for turning away
the crown. He also explains that Murellus and Flavius, the public tribunes, were
removed from office for pulling the decorations off of Caesar's statues. Cassius,
hoping to lure him into the conspiracy against Caesar, invites Casca to dinner the
next night. Brutus also takes his leave, but agrees to meet with Cassius the next
night as well. In a soliloquy, Cassius informs the audience that he will fake several
handwritten notes and throw them into Brutus' room in an attempt to make
Brutus think the common people want him to take action against Caesar.

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 Act One, Scene Three

Casca meets with Cicero, one of the great Roman orators, and tells him
he has seen many strange things on the streets of Rome that night
including a slave with a burning yet uninjured left hand, a lion loose in
the streets, and an owl hooting in the daytime. Cicero tells him men
interpret things in their own way, and takes his leave.

Cassius then arrives and tells Casca that there is a reason behind all of
the strange events taking place in Rome. Casca asks him, "'Tis Caesar
that you mean, is it not, Cassius?" (1.3.78). Casca tells him that the
senators are planning to make Caesar a king the next morning. At this
news, Cassius draws his dagger and threatens to die before ever
allowing Caesar to achieve so much power. Casca shakes hands with
Cassius and they agree to work together to prevent Caesar from seizing
power.

Cinna, a co-conspirator, arrives and takes a piece of paper from Cassius.

Together they then leave to go throw Cassius' handwritten notes
through Brutus' window. Cassius indicates that he is quite sure Brutus
will join them within the next day.

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 Act Two, Scene One

Brutus is in his garden and has decided that Caesar must be killed. His
reasons for reaching this conclusion are that Caesar is abusing his
power and that has ascended far too quickly. Lucius, Brutus' servant,
brings him a letter (planted by Cassius) he has found in Brutus' private
room. The first line of the letter reads, "Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake,
and see thyself" (2.1.46). Brutus interprets the letter as if it were a
request from all of Rome to slay Caesar and restore the republic.

Brutus then asks Lucius what day it is, and he informs his master that it
is the ides of March, or March 15th. A knock sounds on the door and
Lucius leaves to answer it. Alone, Brutus states he has not slept since
Cassius first incited him against Caesar.

Cassius, Casca, Decius, Cinna, Metellus and Trebonius, all of them

conspirators against Caesar, have arrived at Brutus' home. Brutus
invites them in and Cassius takes him aside. Soon Brutus rejoins the
group of men and shakes all their hands, agreeing to join them in their
murderous quest. The men then discuss whether they should invite
Cicero, the great orator, to join their plot, but Brutus convinces them
against it. Cassius states Mark Antony should be killed along with
Caesar, but again Brutus is against the plan, fearing they will be
perceived as too bloody.

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The group plans to commit Caesar's murder at the Senate at eight
o'clock that morning (it is only three in the morning at this point).
However, they are worried that Caesar will not attend the Senate
because he has become increasingly superstitious over the past few
months. Decius tells the group that he knows how to flatter Caesar, and
assures them he will convince Caesar to go to the Senate. Cassius and
his followers then depart, leaving Brutus alone.

Brutus' wife Portia arrives and tells him he has left her bed and given
her unkind looks. She begs him to tell her why he is so upset. He lies,
telling her he is sick, to which she responds that it appears to be a
sickness of the mind, not of the body. A strong woman of brave lineage,
she again begs him to tell her what is wrong, asking him, "Think you I
am no stronger than my sex, / Being so fathered and so husbanded?"
(2.1.295-6). She then stabs herself in the thigh as proof of her courage.
Brutus finally agrees to tell her what is concerning him, but sends her
away before he is able to explain, because there is another knock on
the door.

Ligarius enters, pretending to be sick. He tells Brutus that he could be

cured if only Brutus had a noble undertaking in mind. Brutus tells him
that he does, and Ligarius pledges to follow Brutus on whatever task he
leads him to.

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 Act Two, Scene Two

Caesar, still in his nightgown, is terrified by a dream his wife Calpurnia

has had in which she cried out, "Help, ho! They murder Caesar!" He
orders a servant to go to the priests and have them sacrifice an animal
in order to read the entrails for predictions of the future. Calpurnia
arrives and tells him that he dare not leave the house that day. Caesar
acts brave and tells her that he fears nothing, and that he will die when
it is necessary for him to die. The servant returns and tells him that the
sacrificed animal did not have a heart, a very bad omen. Caesar insists
on misinterpreting the omens, but Calpurnia begs him to blame her for
his absence from the Senate, to which he finally agrees.

However, Decius soon arrives to fetch Caesar to the Senate House.

Caesar tells him to inform the Senate that he will not come this day.
Decius claims that he will be mocked if he cannot provide a good
reason for Caesar's absence. Caesar then tells Decius about Calpurnia's
dream, to which Decius replies that the dream was misinterpreted. The
fountains of blood pouring from Caesar's body that Calpurnia saw
reflected the new life Caesar is giving to Rome, not his death. Decius
overwhelms Caesar's resistance by asking him if the Senate should
dissolve until a better time when Calpurnia has more favorable dreams.
Caesar tells Calpurnia that he was acting foolishly, and agrees to go to
the Senate. Cassius and the other conspirators then arrive to
accompany him to the Senate. Antony also appears and joins the group
of men who then escort Caesar out of his house.

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 Act Two, Scene Three

Artemidorus has written Caesar a letter in which he names all of the

conspirators against Caesar. He stands on a street near the Capitol and
waits for Caesar to pass by on his way to the Senate so that he can
hand Caesar the note.

Act Two, Scene Four

Portia orders the servant Lucius to go to the Senate House. He asks her
what he should do there, but she is so distracted that she is unable to
tell him the purpose. She remarks to the audience, "I have a man's
mind, but a woman's might. / How hard it is for women to keep
counsel!" (2.4.7-8). She is alluding to the fact that she knows what
Brutus is planning to do to Caesar, and is unwilling to keep it a secret.
The soothsayer who previously warned Caesar sees her and speaks with
her, informing Portia that he will try to once again warn Caesar about
his fate.

Act Three, Scene One

Caesar is headed to the Senate House with all of the conspirators

surrounding him. He sees the soothsayer and tells the man that the
ides of March have come. The soothsayer responds with, "Ay, Caesar,

96
but not gone" (3.1.2). However, Caesar is not concerned and continues
to the Senate. Next Artemidorus attempts to hand Caesar his letter,
explaining its contents affect him personally, but Decius responds
quickly, telling Caesar the Trebonius has a document for him to read
instead. Caesar tells Artemidorus that, "What touches us ourself shall
be last served" (3.1.7).

As they approach the Senate House, Trebonius manages to pull Mark

Antony aside and away from Caesar, thus making him more vulnerable
to attack. Caesar takes his seat in the Senate and proceeds to allow
Metellus Cimber to petition him. The man throws himself down at
Caesar's feet begging for his brother's release from banishment, but is
ordered to stand. Caesar tells him that fawning will not win him any
favors, and that, "Know Caesar doth not wrong but with just cause"
(3.1.47). At this Brutus comes forward, to Caesar's great surprise, and
pleads for the man's brother. Cassius soon joins him. Caesar tells them
his decision is, "constant as the Northern Star" and that he will not
remove the banishment. Cinna approaches and Caesar tells him,
"Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus?" (3.1.73). Decius and Ligarius come
forward and kneel before him as well. Finally Casca also kneels and
says, "Speak hands for me" (3.1.76), and stabs Caesar. All the
conspirators continue to stab him as he falls saying, "Et tu, Brute? -
Then fall Caesar" (3.1.77).

Cinna immediately starts crying out, "Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is

dead!" (3.1.78) The other senators all run out of the Senate House in

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confusion while the conspirators stay together to protect themselves.
Brutus finally tells them to,

"Stoop, Romans, stoop.

And let us bathe our hands in Caesar's blood

Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords;

Then walk we forth even to the marketplace,

And, waving our red weapons o'er our heads,

Let's all cry out 'peace, freedom, and liberty!'" (3.1.106-111).

Cassius continues this exultation of their deed, saying, "How many ages
hence / Shall this our lofty scene be acted over, / In states unborn and
accents yet unknown!" (3.1.112-114). Cassius further adds that they
will be known as, "The men that gave their country liberty" (3.1.118).

The servant of Mark Antony arrives and falls prostrate before Brutus,
telling Brutus that Antony wishes to meet with him to learn why Caesar
had to die. Brutus promises Antony will not be harmed and tells the
servant to bring him. Cassius tells Brutus that he still has misgivings
about Antony even though he has promised to not hurt him.

