UNIT II

SITE CONTEXT AND ANALYSIS

Detailed understanding of context of the site. Introduction to master plans, land

use for cities,development control rules. Site selection criteria for different building
typologies. Impact of buildingdevelopments on the surroundings including aspects such
as traffic, noise, pollution, microclimate,etc., especially in the context of large scale
projects. Understanding the above through real projects/case studies.
DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF CONTEXT OF THE SITE

Our human knowledge is frequently founded on context;

before deciding what to do next or what to think, we frequently try to comprehend the
underlying circumstances. The illusion is only one of many instances that we may use to
demonstrate the accuracy of context.

Buildings do not stand alone. They are a component of a wider social fabric designed to
motivate, facilitate, or house a variety of human endeavours. They provide chances for
development in response to society’s sociocultural, economic, and political
requirements.

Therefore, the context in architecture simply refers to the outside factors that impact the
structure and location.

These components can be divided into two categories: physical and non-physical.

The physical components of context include

1. nearby structures,
2. road networks,
3. the shape of the land, and
4. water table systems.

In contrast, the non-physical components include politics, economics, social dynamics,

and culture.

MASTER PLAN
What is the purpose of a master plan?
A master plan should take the best of the environment it will be integrated into and enhance,
support and resolve the challenges that currently exist there.

The master plan can be as small or as large in scale as it needs to be in order to address
the particular issues at play and can apply to both rural and urban settings.
  Development led – focussing on the creation of new commercial/ residential spaces
 Landscape led – providing improved biodiversity/ habitat, creating new parkland
and open spaces (for example by repairing and restoring former open-cast mining
areas)
 Socially led – creating entirely new settlements through urban regeneration that
targets areas experiencing deprivation. Examples include Stratford in East London,
and Poundbury in Dorset,

What are the principles of master planning?

A master plan must be sensitive to the defining characteristics or setting of the area that it
will sit within, delivering a viable solution to an identified need (such as housing requirement
or employment need).

Scale, proportion, materials, spatial relationships, the need to respect existing building
patterns (known as the urban grain), and environmental enhancements are all key to the
success of an appropriate masterplan solution, along with sustainability, actively reducing
pollution and generating landscape enhancements.

What makes a good master plan?

A good master plan will ensure integration and enhancement of the key elements of a
scheme and will bring benefits to the existing setting.

It can also promote spatial interconnectivity between dislocated settlements as well as

alleviate existing problems such as existing poor transport network through a settlement
How is a master plan made?
The constituent parts of a master planning process read rather like a recipe – with key
ingredients and a method.

Specialists from identified disciplines will need to be brought together to work through a
defined methodology in order to develop a master plan up to the local authority planning
submission stage. Every member of the team is critical to the success of the whole project.

The team will typically include the following specialist disciplines:

 Architect / Master planner (often the project lead)
 Landscape Architect / Master planner
 Planning Consultant
 Historical advisor
 Carbon assessor / eco advisor
 Biodiversity consultant
 Arboricultural consultant
 Highways and civil engineering advisors
 Quantity surveyor / cost advisor
 Services consultant (regarding drainage / water /gas / electricity)
Land use Planning
Land use planning is integral to building and managing cities and towns. It involves looking
at how land should be used, ranging from green space to residential areas and
industrial sites. It’s also the basis of zoning laws and restricts particular land use.

Careful planning also helps reduce our environmental footprint by ensuring that resources
are managed responsibly. As a result, it helps preserve the environment, conserve
resources, promote social gatherings, enhance communities, and support
transportation, industry, and economic activity.

 Ensures flood prevention

 Maintains and promotes safe routes for transportation
 Reduces noise and light pollution
 Promotes an ecologically-balanced environment
 Protects endangered species
 Reduces disaster risk
 Minimizes hazards and protects public health
  Maintains and improves the fiscal health of the community
 Preserves open space
 Manages growth
 Reduces pollution
 Provides cleaner air and water

Development Control Rules

Development Control Regulations are a set of rules that are planned to ensure the proper
and effective development of a city, as well as the general welfare of the public.
Regulation is necessary to ensure planned development. It depends on a
“plan-led system” whereas development plans are made and the public is consulted.
DCR govern the urbanization of a city and ensure efficient growth and the general welfare of
the public. These regulations Aim to provide basic needs to the public such as health,
safety, convenience, economy and amenity.
Developing new houses/industrial buildings/shops are important for supporting economic
progress. At the same time, it is also necessary to protect or improve the quality of towns,
villages, countryside, etc.