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Antony arrives and laments the death of Caesar, begging the
murderers, specifically Brutus, to explain why Caesar had to be killed.
Brutus tells him that Caesar was destroying the republic and had to be
removed from power. Antony pretends to be convinced by this and
asks the conspirators to, "Let each man render me his bloody hand"
(3.1.185). He then shakes hands with each of them, naming them as he
faces each man. The last hand he takes is that of Trebonius, who
actually did not commit the murder, but distracted Mark Antony so he
would not be able to protect Caesar.

Antony quickly recants his agreement with the murderers, and tells
Cassius that he almost joined them after shaking their hands, was
swayed at the sight of Caesar's body. He asks them if he may have
permission to take the body to the marketplace and show it to the
crowds. Brutus gives him permission to do this, but Cassius warns, "You
know not what you do. Do not consent / That Antony speak in his
funeral. / Know you how much the people may be moved / By that
which he will utter?" (3.1.234-237). As a compromise, Brutus decides to
give his speech first, and to allow Antony to speak afterwards, provided
that Antony only says positive things about the conspirators. Antony
agrees.

Left alone with the body of Caesar, Antony says, "O pardon me, thou
bleeding piece of earth / That I am meek and gentle with these

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butcher" (3.1.257-258). He continues, becoming ever more violent in
his speech, "Domestic fury and fierce civil strife / Shall cumber all the
parts of Italy" (3.1.266-267). A servant sent from Octavius Caesar
arrives and sees the body. Antony tells him to stay for the funeral
eulogies in the marketplace and report back to Octavius on the state of
affairs in Rome. Together they carry out Caesar's body.

Act Three, Scene Two

Brutus and Cassius tell the plebeians to follow them in order to hear an
explanation for the murder. They split the multitude into two parties
and Cassius leaves to speak to one group while Brutus speaks to the
other. Brutus tells the masses that he loved Caesar more than any of
them, but that he killed Caesar because he loved Rome more. He says,
"As Caesar loved me, I weep for him. As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it.

As he was valiant, I honor him. But as he was ambitious, I slew him"

(3.2.23-25). Brutus then asks them if they wish him to die for his
actions, to which the crowd replies, "Live, Brutus, live, live!" (3.2.44).

Lastly, he begs them listen to Mark Antony and to let him depart alone.
Thus, he leaves Mark Antony alone to give his oration.

Antony's speech begins with the famous lines, "Friends, Romans,

countrymen, lend me your ears" (3.2.70). His speech continually praises
Brutus as "an honourable man" who has killed Caesar for being
ambitious yet also describes Caesar as the most honorable and

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generous of men. In this way, Antony appears to praise his friend while
respecting the men who murdered him, when in fact, Antony is inciting
hte crowd against Brutus, Cassius and the conspirators.

The plebeians are easily swayed and conclude that Caesar was not
ambitious, and was wrongly murdered. Next, after the plebeians beg,
Antony reads Caesar's will after descending into the masses and
standing next to Caesar's body. He shows them the stab wounds and
names the conspirators who gave Caesar the wounds. The crowd starts
to surge away in anarchy, crying, "Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire!
Kill! Slay!" (3.2.196). Antony stops them and finally reads the will, in
which Caesar has given every Roman citizen seventy-five drachmas and
the freedom to roam his land. The plebeians react in a frenzy of anger
against the men who killed Caesar, and carry away the body. Antony
says, "Now let it work. Mischief, thou art afoot. / Take thou what
course thou wilt" (3.2.248-249). The servant of Octavius arrives and
tells Antony that Octavius is already in Rome and is waiting for him at
Caesar's house.

Act Three, Scene Three

Cinna the poet (not Cinna the conspirator) is unable to sleep that night
and wanders through the streets of Rome. Some plebeians find him and
demand to know who he is and what he is doing on the street. He tells

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them that he is going to Caesar's funeral as a friend of Caesar. When
they ask him his name, he tells them Cinna, at which the plebeians cry,
"Tear him to pieces! He's a conspirator" (3.3.27). Cinna responds by
saying, "I am Cinna the poet, I am Cinna the poet" (3.3.28), but they
attack him anyway and carry him away.

Act Four, Scene One

Antony, Octavius and Lepidus have banded together in a

counterconspiracy to destroy the men who killed Caesar. Antony has a
paper with names on it and he says, "These many, then, shall die; their
names are pricked" (4.1.1). The men then mark more names of people
who must die, including the brother of Lepidus and the son of Mark
Antony's sister. Antony states that, "He shall not live. Look, with a spot I
damn him" (4.1.6).

Antony then sends Lepidus to Caesar's house to fetch the will. He hopes
to somehow reduce the amount of money that needs to be paid to the
beneficiaries. After Lepidus leaves, Antony tells Octavius that Lepidus
was a poor choice to form the second triumvirate with. Octavius says,
"You may do your will; / But he's a tried and valiant soldier" (4.1.28).
Antony implies in his speech that he will eventually remove Lepidus
from rule, but that they should keep him a while longer.

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 Act Four, Scene Two

Brutus has brought his armies to Sardis (now Western Turkey) and has
set up camp. A messenger whom he sent to Cassius informs him that
Cassius is not as friendly anymore. Brutus remarks, "Thou hast
described / A hot friend cooling" (4.2.18-19). At that moment Cassius'
army arrives and Cassius himself appears. He is angry with Brutus and
starts to accuse him of wronging him, but Brutus makes him enter the
tent so that they do not appear to be fighting in front of their men.

Cassius is upset that Brutus publicly disgraced a friend of his for taking
bribes from the Sardians. Apparently Cassius had sent several letter to
Brutus urging for the man's release, but Brutus refused. Brutus is
furious that Cassius would even consider defending a man for taking
bribes, arguing that Caesar was killed for exactly such behavior. He
states, "What, shall one of us, / That struck the foremost man of all this
world / But for supporting robbers, shall we now / Contaminate our
fingers with base bribes" (4.2.73-76). Cassius and Brutus end up
threatening each other, with each man convinced he is better able to
lead the armies than the other.

The two men continue arguing, and Brutus finally tells Cassius that he is
upset that Cassius refused to send him gold with which to pay his
soldiers. Brutus says, "I did send / To you for gold to pay my legions, /
Which you denied me" (4.2.130-132). Cassius denies it, and in
exasperation pulls out his dagger and offers it to Brutus. He tells Brutus

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to kill him if he is such an terrible man, but Brutus recants and they
finally embrace in friendship.

A poet forces his way into the tent and demands that the generals

(Cassius and Brutus) not be left alone. He argues that there is a grudge
between them. However, having already resumed their friendship, they
order him away.

Brutus finally informs Cassius that Portia is dead. Cassius, is surprised by

the news and asks how she died. Brutus explains that Portia, left alone
in the city after he fled, was upset that Octavius and Antony had seized
control of Rome. She therefore took live embers and swallowed them,
killing herself. Titinius and Messala arrive and Brutus immediately
changes the subject. Cassius takes him aside and asks, "Portia, art thou
gone?" (4.2.218). Brutus tells him not to speak of her anymore.

Brutus and Messala compare letters they have received informing them
that Antony and Octavius are marching towards them from Greece.
Messala tells Brutus that over one hundred senators have been put to
death, but Brutus says his letter only mentioned seventy, including the
orator Cicero. Messala then asks Brutus if he has heard anything about
Portia, to which Brutus replies, "Nothing, Messala" (4.2.236), and asks
Messala for news of her, pretending to hear of her death for the first
time.

Brutus and Cassius then decide whether to wait for Antony and
Octavius in Sardis or march to meet the opposing army in Philippi.

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Cassius prefers to wait and keep his men fresh, but Brutus thinks that
the enemy is gaining in power every day and therefore must be
stopped as soon as possible. Cassius finally agrees with him and leaves
for his tent to rest before leaving in the morning.

Brutus remains awake with his servant Lucius. He orders two men,
Claudio and Varrus, to enter his tent and sleep there in case he needs
to send them on an errand during the night. Brutus then asks Lucius to
play him a song on his stringed instrument, which he does until he falls
asleep with his instrument in his hands.

Brutus starts reading a book, but the ghost of Julius Caesar appears,
causing the flame to dim. Brutus demands to know who has entered
the room, and the ghost tells him, "Thy evil spirit, Brutus" (4.2.333).
Brutus then asks the ghost why he has come, and is told that the ghost
will see him again at Philippi. The ghost leaves, and Brutus immediately
wakes up everyone else in the room. He orders Lucius to go back to
sleep, and tells Varrus and Claudio to inform Cassius that he should
take his army and march ahead.

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 Act Five, Scene One

Octavius and Antony, located on a battlefield in Philippi, have just

learned that Brutus and Cassius are marching towards them. A
messenger arrives and tells both generals that the enemy is so close
that they must do something quickly. Antony orders Octavius to, "lead
your battle softly on / Upon the left hand of the even field" (5.1.16-17).

Octavius contradicts him, and decides to march on the right hand side.
Antony is annoyed by this, asking, "Why do you cross me in this
exigent?" (5.1.19). Octavius replies, "I do not cross you, but I will do so"
(5.1.20).

Brutus and Cassius arrive at the head of their army. Octavius asks if he
should give the sign of battle, and Antony says, "No, Caesar, we will
answer on their charge" (5.1.24). The generals all meet and converse,
but only to insult each other. Antony accuses Brutus and Cassius of
being "villains," whereas Cassius tells Brutus that they would not have
to listen to Antony now if he had been allowed to kill him as he
originally wanted to. The men refuse to back down and are forced to
return to their armies and prepare for battle.

Cassius calls Messala over and tells him that this battle is similar to the
one Pompey fought and lost against Caesar. He points out that
although not normally superstitious, he is upset by the fact that two
eagles who accompanied the army all the way from Sardis have been

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replaced by crows and ravens, symbols of bad things to come. He ends
his speech by stating, "Our army lies ready to give the ghost" (5.1.88).

Cassius then talks to Brutus and asks him what he will do if they should
lose the battle. Brutus rejects suicide, but also tells Cassius that he will
never be dragged through the streets of Rome as a bound prisoner. The
two generals say a dramatic farewell and return to their respective
armies to prepare for battle.

Act Five, Scene Two

The battle begins and Brutus gives Messala orders to bring to Cassius.
He tells Messala to inform Cassius that he needs to advance faster in
order to catch Octavius' flank which is not fighting very well.

Act Five, Scene Three

Cassius is upset because he is afraid his men are running away from the
field of battle. He tells Titinius that he personally killed his
standardbearer who was trying to run away and took up the banner
himself. Titinius informs him that Brutus "gave the word too early"
(5.3.5) and that his soldiers quickly started looting the enemy camp

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once they captured it. In the meantime, Antony's army has been able to
surround Cassius.

Pindarus arrives and tells Cassius to run further away. He informs his
general that the tents have been taken and are burning in the distance.
Cassius sends Titinius to check on some soldiers and find out if they are
his men or not, and simultaneously sends Pindarus up a hill to watch
and see what happens. Pindarus misinforms him, telling him Titinius is
captured and killed by the troops.

Cassius calls Pindarus back down from the hill and hands him the sword
with which he stabbed Caesar. He tells Pindarus to take the sword and
stab him with it. Pindarus obeys, kills Cassius on the spot, and runs
away.

Titinius and Messala return to where Cassius is lying. Titinius has a

wreath of laurels on his head, a sign of victory, and is telling Messala
that Brutus has defeated Octavius but Antony has conquered Cassius'
army. He sees Cassius on the ground and realizes that Cassius
misunderstood what happened on the battle field. Titinius sends
Messala to Brutus to tell him what has happened. He then turns to
Cassius' body and says, "Alas, thou hast misconstrued everything"
(5.3.83). Titinius then picks up Cassius' sword and kills himself.

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Brutus arrives and sees the two dead bodies lying on the ground. He
remarks, "Oh Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93). Brutus quickly
recovers from the loss of his confederate and immediately orders the
soldiers to prepare for another battle, this time against Antony.

Act Five, Scene Four

Brutus appears again, still leading his troops. He tells his men to
continue fighting and leaves them in the midst of battle. Cato valiantly
fights but is killed. Lucillius pretends to be Brutus and challenges the
soldiers, but is quickly captured. The soldiers send for Antony, thinking
they have finally captured Brutus. Antony arrives and recognizes
Lucillius and tells his soldiers that although they did not get Brutus, they
still captured a nobleman. He orders his soldiers to continue fighting.

Act Five, Scene Five

Brutus arrives accompanied by several stragglers from his defeated

army. He first asks Clitus and then Dardanius to kill him so that he will
not be captured. They both refuse and stand away from him. He then
asks Volumnius to kill him as a friend, but Volumnius tells him, "That's
not the office for a friend, my lord" (5.5.29). At the sound of another
call to battle, Brutus hastily gets up and orders his men to flee ahead of
him. He keeps Strato with him, and finally convinces Strato to hold the
sword while he impales himself on it.

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Antony and Octavius arrive with their army. They find Brutus dead on
the ground and Strato nearby. Strato informs them how Brutus died,
and Antony states, "This was the noblest Roman of them all" (5.5.67).
He says that of all the conspirators only Brutus believed that he was
killing Caesar to uphold the Roman Republic; the others were simply
jealous and power hungry. Antony continues, saying, "his life was
gentle, and the elements / So mixed in him that nature might stand up /
And say to all the world 'This was a man'" (5.5.74). Octavius orders the
body placed in his tent and to cease fighting. The play ends with
Octavius stating, "So call the field to rest, and let's away / To part the
glories of this happy day" (5.5.79-80).

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 Characters

Brutus :

Brutus emerges as the most complex character in Julius Caesar and is

also the play’s tragic hero. In his soliloquies, the audience gains insight
into the complexities of his motives. He is a powerful public figure, but
he appears also as a husband, a master to his servants, a dignified
military leader, and a loving friend. The conflicting value systems that
battle with each other in the play as a whole are enacted on a
microcosmic level in Brutus’s mind. Even after Brutus has committed
the assassination with the other members of the conspiracy, questions
remain as to whether, in light of his friendship with Caesar, the murder
was a noble, decidedly selfless act or proof of a truly evil callousness, a
gross indifference to the ties of friendship and a failure to be moved by
the power of a truly great man.

Brutus’s rigid idealism is both his greatest virtue and his most deadly
flaw. In the world of the play, where self-serving ambition seems to
dominate all other motivations, Brutus lives up to Antony’s elegiac
description of him as “the noblest of Romans.” However, his
commitment to principle repeatedly leads him to make miscalculations:
wanting to curtail violence, he ignores Cassius’s suggestion that the
conspirators kill Antony as well as Caesar. In another moment of naïve
idealism, he again ignores Cassius’s advice and allows Antony to speak
a funeral oration over Caesar’s body. As a result, Brutus forfeits the

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authority of having the last word on the murder and thus allows Antony
to incite the plebeians to riot against him and the other conspirators.
Brutus later endangers his good relationship with Cassius by
selfrighteously condemning what he sees as dishonorable fund-raising
tactics on Cassius’s part. In all of these episodes, Brutus acts out of a
desire to limit the self-serving aspects of his actions; ironically,
however, in each incident he dooms the very cause that he seeks to
promote, thus serving no one at all.

Julius Caesar :

The conspirators charge Caesar with ambition, and his behavior

substantiates this judgment: he does vie for absolute power over
Rome, reveling in the homage he receives from others and in his
conception of himself as a figure who will live on forever in men’s
minds. However, his faith in his own permanence—in the sense of both
his loyalty to principles and his fixture as a public institution—
eventually proves his undoing. At first, he stubbornly refuses to heed
the nightmares of his wife, Calpurnia, and the supernatural omens
pervading the atmosphere. Though he is eventually persuaded not to
go to the Senate, Caesar ultimately lets his ambition get the better of
him, as the prospect of being crowned king proves too glorious to
resist.

Caesar’s conflation of his public image with his private self helps bring
about his death, since he mistakenly believes that the immortal status

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granted to his public self somehow protects his mortal body. Still, in
many ways, Caesar’s faith that he is eternal proves valid by the end of
the play: by Act V, scene iii, Brutus is attributing his and Cassius’s
misfortunes to Caesar’s power reaching from beyond the grave.
Caesar’s aura seems to affect the general outcome of events in a mystic
manner, while also inspiring Octavius and Antony and strengthening
their determination. As Octavius ultimately assumes the title Caesar,
Caesar’s permanence is indeed established in some respect.

Antony :

Antony proves strong in all of the ways that Brutus proves weak. His
impulsive, improvisatory nature serves him perfectly, first to persuade
the conspirators that he is on their side, thus gaining their leniency, and
then to persuade the plebeians of the conspirators’ injustice, thus
gaining the masses’ political support. Not too scrupulous to stoop to
deceit and duplicity, as Brutus claims to be, Antony proves himself a
consummate politician, using gestures and skilled rhetoric to his
advantage. He responds to subtle cues among both his nemeses and his
allies to know exactly how he must conduct himself at each particular
moment in order to gain the most advantage. In both his eulogy for
Caesar and the play as a whole, Antony is adept at tailoring his words
and actions to his audiences’ desires. Unlike Brutus, who prides himself
on acting solely with respect to virtue and blinding himself to his
personal concerns, Antony never separates his private affairs from his
public actions.