Objectives of the Development Control Regulations

 To stop the unfavorable demand and misuse of land.
 To assist private interest along with public interest in all phases of development.
 Development control is legal in nature and the planning authority has the power to
punish the defaulters.
 To control and limit overcrowding on land.
 To control the private development as per the required rules in connection to public
safety, health, and convenience.
Types of Development Control Regulation (DCR)
1. Town and country planning act
It involves the creation and implementation of strategies to provide better infrastructure
for people.
2. Zoning regulations act
It deals with the allocation of land for specific purposes and keeping a check on the use
of land and the construction norms.
3. Slum clearance act
The major focus is on reducing the number of slums and ensuring the rehabilitation of
inhabitants.
4. Building bye-laws
These are a set of regulations imposed on developers, which must be mandatorily met
during construction.
5. Periphery control act
The purpose is to protect peripheral land that comes under the jurisdiction of a State from
all sorts of encroachments and illegal use.
6. Land acquisition act
Acquiring land for governmental projects and compensating the landowners
appropriately.
Controllable Factors under DCR
1. Floor Space Index (FSI)
2. 2. Parking space
3. 3. Size of plots
As per the DCR, the size of plots appropriate for residential development ranges
according to the income level of occupants. The ideal size requirements under DCR
are -
Low-Income Group (LIG) – 135 sq m to 180 sq m
Mid-Income Group (MIG) - 216 sq m to 360 sq m
High-Income Group (HIG) - 486 sq m to 972 sq m
4. Lifts
5. Fire Safety
6. Structural design and services

Site selection criteria for different building typologies:

There are many factors which must be taken in to account while selecting a site for a
commercial and residential buildings. Some of these factors are given below.

Shape of the plot:

Geometry of the plot for any kind of construction is very important which can largely effect
the appearance of your structure. Shape of the plot should be such that the construction can
be easily made with cost low as possible. And also in the future you can further expand it. A
plot with more routes will be considered a good one

2. Location of the plot:

The surround area of the residential plot is very important. It effects the price and the beauty
of the plot. Plot should be taken in the area provided with a lot of services. And in a suitable
environment free from all kind of pollutions. Efforts should be make to buy it near to main
road. Because such plots are more valuable as compared to the plots situated away from the
main road.

3. Availability of Amenities:
Plot for a residential building should be taken in the area provided with much number of
amenities. Such as electricity, Telephone, Fax, Internet, Gas, School, Colleges, University
etc. and the most important is the good and fast transport system. so that communication
become more fast and quick.
4. Water table:
The water table at the site of residential building should not be very high. otherwise it will
effect the quality of water which are used for drinking and domestic purposes. A plot with
normal water table will be more preferred as compared with other plots having high water
table.

5. Sewerage System:
There should be proper sewerage system at the site of residential plots. So that the extra
water of houses can easily be drawn out especially in rains and floods. if in case there is no
sewerage system the dirty water effect the building and as well the occupants as well.

COMMERCIAL:
 Location.
 Climate of region.
 Availability of raw materials
 Cost and time frame.
 Population of the region
Industrial :
Industrial site selection is a necessary process that involves considering multiple factors that
could affect the working of the industry either while making the factory layout design or
during production.
It requires suitable tools to enable data gathering, storage, analysis, amalgamation, and
knowledge management to address this complex, multifaceted scenario. A few of the factors
which can help in the Industrial site selection are,
 Location accessibility and infrastructure
 Zonal Classification
 Site cleaning & clearing
 Topo and geotechnical survey
 Sewage and effluent discharge
 Power and water supply conditions
 CNG, LPG, and fuel oil supply conditions
Impact of building developments on the surroundings including aspects such as
traffic, noise, pollution, microclimate, etc., especially in the context of large scale
projects. Understanding the above through real projects/case studies.