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Cassius :

Cassius is the most shrewd and active member of the conspiracy to

assassinate Caesar. He functions in some respects as the conspirators’
leader, although Brutus later takes this role. Both Cassius and Brutus
are concerned by Caesar’s rise to power, but Cassius’s motivations are
not nearly as honorable as Brutus’s. While Brutus worries about what
Caesar’s power could mean for the Roman people, Cassius resents how
Caesar has become a god-like figure. Further, Cassius repeatedly
suggests that tyrants come to power when the people allow their
power to be stolen. At the heart of his resentment and willingness to
assassinate is Cassius’s deep jealousy of Caesar’s rise to power.

From the very beginning, Cassius is pleased with himself for his ability
to manipulate others. The audience sees this manipulation in terms of
Cassius’s treatment of Brutus and his use of flattery and reassurance to
bring Brutus into the conspiracy to kill Caesar. Later, the audience
learns that Cassius is willing to gain money by means that Brutus finds
dishonorable and unacceptable, though the specifics are not fully
revealed. Cassius is at various times petty, foolish, cowardly, and
shortsighted. On the other hand, Cassius offers Brutus the correct
advice that Brutus should not allow Antony to talk to the Roman
citizens after Caesar’s death. Had Brutus taken Cassius’s advice, the
conspirators might have succeeded in convincing the Roman people
that Caesar had to die. Despite his villainous tendencies, Cassius
remains a complex character with hostile yet impressively passionate
traits.

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 Themes of Julius Caesar

Fate versus Free Will

Julius Caesar raises many questions about the force of fate in life versus
the capacity for free will. Cassius refuses to accept Caesar’s rising
power and deems a belief in fate to be nothing more than a form of
passivity or cowardice. He says to Brutus: “Men at sometime were
masters of their fates. / The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, / But
in ourselves, that we are underlings” (I.ii.140–142). Cassius urges a
return to a more noble, self-possessed attitude toward life, blaming his
and Brutus’s submissive stance not on a predestined plan but on their
failure to assert themselves.

Ultimately, the play seems to support a philosophy in which fate and

freedom maintain a delicate coexistence. Thus Caesar declares: “It
seems to me most strange that men should fear, / Seeing that death, a
necessary end, / Will come when it will come” (II.ii.35–37). In other
words, Caesar recognizes that certain events lie beyond human control;
to crouch in fear of them is to enter a paralysis equal to, if not worse
than, death. It is to surrender any capacity for freedom and agency that
one might actually possess. Indeed, perhaps to face death head-on, to
die bravely and honorably, is Caesar’s best course: in the end, Brutus
interprets his and Cassius’s defeat as the work of Caesar’s ghost—not
just his apparition, but also the force of the people’s devotion to him,
the strong legacy of a man who refused any fear of fate and, in his
disregard of fate, seems to have transcended it.

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Public Self versus Private Self

Much of the play’s tragedy stems from the characters’ neglect of

private feelings and loyalties in favor of what they believe to be the
public good. Similarly, characters confuse their private selves with their
public selves, hardening and dehumanizing themselves or transforming
themselves into ruthless political machines. Brutus rebuffs his wife,
Portia, when she pleads with him to confide in her; believing himself to
be acting on the people’s will, he forges ahead with the murder of
Caesar, despite their close friendship. Brutus puts aside his personal
loyalties and shuns thoughts of Caesar the man, his friend; instead, he
acts on what he believes to be the public’s wishes and kills Caesar the
leader, the imminent dictator. Cassius can be seen as a man who has
gone to the extreme in cultivating his public persona. Caesar, describing
his distrust of Cassius, tells Antony that the problem with Cassius is his
lack of a private life—his seeming refusal to acknowledge his own
sensibilities or to nurture his own spirit. Such a man, Caesar fears, will
let nothing interfere with his ambition. Indeed, Cassius lacks all sense of
personal honor and shows himself to be a ruthless schemer.

Ultimately, neglecting private sentiments to follow public concerns

brings Caesar to his death. Although Caesar does briefly agree to stay
home from the Senate in order to please Calpurnia, who has dreamed
of his murder, he gives way to ambition when Decius tells him that the
senators plan to offer him the crown. -Caesar’s public self again takes
precedence. Tragically, he no longer sees the difference between his
omnipotent, immortal public image and his vulnerable human body.

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Just preceding his death, Caesar refuses Artemidorus’s pleas to speak
with him, saying that he gives last priority to his most personal
concerns. He thus endangers himself by believing that the strength of
his public self will protect his private self.

Misinterpretations and Misreadings

Much of the play deals with the characters’ failures to interpret

correctly the omens that they encounter. As Cicero says, “Men may
construe things after their fashion, / Clean from the purpose of the
things themselves” (I.iii.34–35). Thus, the night preceding Caesar’s
appearance at the Senate is full of portents, but no one reads them
accurately: Cassius takes them to signify the danger that Caesar’s
impending coronation would bring to the state, when, if anything, they
warn of the destruction that Cassius himself threatens. There are
calculated misreadings as well: Cassius manipulates Brutus into joining
the conspiracy by means of forged letters, knowing that Brutus’s
trusting nature will cause him to accept the letters as authentic pleas
from the Roman people.

The circumstances of Cassius’s death represent another instance of

misinterpretation. Pindarus’s erroneous conclusion that Titinius has
been captured by the enemy, when in fact Titinius has reunited with
friendly forces, is the piece of misinformation that prompts Cassius to
seek death. Thus, in the world of politics portrayed in Julius Caesar, the
inability to read people and events leads to downfall; conversely, the

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ability to do so is the key to survival. With so much ambition and rivalry,
the ability to gauge the public’s opinion as well as the resentment or
loyalty of one’s fellow politicians can guide one to success. Antony
proves masterful at recognizing his situation, and his accurate reading
of the crowd’s emotions during his funeral oration for Caesar allows
him to win the masses over to his side.

Inflexibility versus Compromise

Both Brutus and Caesar are stubborn, rather inflexible people who
ultimately suffer fatally for it. In the play’s aggressive political
landscape, individuals succeed through adaptability, bargaining, and
compromise. Brutus’s rigid though honorable ideals leave him open for
manipulation by Cassius. He believes so thoroughly in the purpose of
the assassination that he does not perceive the need for excessive
political maneuvering to justify the murder. Equally resolute, Caesar
prides himself on his steadfastness; yet this constancy helps bring
about his death, as he refuses to heed ill omens and goes willingly to
the Senate, into the hands of his murderers.

Antony proves perhaps the most adaptable of all of the politicians:

while his speech to the Roman citizens centers on Caesar’s generosity
toward each citizen, he later searches for ways to turn these funds into
cash in order to raise an army against Brutus and Cassius. Although he
gains power by offering to honor Caesar’s will and provide the citizens
their rightful money, it becomes clear that ethical concerns will not

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prevent him from using the funds in a more politically expedient
manner. Antony is a successful politician—yet the question of morality
remains. There seems to be no way to reconcile firm moral principles
with success in politics in Shakespeare’s rendition of ancient Rome;
thus each character struggles toward a different solution.

Rhetoric and Power

Julius Caesar gives detailed consideration to the relationship between

rhetoric and power. The ability to make things happen by words alone
is the most powerful type of authority. Early in the play, it is established
that Caesar has this type of absolute authority: “When Caesar says ‘Do
this,’ it is performed,” says Antony, who attaches a similar weight to
Octavius’s words toward the end of the play (I.ii.12). Words also serve
to move hearts and minds, as Act III evidences. Antony cleverly
convinces the conspirators of his desire to side with them: “Let each
man render me with his bloody hand” (III.i.185). Under the guise of a
gesture of friendship, Antony actually marks the conspirators for
vengeance. In the Forum, Brutus speaks to the crowd and appeals to its
love of liberty in order to justify the killing of Caesar. He also makes
ample reference to the honor in which he is generally esteemed so as
to validate further his explanation of the deed. Antony likewise wins

the crowd’s favor, using persuasive rhetoric to whip the masses into a
frenzy so great that they don’t even realize the fickleness of their favor.

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Ethics versus Politics

The tension in Julius Caesar comes from the question of whether

Caesar’s position in power is ethically acceptable or not, and whether
men of good conscience can allow a man like Caesar to hold such
power over the Roman citizens. Caesar wins victories for Rome and
becomes popular both with the common masses and the wealthy
families. Politically, Caesar’s position appears beyond reproach, but the
conspirators in the play—namely, Brutus—conclude that they are
ethically impelled to stop Caesar before his ambition grows and he
becomes unstoppable.

The play directly addresses the conflict between ethics and politics
when Brutus and Antony deliver speeches after Caesar’s assassination.
Brutus has one opportunity to explain to the Romans that the murder
of Caesar was ethically necessary. Tellingly, while Brutus convinces the
crowd that he was ethically correct in killing Caesar before he enslaved
the people, Antony is able to instantaneously undo Brutus’s claims with
his own speech. For Brutus, inviting Antony to speak at Caesar’s funeral
was the right and honorable gesture, but he grossly overestimates the
public’s respect for these sorts of ethical decisions. In this instance,
Antony proves to be the better politician, capable of swaying the crowd
with his rhetoric and passion, while Brutus’s rigid morality limits his
ability to be a powerful politician and understand the fickle nature of
the Roman citizens.

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Tyranny

Julius Caesar revolves around the question of what constitutes a tyrant.

Before Brutus can convince himself to kill Caesar, he must believe that

Caesar is either a tyrant, or that he will inevitably become one. For

Brutus, this question depends on whether Caesar wants power for
himself or whether the senators and citizens are thrusting that power
upon him. In Act I, Casca tells Brutus and Cassius that Antony offered
Caesar a crown three times and that three times Caesar refused to
accept it. Caesar’s initial refusal of the crown suggests he doesn’t want
total power for himself, but the people are trying to thrust power upon
him. However, Cassius suggests Caesar will become a tyrant if he’s
given absolute power, even if he doesn’t start out as a tyrant: “I know
he would not be a wolf / But that he sees the Romans are but sheep”

(I.iii).

The question of tyranny is also at the heart of the crucial scene in Act IV
when Brutus and Antony speak over Caesar’s dead body. Brutus claims
that he was justified in killing Caesar, and Antony claims that Brutus
was not justified. The two men disagree about whether Caesar was a
tyrant or not. Ultimately, Antony is able to demonstrate how Caesar
rejected opportunities to seize personal power, shared his victories
with the Roman people, and included all the citizens of Rome in his will.
For the public, these assertions establish that Caesar was not a tyrant,
and therefore Brutus and the other conspirators are not only
murderers, but enemies of Rome. The success of Antony’s speech

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suggests that tyranny must, in some respect, be in the eye of the
beholder. The Caesar that Brutus describes in his speech and the Caesar
that Antony describes are the same man, but Antony is better able to
make the audience see Caesar as someone who would never have
resorted to tyranny.

Honor

In the Roman world of Julius Caesar, honor is a matter of selflessness,

rationality, and pride. No character in the play more clearly embodies
the virtue of honor than Brutus. Nearly every character recognizes
Brutus’s reputation for honor. For instance, Cassius exploits this
reputation when he recruits Brutus into the assassination conspiracy,
hoping that Brutus’s renowned honor will legitimize the conspiracy.
Even at the end of the play, after he has caused so much strife, Brutus
retains his honorable reputation. As Antony explains, “All the
conspirators save only he / Did that they did in envy of great Caesar.”
Brutus acted honorably because he killed Caesar for the greater benefit
of Rome, not because of his own jealousy. Brutus further demonstrates
honor through his commitment to rationality. Although initially
horrified by the idea of killing Caesar, Brutus weighs the matter and
concludes that, despite his emotional revulsion at the idea,
assassination is nevertheless justified. Finally, Brutus exhibits honor
when he chooses to take his own life rather than let himself be
captured. Capture would imply weakness, and Brutus’s desire to appear
strong and preserve his pride leads him to die on his own terms.

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Another key element of honor in Julius Caesar relates to loyalty, a
matter that proves somewhat complicated in a play where excessive
loyalty leads to much political strife. Shakespeare constructed his play
around two central friendships: one between Brutus and Cassius, and
another between Caesar and Antony. Although the profound loyalty
that defines each of these friendships is touching, that same loyalty
also proves dangerous. For example, Cassius leverages his devotion to
Brutus to convince his friend to join the assassination plot. Brutus in
turn allows his love for Cassius to lead him into errors of judgment that
ultimately result in both of their deaths. Just as Cassius and Brutus act
out of mutual loyalty, Antony also acts out of a deep devotion to Caesar
and, later, to Octavius. Although Antony initially claims the justness of
the conspirators’ cause, he demonstrates his ongoing loyalty to Caesar
when he turns the Roman public against the conspirators at Caesar’s
funeral—an act that instigates rioting and war. These characters
demonstrate honor through friendship, and yet their loyalty also
destroys the Republic.

Heroes vs. Villains

Both Cesar and Brutus are perceived to be heroes and villains in Julius
Caesar. At the opening of the play, Caesar is hailed for his conquests
and is admired for his apparent humility upon refusing the crown.
However, once murdered, Caesar is painted (by Brutus et al) as a power
hungry leader with the intentions of enslaving all of Rome. Brutus'
speech, which follows Caesar's death, successfully manipulates the

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plebeian perspective. By the end of his speech, the crowd is hailing
Brutus for killing Caesar, whom they now perceive as a great villain.

But, the crowd is easily swayed once again when Antony speaks.
Following Brutus' remarks, Antony gives Caesar's eulogy, manipulating
the crowd with stories of Caesar's kindness, and sharing the details of
Caesar's will, which leaves money to every Roman. At the end of
Antony's speech, the crowd is once again supportive of Caesar, mourns
his death, and seeks to kill Brutus, Cassius, and the other murderers.
The swaying opinions of the plebeians, and the great differences in
opinion that the play presents leave the audience to determine who, if
anyone, is the hero of the play, and who, if anyone, is the villain.

Omens

The seriousness with which Romans looked to omens is evident

throughout Julius Caesar; however ominous warnings and negative
omens are often overlooked or misinterpreted. For example, Caesar
ignores the soothsayer's warning to "beware the ides of March",
ignores Calpurnia's detailed dream of his death, and ignores the
negative omen of the sacrificial animal who has no heart. After ignoring
these omens, Caesar dies.

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In addition, after the festival of Lupercalia, Casca sees many strange
omens, such as a man with a burning hand, a lion roaming the streets,
and an owl screeching during the day time. Cicero, with whom Casca
confers regarding these matters, explains that people with interpret
omens as they see fit, inventing their own explanations. True to form,
Casca interprets these strange omens as warnings of Caesar's wish to
rule all of Rome with an iron hand, and to destroy the Republic.

Other omens that play important roles in the play include the
appearance of Caesar's ghost and when eagles abandon Cassius' and
Brutus' camp and are replaced by vultures.

Idealism

Brutus wishes for an ideal world. He is happily married, lives in a

beautiful home, and is successful according to all measures of Roman
living. However, Brutus wishes for perfection in his life, and although he
loves Caesar, Brutus fears Caesar is too power hungry, and might
possibly destroy the Republic. Cassius understands Brutus' idealism and
takes advantage of it in order to manipulate Brutus into joining the
conspiracy against Caesar. At heart, it is Brutus' idealism that causes his
ultimate downfall. Antony recognizes this fact when addressing Brutus'
dead body at the conclusion of the play, saying "This was the noblest
Roman of them all".

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Identities, both Public and Private

In Julius Caesar, the audience is able to see both the private and public
sides of Caesar and Brutus. Caesar is a powerful confident man who
leads great armies and effectively rules the Roman empire, yet he is not
without weakness. He is highly superstitious, suffers from epilepsy, and
ultimately proves to be human when murdered by his closest friends.
Similarly, Brutus is strong and refuses to show weakness when in
public, whether it be speaking to the plebeians or leading an army into
battle. However, we see through his intimate conversations with his
wife Portia and with Cassius, that Brutus is often unsure and greatly
pained. Specifically, after fleeing Rome, Brutus learns that his wife has
committed suicide, and is heartbroken when discussing it with Cassius.
However, as soon as soldiers enter his tent, he pretends to not know of
her death, and when told of it, does not react with great emotion.
Ambition and Conflict Caesar is a great man, and an ambitious man. His
ambition is what worries Brutus, and ultimately leads to Brutus joining
the conspiracy to murder Caesar. Cassius is also a very ambitious man,
and because he is so jealous of Caesar's power, wishes to kill him to

gain more power for himself. Ultimately, the ambition of these two
men leads to their downfalls and to virtual anarchy in the streets of
Rome. Great ambition leads to great conflict.

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Power of Speech

Speech plays a very important role in the plot developments of Julius

Caesar. The plebeians are easily swayed into greatly opposing
viewpoints through Brutus' and Antony's speeches. Antony's great
manipulation of the crowd causes anarchy in the streets of Rome and
creates the support for a mission to avenge Caesar's death.

In addition, Brutus is hesitant at first to join the conspiracy against

Caesar, but after speaking with the highly manipulative Cassius, Brutus
is more convinced. Then, after receiving an anonymous letter (actually
written by Cassius) that decries the rule of Caesar, Brutus is convinced
he must take action and agrees to join Cassius' murderous plot.