Case study
1 Traffic
https://www.archdaily.com/324451/rethinking-kala-nagar-traffic-junction

2. Noise

3.Pollution
4. Microclimate
 UNIT II
SITE ANALYSIS

Site as offering potential/ limitations to architectural design. Importance of site

analysis. On site and off site factors. Analysis of natural, cultural and aesthetic factors.
Factors to include topography, hydrology, soils, vegetation, climate and microclimate,
surface drainage, accessibility, size and shape, infrastructure, sources of water supply
and means of disposal system, visual aspects, context of built environment.

Introduction to detailed analysis involving aspects like contours, slope analysis,

grading process, grading criteria, functional and aesthetic considerations. Maps of
matrix analysis & composite analysis methods. Understanding the above through real
projects/ case studies.
Introduction to Site Analysis in Architecture

Site analysis in Architecture is a starting phase of architectural and urban

design processes. It is done basically to gather information on the climatic,
geographical, historical, legal, and infrastructural context for a given plot or
area.

Site Analysis can be defined as a process of surveying or analyzing the

existing environment and how it will influence the structure’s design and
layout on the site.Site analysis in Architecture is a must to make a
successful design. It involves analyzing all features and advantages and
making their use in your design.

Site analysis is a crucial first step in creating a viable building design.

Considering factors such as site location, topography, zoning regulations,

traffic conditions, and climate allows a designer to maximize its inherent
opportunities and anticipate any potential issues which may cause
problems to the project.

Here is a quick run-down on some key factors and ideas on assessing and
getting the most value out of site analysis.
Site Analysis:

Site Analysis is the process of surveying or studying

the existing environment and how it will influence the

Goals of Site Analysis:

To achieve a successful design, site analysis

is a must & should be done carefully.

Site Analysis involves taking an inventory of

site elements and analysing factors relative to the clients needs & aims.

Gather relevant information about the properties of the site, from topography to climate to
wind pattern and vegetation.

Analyse these features and incorporate them into the design.

Elements of Site Analysis:

Location:

The site should be related to existing roads and landmarks. Time & distances from major nodes
should be recorded.

Neighbourhood context:

Zoning of the neighborhood is important and information could be found with municipal
authorities. Numerous issues viz. architectural patterns, street lighting, condition of existing buildings
must be observed. This would also include the immediate surroundings of the site. The reaction of
the surrounding buildings towards the site and people moving around should be analyzed.

Subsurface Features :

This includes analysis of following:

Geology: Geological history of the area, bedrock type & depth etc.

Hydrology: Underground water table, aquifers, springs etc.

Soil Genesis: Erosion susceptibility, moisture, bearing capacity etc.

 Need / Necessity of Site Analysis:

To satisfy functional adequacy, for optimum communication

Better choice

Cost effective

Increase the health and comfort

For adaptability

To improve the image of the city.

Types of Zones in Neighbourhood:

Residential

Commercial - Public / shopping

Institutional - School, University,

Hospital Industrial

Recreational

Green / Forest

Historic

What is Site Planning?

Site planning is the allocation of functions in a piece of land to derive efficient

utilization of resources at disposal.

Useful spaces with respect to functions are being created in the process and the
character of site is accentuated.

Role of Site Planner:

Researches

Study of factors of the site

Study the collected datas

Development of projects & ideas based on the understood site factors.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SITE PLAN AND MAP:

Site plan:

A site plan is the blueprints/drawings of what you plan to build on the given land/site or
the intended use of the property.

Set of ideas that are strung together in order to achieve something

a 'plan' is an orthogonal drawing of space (a building, land, room). It is what one imagines
when it is designed.

A site plan shows the streets and lots, land use, trees, property lines, fencing, and
proposed and existing structures in the vicinity of the project site

MAP:

A map is the actual lot that is recorded at the register of deeds office in that county.
Shows locations of things places, ideas in relation to each other.

A map represents a system (most commonly a landscape) describing relationships,

identities etc. It uses symbols, links etc .

A map is a visual representation of an area a symbolic depiction highlighting

relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and
themes.

Site analysis in view of:

I. Natural Factors

II. Cultural Factors

III. Aesthetic Factors

I. Natural Features: (Onsite Factors)

1. Geology

2. Topography Slope Analysis, Maps, Reading topography, Contour, Spot Elevation

3. Soils Classification of Types & Uses, Characteristics

5. Climatic Factors - Solar Orientation, Summer & Winter Winds, Humidity, Precipitation.

6. Vegetation Trees, Shrubs, Vines & ground covers

7. Wildlife

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 II. Cultural Features (Off-Site Factors)

8. Zoning / Ordinances ( ownership, restrictions, density ratio, deed restrictions, permits, height
restrictions)

9. Circulation: Traffic, Transit, & Linkage (pedestrain, vehicular, relationships, interface, noise)

10. Utilities (Strom & Sanitary Sewer, water, electric, Telephone, Cable , Gas, Below & above
ground)

11. Existing Buildings (onsite & offsite factors, character & Composition)

12. Historic Factors

13. Context: Fabric, urban, suburban & rural

14. People (noise, congestion, pollution)

III. Aesthetic Features

15. Natural Features Unique landforms or elements

16. Spatial Patterns Voids & masses created by structures or natural elements.

17. Views and Vistas

GEOLOGY:

The type of rock below the surface of soil, the depth, and the characteristic features of rock
should be identified. Such rocks could act as a foundation for many buildings. These are natural and
could form visible landforms. The stability of such geological formations is also important.

Geomorphology: the geology dealing with the origin and nature of landform with emphasis on
erosion process.

Physiography: the description of landform.

Bedrock: is consolidated rock material lying at various depths below all points of earth surface.

Geologic map: The important of geologic information where to get the information (sources of data)

Geologic base:
development, to answer the question of its specification as a foundation base.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Landforms are categorised by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope,

orientation, stratification, rock exposure and soil type.

Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such

as berms, mounds, hills, ridges, cliffs, valleys, rivers, peninsulas and numerous
other

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 structural and size-scaled (i.e. ponds vs. lakes, hills vs. mountains) elements including various
kinds of inland and oceanic water bodies and sub-surface features.

Landforms are categorised by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope,

orientation, stratification, rock exposure and soil type.

Aeolian landforms

Coastal and oceanic landforms

Erosion landforms

Fluvial landforms

Mountain and glacial landforms

Slope landforms

Volcanic landforms

Rupit Spain:

Here, the natural stone, the geological base, has

been used to form natural steps.

It has been supplemented with local stone.

TOPOGRAPHY

The form of land is called its topography. This is the most important factor to be analysed. Geology
and the slow process of natural erosion (soil being worn away because of wind or water) are
responsible for landforms and slopes. A topographic survey will reveal the badly drained areas and
natural drainage channels. It will be also revealing places that have good views and parts of the site
that are visible or hidden from any selected point outside the site. The slopes will decide the roads
and paths; a steep slope will increase building costs.

Landform

topographic map and interpretation

Slope analysis

The constraint and opportunity of landform

where to get the information

 Objectives:

An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally

any point in terms of both a horizontal Coordinate system such as latitude, longitude,
and altitude. Identifying (naming) features and recognizing typical landform patterns are also
part of the field.

A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons: military

planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but
detailed information about terrain and surface features is essential for
the planning and construction of any major civil engineering, public works, or reclamation projects.

Techniques of topography

There are a variety of approaches to studying topograpy. Which method(s) to use depend
on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing
surveys.

CONTOUR

Contour may refer to:

The outline of a figure, body, or mass.

A line that represents such an outline

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 A surface, especially of a curving form, Often used

in the plural.

An outline or silhouette

A contour line on a contour map, or the

corresponding line on the ground or sea bed

A closed path in the mathematical method of

contour integration

The bottom part of the diagram shows some contour lines with a straight line running through the
location of the maximum value. The curve at the top represents the values along that straight line.

A Three Dimensional Contour Graph A Two Dimensional Contour Graph

CONTOUR LINE:

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 A contour line (also isoline or isarithm) of a function of two variables is a curve along
which the function has a constant value. In cartography, a contour line (often just called a
"contour") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea
level.

A contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a topographic map,
which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness of slopes.

The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive
contour lines.

More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting
points where the function has the same particular value. The gradient of the function is
always perpendicular to the contour lines.

When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation
is
steep.

A level set is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of

variables.

Contour lines are curved or straight lines on a map describing the intersection of a
real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes.

The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a
parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places.

Contour lines may be either traced on a visible three-dimensional model of the surface,
as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated
from estimated surface elevations, as when a computer program threads contours through a
network of observation points of area centroids.

In the latter case, the method of interpolation affects the reliability of individual
isolines and their portrayal of slope, pits and peaks.