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 Motifs in Julius Caesar

Omens and Portents

Throughout the play, omens and portents manifest themselves, each

serving to crystallize the larger themes of fate and misinterpretation of
signs. Until Caesar’s death, each time an omen or nightmare is
reported, the audience is reminded of Caesar’s impending demise. The
audience wonders whether these portents simply announce what is
fated to occur or whether they serve as warnings for what might occur
if the characters do not take active steps to change their behavior.
Whether or not individuals can affect their destinies, characters
repeatedly fail to interpret the omens correctly. In a larger sense, the
omens in Julius Caesar thus imply the dangers of failing to perceive and
analyze the details of one’s world.

Letters

The motif of letters represents an interesting counterpart to the force

of oral rhetoric in the play. Oral rhetoric depends upon a direct, dialogic
interaction between speaker and audience: depending on how the
listeners respond to a certain statement, the orator can alter his or her
speech and intonations accordingly. In contrast, the power of a written

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letter depends more fully on the addressee; whereas an orator must
read the emotions of the crowd, the act of reading is undertaken solely
by the recipient of the letter. Thus, when Brutus receives the forged
letter from Cassius in Act II, scene i, the letter has an effect because
Brutus allows it to do so; it is he who grants it its full power. In contrast,

Caesar refuses to read the letter that Artemidorus tries to hand him in
Act III, scene i, as he is heading to the Senate. Predisposed to ignore
personal affairs, Caesar denies the letter any reading at all and thus
negates the potential power of the words written inside.

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 Notes about the play

Julius Caesar is a play about men: their relationships, their culture, and
their actions. In the male-dominated world of ancient Rome, characters
have a distinct understanding of what it means to be or act like a man.
Women in Julius Caesar represent everything that Roman men are not
supposed to be—however, the utter disdain men show for feminine
traits eventually proves shortsighted, as the play argues that women
and their special gifts are not to be taken lightly.

In Julius Caesar, masculinity implies not only bravery, but also

steadfastness. The opposite traits—weakness, fearfulness, and
inconstancy—are mainly associated with women. Male characters
continuously use terms such as “womanish” to taunt other men
perceived as timid or tractable. Brutus refers to the “melting spirits of
women” (2.1.121), and Caesar’s call for water following his epileptic
seizure is derided as the actions of “ a sick girl” (1.2.130). When men do
exhibit signs of wavering, they often blame their temporary weakness
on their mothers, whose “spirits” counteract the decisive, stalwart
natures they have inherited from their fathers. At one point, Casca
describes “three or four wenches” enthusiastically forgiving Caesar for
his fit and claims that they would have done the same if Caesar had
stabbed their own mothers, furthering the portrait of women as fickle,
foolish, and gullible (1.2.267–269).

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The female characters of Julius Caesar seem to internalize these
distinctions as well. Portia makes several blanket statements about the
female character, exclaiming, “How hard it (2.4.8; 2.4.41–42). Fearing
for her husband’s safety, she contrasts her firm, resolute “man’s heart,”
which can withstand the strain, with her timorous “woman’s might”
(2.4.7). Just as the men perceive the influence of their mothers and
fathers as being at odds within their own selves, Portia sees a
masculine side of herself competing with her feminine nature. Similarly,
when Portia wishes to claim power for herself, she does so by invoking
her male ancestors, inverting the male tendency to blame their
undesirable qualities on their female ancestors. After Brutus refuses to
acknowledge that her status as wife earns her the right to share his
secrets, she takes a contrary tack and tries to appeal to him as a kind of
fellow male. She claims that being descended from the great Cato, not
to mention having been chosen by Brutus himself, makes her

“stronger than [her] sex, / Being so fathered and so husbanded”

(2.1.295–296). Then, to further prove her emotional and physical
strength, she stabs herself in the thigh. Throughout the play, men
swear that they are not afraid to face death or injury; Portia proves her
manliness by making good on those boasts.

However, the play does present women as sharing a powerful,

characteristically feminine trait: They each exhibit an instinctive type of
foresight. The men of Julius Caesar, though powerful, are often caught
unawares by their fate. Caesar refuses to heed the warnings of his own
death, just as Brutus misguidedly believes the people will applaud
Caesar’s assassination. The play seems to suggest that the same

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resoluteness the Romans revere as a supreme masculine virtue can
become a liability when it turns into inflexibility and imperceptiveness.
Calphurnia and Portia both anticipate the dangers ahead. Like animals
that sense the arrival of an earthquake, the women seem tuned to a
different frequency. Calphurnia dreams of Caesar’s statue pouring forth
blood, with smiling Romans washing their hands in the flow. Decius
scoffs at her fear, but Calphurnia knows that her dream portends ill luck
for Caesar. Like an oracle, the unconscious Calphurnia predicts the
future, and her three cries of “Help, ho! They murder Caesar!” has the
force of prophecy (2.2.3). Similarly, long before Brutus’s downfall,
Portia claims to have heard a tumultuous clamor on “the wind . . . from
the Capitol,” which she interprets as trouble for her husband (2.4.20).
Later, when she senses the sea change about to take place, she kills
herself preemptively. Her suicide, described in mythical, grotesque
terms, serves as yet another portent Brutus ignores.

It would be too much to say that Julius Caesarvalorizes women, but it

does associate them with supernatural prescience. Certainly the play
suggests that, if their advice had been followed, their husbands might
have avoided some of the calamities that befall them. But in the end,
the female characters in Julius Caesar become collateral damage in the
tragedy, unable to escape what they foresee.

Protagonist Debate:

Critics of Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar have often found themselves

in never-ending dilemma regarding who is the protagonist of the story.

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Some believe that neither Caesar nor Brutus are the protagonists of the
play since Caesar dies right at the beginning in Act Three, Scene One.
Others believe Caesar to be the axial character of the play, around
whom the entire story runs. There also critics who like to think that it is
indeed Brutus who is the protagonist as the whole play centres around
his moral dilemma and ends with his noble death.

A protagonist is the main character in a drama, or any other literary

work. Most protagonists are clearly visible from the start of a novel, or
play. In Julius Caesar however, the protagonist can vary differently, for
each reader. In Julius Caesar, the tragic flaw of both Brutus and Caesar,
ultimately lead to their death, but Brutus’s tragic flaw makes him a
more diverse, and effective character. The failure to listen to advice is a
very common concept that keeps repeating itself in Julius Caesar, and
we can see that both Brutus and Caesar fail to listen to this advice, but
ultimately Brutus’ failure effects the development of the play more
effectively. Both characters fit into the structure of Shakespearean
tragedy, but Brutus follows the structure more correctly, then Caesar.
Brutus is the protagonist in Julius Caesar, because of his tragic flaw
being naivety, his failure to listen to advice, and because of the
structure of Shakespearean Tragedy.

In this short play we stumble upon tragic flaws that both Brutus and
Caesar posses. Although they are very different in nature, they
ultimately affect both of the characters in the play. From the beginning
to the end of the novel we come across many situations were Brutus
expresses his tragic flaw. For instance, at the beginning scenes of the

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play Brutus starts believing in Cassius’ words (I.ii), which will further
drag him into the conspiracy, and then later make him believe that
realistically the only way to free Rome from tyranny, or dictatorship is
by killing Caesar, (II.i.) “It must be his death: and, for my part, I know no
personal cause to spurn at him, but for the general. He would be
crown’d: how that might change his nature, there’s the question. It is
the bright day that brings forth the adder; and craves wary walking. The
abuse of greatness is when it disjoins remorse from power: and to
speak truth of Caesar, more than his reason. But ’tis a common proof,
that lowliness is young ambition’ ladder, whereto the climber-upward
turns his face; but when he once attains the upmost round, he then
unto the ladder turns his back, looks in the clouds, scorning the base
degrees by which he did ascend: so Caesar may; then, lest he may
prevent, augmented, would run to these and these extremities. The
importance visualized in this quote is that Brutus easily changes his
views on Caesar, just some time after hearing Cassius’ opinion on
Caesar’s power, it is quite clear that Brutus is experiencing the
beginning of many changes to his character, in the play. Caesar on the
other hand also demonstrates his tragic flaw, being arrogance, inn the
beginning of the play, for instance he says, (II.ii.44-48) “Danger knows
full well that Caesar is more dangerous than he: we are two lions
litter’d in one day, and I the elder and more terrible: and Caesar shall
go forth”. The significance of this quote is very plain, it is shows how
overly proud, hubris Caesar really is. Just basing the opinion on this
quote it is safe to say that Brutus’ tragic flaw makes him into a more
complex, diverse, and effective character in the play, compared to
Caesars’ tragic flaw which doesn’t psychologically change his character
throughout the play in any serious way. As one moves on in the book

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these tragic flaws keep reappearing in the play, signaling to the reader
that something is up, foreshadowing what is to come.

For instance, Brutus’ naivety comes up again (III.i), he tells Antony, the
most trustworthy, and loyal bodyguard of Julius Caesar, to not blame
the conspirators in the killing of Julius Caesar at Caesar’s funeral, but
Antony lies to Brutus and betrays there agreement. It sounds very
stubborn for anyone to do that, but then again the protagonist usually
has to have a tragic flaw in Shakespearean tragedies, in order for the
reader to understand who the protagonist really is. Caesar’s arrogance
does not go away either, but rather it appears several times before
Caesar’s death. It is quite clear that whenever Caesar is in the scene
there is always a statement he makes regarding his pride, for instance
(II.ii.10-12) “Caesar shall go forth: the things that threaten’d me ne’er
look’d but … on my back; whenthey shall see the face of Caesar, they
are vanished”. This quote is again affirming Caesar’s arrogance much
like (I.ii.208-212) “Such men as he be never at heart’s ease whiles they
… behold a greater than themselves, And therefore are they very
dangerous.

I rather tell thee what is to befear’d than what I fear, for always I am
Caesar”. These examples aren’t meant to compare their tragic flaws,
but rather to show which tragic flaw affects the development of the
character, and the play more. Brutus’ tragic flaw takes into
consideration this idea and has a bigger impact on Brutus himself,
rather than the arrogance of Caesar. For instance, it is clearly seen that
through the play Brutus’ tragic flaw makes him more of a diverse,
complex character, and it helps the reader understand the very depths

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of Brutus’ psyche. Brutus is very complex, because of his mistakes that
are made through his tragic flaw, which directly change him throughout
the play. For example Brutus first appears as Caesar’s close friend, then
he develops into the member of a conspiracy from believing Cassius,
then he becomes entangled in a civil war with Antony and Octavius, and
finally at the end it is seen that his character is shattered and he loses
everything he lived for, his principles, his wife, and also his life. For
example even Brutus’ men recognize Brutus’ loss and grief, (V.v.1314)
Clitus: “Now is that noble vessel full of grief, that it runs over even at his
eyes”. Not only does Brutus’ men say, this but Brutus himself declares
that he has nothing to live for anymore, it’s over, and he just wants to
rest, we can see this through his quotes, “Our enemies have beat us to
the pit: it is more worthy to leap in ourselves, than tarry till they push
us”, also saying “Night hangs upon mine eyes, my bones would rest,
that have but labor’d to attain this hour”. Although, one character
clearly takes the throne of effectively demonstrating how the tragic
flaw is supposed to change a character in order to highlight him as a
protagonist, both Caesar and Brutus’ tragic flaws inevitably lead to their
tragic deaths.

Another very important concept, that the reader should grasp, which
ultimately differentiates on who the protagonist is between the
characters Brutus and Caesar, is the reoccurring idea of the failure to
listen to the advice that close ones and others tell them repeatedly. In
Brutus’ case we can see this type of ignorance occurring in the
beginning stages of the play, (II.i) were Brutus fails to explain the
situation or the conflict that Brutus is internally struggling with, to his
wife Portia. She demands he explain his changing behavior, and

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attitude. The significance of this situation in the play is that, if Brutus
did tell Portia of what was on his mind, she would’ve most likely talked
him out of joining the conspiracy, since she loved him and didn’t want
any harm to befall him. Brutus isn’t the only one ignoring advice; in fact
Caesar also ignored important advice that would’ve saved him from
tragedy. For example, Caesar ignores the Soothsayer in the early stages
of the play, (I.ii) when he says, “Beware the Ides of March”, Caesar
doesn’t take this early advice seriously, and simply dismisses the
Soothsayer, calling him a dreamer. Later in the play the Soothsayer
comes back once again, this time on the Ides of March, and Caesar tells
the Soothsayer that the Ides of March have come, but the Soothsayer
reminds him that the day is not yet over, but Caesar once again, ignores
the advice. Not only is the Soothsayer’s words the only advice given to
Caesar, oh no, in fact Caesar’s own wife, Calpurnia conveys important
advice, the terrible nightmare of Caesar dieing, (II.ii 76-79) “My statue,
which, like a fountain with an hundred spouts, did run pure blood: and
many lusty Romans came smiling, and did bathe their hands in it”. With
conveying her dream to Caesar she didn’t want him to leave to the
capital, but at the end of the argument he ignores her and goes to his
death. If Caesar wasn’t so ignorant he would’ve been saved from the
conspirators, because in fact another character tries to warn Caesar, by
giving him a letter. (III.i) Artemidorus tries to give Caesar a letter to
save him from death, (III.i.6-8) “O Caesar, read mine first, for mine’s a
suit. That touches … Caesar nearer. Read it, great Caesar. CAESAR:
What touches us ourself shall be last served.”This quote shows us how
Caesar arrogance and his failure to listen to others gets in the way of
his survival; it also shows how when challenged Caesar is most
arrogant. The importance behind these examples is that if Caesar
listened to at least one of the many words of advice that characters

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told him, he wouldn’t have been murdered. Brutus’ tragic flaw, being
naivety, also comes back to haunt him, for instance Brutus does not
agree on killing Antony along with Caesar, he describes the conspirators
in the quote

(II.i.166), “Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers”. Sure enough this

failure to listen to killing Antony, further leads to the civil war, between
the conspirators and the army of Antony and Octavius, and we can see
that Cassius later blames him for this, (V.i.45-47) “Now, Brutus, thank
yourself: this tongue had not offended so to-day, if Cassius might have
rules”. Finally, although they are both ignorant to advice, it is most
importantly Brutus’ failure to listen that actually sparks the action in
the play, because his action in joining the conspiracy sparks the story in
the play, and if it weren’t for Brutus accepting to join the conspiracy,
Caesar wouldn’t be killed, and if Brutus were to agree on killing Antony,
there wouldn’t be a civil war at the end of the play.

This is then affirming that only the protagonist’s actions can have such
momentous implications in changing the whole story of the play,
therefore saying that again Brutus is the visible protagonist over
Caesar.

A final way to determine the protagonist in the play is to refer to the

structure of Shakespeare tragedies. First we must understand how both

characters fit into the structure, and then it will be clear which
character fits in better. In the first stages of tragedy or the
encroachment, we can see how Brutus takes on too much by (II.i)
accepting Cassius’ offer into the conspiracy. If the protagonist is

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changed to Caesar, then in the encroachment, it is safe to say that
Caesar takes on too much, in terms of power, he becomes too
powerful, (I.ii.149-150) “Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed,
that he is grown so great?”. Both of these perspectives fit in clearly into
the first stages of tragedy, but if one were to move along in the stages
then it would be quite clear, who is a more visible protagonist, in terms
of fitting into the structure more clearly. For instance, in the rising
action, there is the building up of opposite forces, often led by the
villain, eventually leading to the tragic ending. If one were to apply
Brutus to this stage, then the villain would be Cassius, but if Caesar
were fitted in then the villain would be Brutus. In the climax, where
Caesar, is murdered and the forces are released, Cassius and Brutus
against Antony and Octavius. If Caesar were said to be the protagonist
in this stage, (III.i) Caesar dies in the climax, which doesn’t quite follow
the structure of the tragedy. From this stage we can see how Brutus is
emerging as the protagonist, because once the forces are unleashed
against each other, he becomes the centre of the subplot. In the next
stage, being the falling action, it is clearly highlighted that the
protagonist dies, because of his own folly, his punishment is worse than
his crimes merit, and also the villain dies. This stage is clearly proving
that Brutus is really the protagonist, because in fact he does die along
with the villain, Cassius, towards the end of the play. Not only that, but
also in the conclusion of the play social order is restored and the
protagonist is usually praised, ending of with a funeral or the
protagonist being carried away.

It isn’t right to say that at this stage Caesar is the protagonist, because
in fact Brutus does die at the end, and is praised along with a funeral
that follows, (V.v.76-79) “According to his virtue let us use him, with all

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respect and rites of burial. Most like a soldier, order’d honourably”. Not
only does this quote help show that Brutus is the protagonist, because
he does have a praising and funeral at the end, but also as a side note it
shows how respected Brutus is, in fact he is understood as the
“noblest”, because he fought for what he thought was right. Even
though they both die from their tragic flaw, Brutus dies near the end of
the play which follows the structure of Shakespearean Tragedy, more
clearly then Julius Caesar’s early death.

In conclusion, with the tragic flaw, the failure to listen to advice, and
the structure of Shakespearean tragedy, one would clearly argue that
Brutus emerges as a protagonist in all aspects and structure in the play,

Julius Caesar. These aspects and structure make up the building blocks
of a tragedy, and are very important in the effectiveness of character,
and development of the play. Throughout the play we can see that
tragic flaw brings a sort of uniqueness to Brutus and Caesar, but in the
end this tragic flaw leads to their deaths. The failure to listen to advice
plays a role in sparking the conflict and story of the play. The structure
of Shakespearean tragedy brings together an organized outline for the
play, keeping the story interesting and organized. Although both
characters fit these categories, Brutus portrays them more effectively,
in the development of the character and the story, and fits the
structure more clearly and visibly better then Caesar.