Various ground shapes as represented by contour lines and site sections

contour lines spaced far apart indicate a flat surface

contour lines spaced evenly describe a constant slope

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 contour lines spaced close together designate a steep rise/fall in elevation

Contour lines & Topography

Without the elevation numbers you could not tell these forms apart!

Contours must match existing grades at property lines.

Each contour line is placed with an elevation

marker. states the height of the contour relative to the site.

Elevation markers are documented in intervals

depending on the size of the plat.

Smaller sites or sites having gradual slopes may

show 1, 2 or 5 feet markers,

Larger or steeper sites may show markers in

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 Relationship between 2-D and 3-D representation of site topography (contour lines)

as well for a sloped topography and visa versa.

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 Affects of Slope on Building Design

Slope analysis is the tool to indicate each portion

of land with percent slope to see the potential in

developing each part for suitable use.

o Contour interval, pattern of landform

o Natural drainage pattern
o Unique features
o Slope analysis and percent slope.
o Site danger signal.

GRADING :

Grading means reshaping the topography of the site.

Grading can add interest to a landscape site to solve many problems and promote proper
drainage.

IMPORTANCE OF GRADING

Architects must ensure that grading becomes an integral part of the design process on a part
with location of buildings , circulation planning and the recognition and use of all landscape
qualities.

FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC REASONS FOR GRADING

1.Grading for drainage

2.Grading to create berms

3.Grading to create levelled areas

4.Grading to modify existing landforms

5.Grading to increase site interest

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6.Grading related to good views

7.Grading related to bad views

8.Grading to fit structures to

sites

9. Grading to emphasize or control circulation

Grading Process :

Key Terms

Sites :

A site contains design objects such as alignments, parcels, and grading groups.

Using a site, you can organize boundaries, alignments, and parcels

in a drawing. Drawings can have multiple sites, each of which can have associated objects.

Different sites can occupy the same geographic space.

Slope, Grade

Percent grade refers to the number of vertical units of

drop along the line divided by 100 units (ft/100 ft or m/100 m).
Slope is often used as a ratio of the number of horizontal
units to vertical units of drop along the line (3H: 1V, or
3:1).
Spot Elevation

Spot elevations are inserted points that designate a design point position and elevation.

Design Surface A surface created by the designer to represent the finished condition following
construction.

Grading Object

Grading objects are created from feature lines and consist of slope projection lines, a target (a
surface, a distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation) and a dynamic daylight line.

Grading Group

Grading groups are contained in a site and contain individual grading objects. Grading objects
within the same grading group are aggregated for volume calculations. A site can have multiple
grading groups.

Grading Criteria

A set of criteria that define how a grading object is created. Criteria are contained in sets,
which can contain individual criteria for each target type. Parameters include such items as cut/fill
format, cut/fill slope, and conflict resolution methods.

Target

A surface, a distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation specified as the desired endpoint of

the

Daylight Line

A line that intersects the target (a surface, a distance, an elevation, or a relative elevation) of a

feature line where they hit the target.

Projection Line

A line p
grading criteria, until it hits the target.

Site Grading:-

Construction requires preparation of the site

Top soil removed and stored for later final

grading Cut and fill may be required

Cut The removal of natural soil or

rock Fill The addition of soil or rock

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 Final grading involves adjusting the slope of the site to provide adequate drainage

Cut and Fill:

Cut and fill should be

balanced May require several

iterations

Creating a Profile:

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Calculating Cut and Fill Volumes

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Soil:

The different types of soil present are analysed. Soil decides the stability of land, foundation,
suitability, excavation, erosion, drainage, and plant growth (as the top soil is essential for good
plant growth). The bearing capacity of soil is an important factor to be considered while locating
buildings.

Soil classification

· General soil type based on soil texture. The triangle indicates the relative proportions of three
particle sizes -- sand, silt and clay.

· Key words for soil characteristics-- Soil texture, soil porosity, Soil chemistry, soil moisture

Soil survey data and the important of soil information

related to building construction and basement
related to water supply and septic system
related to functions of land use planning
related to vegetation and wildlife habitat.
where to get the information: Department of underground resources, Boring test and results
analysis from agricultural department

Hydrography

origins to all its destinations on the earth is called hydrology

Hydrography provides information about all types of water bodies present in and around the
site: lakes, streams, any marshy land (swamps), or natural wells. It also reveals the availability or
otherwise of a groundwater table and the depth at which it is available.