The larger message of Julius Caesar-

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The characters of Caesar and Brutus are quite identical in the play. Both
of them are driven by passion and intuition. They have high
philosophical knowledge that makes them respectable. However,
Caesar is a man driven by virtue, while Brutus is driven mostly by
impulsive passion.

Genre

Julius Caesar is a tragedy, as it tells the story of an honorable hero who

makes several critical errors of judgment by misreading people and
events, leading to his own death and a bloody civil war that consumes
his nation. Brutus is by all accounts (including those of his enemies) a
noble Roman, and serves as the primary tragic hero of this play. He is
virtuous, scrupled, and cares most of all for the welfare of the Roman
Republic, whose democratic ideals he earnestly values and strives to
protect. In many ways, Brutus is the ultimate patriot; he places his
country above all else, even his deep love of Caesar. But in failing to
question the motives of others and assuming everyone is as virtuous
and selfless as he is, Brutus makes fatal errors. He lets Cassius
manipulate him into killing Caesar without determining if Caesar is
actually as ambitious as Cassius claims. Brutus also fails to recognize
Marc Antony’s insincerity when Marc Antony claims to support the
conspirators. Because of Brutus’s errors of judgment Mark Antony
triumphs, paving the way for the very outcome Brutus feared most:
Rome governed by tyranny. After realizing his mistakes, Brutus commits
suicide.

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Julius Caesar is based on actual historical events that would have been
very familiar to an educated member of Shakespeare’s audience.
Writers over the centuries have been divided over whether the
assassination of Caesar represented an idealistic assertion of
Republican ideals or the blackest act of betrayal and treason.
Shakespeare’s choice to tell this story in the form of a tragedy shapes
his representation of what these events mean. For example, one of the
conventions of tragedy is that the hero is tempted into committing a
dark or forbidden act, a mistake with terrible and irrevocable
consequences. While Shakespeare does not portray Caesar as an
admirable character, the fact that the story is told in the form of the
tragedy makes us see the killing as a nightmarish and terrible act. While
on one level, Brutus’s motivations seem high-minded and reasonable,
much of what happens in the first two acts seems designed to signal
that Brutus is being tempted into a fatal mistake. Cassius pushes Brutus
down this path, and Cassius is consistently portrayed as dishonest,
vindictive, and manipulative—and he specifically misleads and
manipulates Brutus. The fact that Brutus undertakes such a momentous
action as killing Caesar while being so blinded to what’s going on
around him suggests that it was a tragic mistake.

Like Brutus, Caesar also fits the mold of a tragic hero, though he has a
considerably smaller presence in the story. He too is well respected and
adored, not only by the populace but also by many of his peers.
Although some in the Senate fear his tyrannical nature, these fears are
mostly abstract; despite wielding enormous power, Caesar has not yet
proven to be oppressive or despotic. Caesar’s tragic mistake is his high
self-regard and assumption he is invincible. Caesar cannot allow himself

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to appear cowardly before either the Senate or his people. Therefore,
he willfully misinterprets the warning to “beware the ides of March”
(II.ii) as well as Calpurnia’s foreboding dream and the augur of the
heartless beast. Despite these omens, Caesar goes to the Senate where
he is murdered by the conspirators, setting in motion the civil conflict
that will dominate the rest of the play. As in the case of Brutus, Caesar’s
tragic mistake could have been avoided had he better known himself
and those around him

. Julius Caesar is a tragedy, as it tells the story of an honorable hero

who makes several critical errors of judgment by misreading people
and events, leading to his own death and a bloody civil war that
consumes his nation.

The Tragedy of Julius Caesar was in fact a tragedy by Aristotle’s

definition of tragedy. Aristotle defined tragedy as a tragic hero with a
serious flaw leading to their downfall, bringing with it emotions. The
events in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar follow Aristotle’s tragedy
definition.

It is considered a tragedy because a main character is involved in a

struggle that ends in disaster. Brutus is the tragic hero in this tragedy
because he struggles between whether to kill Caesar or not and later
whether he did the right thing or not. This leads up to his death.

The moral lesson

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One moral lesson found in Julius Caesar is the danger of putting too
much trust in the wrong people.

Julius Caesar believes that he can trust his friend Brutus. When Caesar
returns from defeating the sons of Pompey in battle, he has Brutus by
his side. Brutus claims to love Caesar, which is part of his own internal
struggle, and the men share a close relationship. Yet Caesar allows this
intimate friendship to blind him to the changes in his trusted friend.
Brutus has become broody and conflicted, and even when Caesar's wife
begs him not to go to the Senate on the fateful day of his death, Caesar
instead listens to Decius, one of the conspirators, and is led away to his
death. He is seemingly shocked to find Brutus among his murderers,
undoubtedly because he realizes the full scope of his misplaced trust.
Brutus himself is victim of trusting the wrong people, as well. Cassius is
a master of manipulating Brutus's feelings, and Brutus allows his
position to be swayed many times through flattery and fear tactics.
While it is true that Brutus appears conflicted early in the play, Cassius
uses those feelings for his own purposes, convincing Brutus that Caesar
is a threat and then blaming Brutus's own lack of will for Caesar's
successes. Brutus allows himself to be swept up in the plans of murder
without carefully evaluating the claims of the conspirators; Antony
brings this to his attention—as well as to the attention of the citizens
who have gathered to listen following the death of Caesar—after the
murder. The portrait of the self-serving Caesar whom Brutus has grown
to fear simply doesn't fit the totality of factual evidence.

Both Caesar and Brutus place themselves on a path to their own deaths
because they place too much trust in the wrong people. They both
allow their own decisions to be swayed by those who have selfish
ambitions of their own.

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Brutus, a good and brave man, is lured into a conspiracy to kill his close
friend, Julius Caesar. Cassius, a leader of the conspiracy, wants to kill
Caesar because he is jealous of the way his former equal has broken
away from the rest of them and now seems to be on the cusp on
becoming an emperor. Cassius doesn't want to have to bow down and
take orders from his former buddy. He knows, however, that to get the
public to accept an assassination, the conspirators need a person of
Brutus's stature on their side. Cassius manipulates Brutus into joining in
on the assassination by appealing to his nobler instincts and convincing
him he is doing it for the good of Rome.

Brutus does sincerely believe the assassination, though a terrible,

immoral act, will bring peace and stability to Rome. He loves Rome with
all his heart and wants it to prosper. However—and this is great
tragedy of the play—Brutus falls into the fantasy of thinking "just one
bad act" will cause every problem to be solved. He knows what the
assassination is wrong, but he believes the end justifies the means. In
fact, the "one bad act" does not solve anything, but leads to more and
more crisis, ironically throwing Rome into the civil war Brutus wanted
with all his heart to avoid.

Consistently, Shakespeare shows that you can't get to good through

evil. Evil and destruction breed more evil and destruction, becoming
forces impossible to control.

The lesson from this play is that arrogance can have deadly results.
Julius Caesar died because he was arrogant. Arrogance is about more

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than having a high opinion of yourself. It means that you put your
judgement above everyone else’s.

Cassius and Brutus killed Caesar because he was arrogant, and because
he was ambitious. Caesar’s arrogance led to the ambition. He did not
care what anyone thought of him. Caesar was Caesar. For example, he
ignored all of the warnings that his life was in danger. Caesar knew
better.
You can tell Caesar was arrogant by his reaction to the conspirators’
suit over Metellus Cimber’s brother. Caesar should have realized that
the men were up to something. They surrounded him, pleading with
him, and he thought nothing of it. His reaction is supremely egotistical.

Brutus and Cassius were just as arrogant as Caesar. They did not want
Caesar to be dictator, so they assumed that they knew better than
anyone else. What gave them the right to kill the leader of Rome?
Brutus and Cassius, and the other conspirators, paid for their
arrogance. Brutus believed that the movement needed to avoid killing
Mark Antony because he wanted to keep the assassination clean. He
did not want to be considered a butcher. Brutus put principle over
common sense.

Brutus assumed that Antony would not be any trouble. He even agreed
to let him speak at the funeral. Antony was ambitious and aggressive
too though. He desired revenge for Caesar’s death.

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Antony was able to swing the Roman people over to his side with his
excellent funeral speech. He left Brutus in the dust. Brutus and Cassius
both eventually ended up dead, because again Brutus acted arrogantly
during the battles against Antony and Octavius’s armies. Antony would
pay for his arrogance later.

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