Hydrological circle

o · Surface water :

o · existing drainage pattern

o · water body - - pond, lake,

wetland surface and subsurface water

o · Aquifer

o · Aquifer recharge areas

Sensitive landscape character

floodplain
where to get the information : Hydrographic service department, harbor department

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 Hydrology Helps in the following ways:

Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites e.g. Dams.
The variation of water production from catchments can be calculated and described by
hydrology
Engineering hydrology enables us to f -ace
water and groundwater resources
The expected flood flows over a spillway, at a highway Culvert, or in an urban storm
drainage system can be known by this very subject.
It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for irrigation or
municipal water supply in droughts condition.
It tells us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges, stream gauges etc.) and software
(computer models) are needed for real-time flood forecasting

Hydrological cycle

The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous recirculating transport of the waters of the earth,
linking atmosphere, land and oceans.

The water holding elements of the hydrological cycle are:

1. Atmosphere
2. Vegetation
3. Snow packs
4. Land/ surface & Soil
6. Streams, lakes and rivers
7. Aquifers
8. Oceans
Hydrological Processes

1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Infiltration
5. Overland flow
6. Surface Runoff
7. Groundwater outflow
Watershed:-

A watershed is a basin-like landform defined by highpoints and ridgelines that descend into lower
elevations and stream valleys.

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 A watershed carries water "shed" from the land after rain falls and snow melts. Drop by drop,
water is channeled into soils, ground waters, creeks, and streams, making its way to larger rivers
and eventually the sea.
Water is a universal solvent, affected by all that it comes in contact with: the land it traverses,
and the soils through which it travels.
The important thing about watersheds is: what we do on the land affects water quality for all
communities living downstream.

Surface Drainage:-

In areas of heavy rainfall or low soil percolation, it is necessary to employ surface

drainage systems to get rid of surplus surface water from the land. Commonly used surface
drainage systems include shallow ditches, open channels, grassed waterways and sloped
banks.
These drainage systems drain away surface water quickly and efficiently, but do not make much
of a difference to groundwater. If there are land drainage problems due to groundwater, they will
need other solutions.
Surface drainage needs to be carefully planned by taking into account the land's topography, the
amount of rainfall received, and the type of soil. In some cases, shallow ditches following the
land contour may be enough, in others the ditches may need to be deeper or the land may need to
be graded or sloped to facilitate soil drainage. The ditches may follow a random pattern or a parallel
pattern.
Large fields with a good many depression areas do well with randomly patterned field ditches.
These shallow ditches follow the land contours, do not impede the movement of farm
machinery and drain away water from depressed areas. Parallel field ditches are excellent for
agricultural drainage on flatter types of lands, and are also used as to prevent erosion on
sloping farm lands. Water from the field ditches is drained away into side ditches. The side
ditches then carry water to an outlet channel.
Other methods for effective surface drainage include land grading and smoothing. Both of these
involve using soil moving equipment like tractors, scrapers and land levelers to alter the
land surface to make it easier for the surface water to run off. The land is first graded to give it
a proper slope and it is then smoothed to remove any depressions or obstructions.
Open drains and ditches need to be regularly maintained to keep them free from silt deposits
and vegetation growth. They also need to be monitored for signs of erosion. Sometimes the open
ditches, if they happen to be rather deep, may require to be fenced to prevent animals and people
from falling into them accidentally.
Surface drainage is important in farm areas as it prevents many
water-related land problems and ensures that crops do not become
water logged. Having a proper surface drainage system also prevent s
the topsoil from being washed away. The drained water is usually
carried away to a stream, river, dam or another drain.

AYACUT

The area served by an irrigation project such as a canal, dam or a tank.

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WATER

Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O.

Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds.

Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life.

On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below
ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water
particles suspended in air), and precipitation.

Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface
water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%

WATER RESOURCES

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans.

USES OF WATER

It include

agricultural,

industrial,

household,

Recreational and environmental activities.

Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water.

97% of water on the Earth is salt water, and only 3% is fresh water of which slightly over two
thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.

The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction
present above ground or in the air.

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily
decreasing.

Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world
population continues to rise, so too does the water demand.

Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only
have been lost
along with their valuable environmental services.

Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or

land ecosystems.
 The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists)
is known as water rights.

SOURCES OF FRESH WATER:

Surface water

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.

Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to
the oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration and sub-surface seepage.

Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within
its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on
many other factors.

These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the
permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the
watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates.

All of these factors also affect the proportions of water lost.

UNDER RIVER FLOW

Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will
often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution
flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain called the
hyporheic zone.

For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the
visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface water and true
ground-water receiving water from the ground water when aquifers are fully charged and
contributing water to ground-water when ground waters are depleted. This is especially
significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common.

GROUND WATER

Sub-Surface water travel time Shipot, a common water source in Ukrainian villages
 Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and
rocks.

It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is
useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface
water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

Sub-surface water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs
and storage.

The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surface water storage is
generally much larger compared to inputs than it is for surface water.

This difference makes it easy for humans to use sub-surface water unsustainably for a long
time without severe consequences.

Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a sub-surface water
source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

DESALINATION

Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted
to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis.

Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only
a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically
practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most
extensive use is in the Persian Gulf.

USES OF FRESH WATER

Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called
"renewable").

A use of water is consumptive if that water is not immediately available for another use.

Losses to sub-surface seepage and evaporation are considered consumptive, as is water

incorporated into a product (such as farm produce).

Water that can be treated and returned as surface water, such as sewage, is generally considered
non-consumptive if that water can be put to additional use.

It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is

for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals
being unsustainable.

It takes around 3,000 litres of water, converted

from liquid to vapour, to produce enough food
to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This
is a
considerable amount, when compared to that required
for drinking, which is between two and five litres.
 To produce food for the 6.5 billion or so people who inhabit the planet today requires the
water that would fill a canal ten metres deep, 100 metres wide and 7.1 million kilometres
long that's enough to circle the globe 180 times.

HOUSEHOLD:

It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for household purposes. These

include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water
requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding
water for gardens.

Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used
without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water.

VEGETATION:

A study of vegetation helps in locating large existing

trees,which can be retained. These can be used for
providing seating. The ecology of the area should also
be examined to know what plants or shrubs would
grow in that area.

Wildlife

This is an important consideration when choosing sites for parks and recreation. Fishing and
hunting are major recreational activities. The selection of land suitable for such activities depends on
natural wildlife present in the area. Wildlife also adds form, color and movement to the landscape.

One might also want to be informed about the wildlife present in the area to preserve it and not

Climatic Factors

Across a piece of land, the elevation difference, character of topography, vegetation cover,
and water bodies influence the climate of that area. On the other hand, precipitation and
temperature are the major factors affecting vegetation. In cool and temperate climates, vegetation
may be used to block winter winds.

region

temperature

micro-climate

1. WIND VELOCITY

2. PRECIPITATION RATE

3. TEMPERATURE

. 89
 4. HUMIDITY

Where to get the information: Department of Meteorology

Man-made factors:

Existing land use on-site, 0ff-site

Potential of change

Color symbol of land

use Facilities or site

amenity

Linkage and movement pattern

communication

circulation system :

accessibility

potential of change

Density : F.A.R

Zoning district

Set back, fire lane and other

regulation Parking schedule

FAR is one of the density control device, FAR is a term the zoning ordinance will
use to quantify and limit the amount of square footage of building area as a function of the
building site .

Zoning setback and height limits-- these minimums and maximums provide the basis
for the maximum building envelope on the site.

Cultural Factors

Existing land use ownership of adjacent property and off-site nuisance

Linkages

Traffic and transit-vehicular and pedestrian circulation on or adjacent to site.

Density and floor area ratio

Utilities sanitation, water, gas, electricity, storm water drainage.

Existing buildings

90
 Historic factors historic buildings and landmarks.

Aesthetic factors: visual qualities and relationship.

Landscape special character

Spatial pattern of the site

Visual quality and character

Visual disturbance

Natural features

Urban features

Visual value/ characters

vista

panoramic view

visual channel

framed view/ filter view

point of interest

Existing land use

:-

This implies a survey of the present status of the land-whether it is residential,

commercial, industrial or recreational. The ownership of the adjacent site will also affect the
land being surveyed.

Offsite nuisances:

Disturbances from outside and around the site have to be studied.

Visual nuisance elements:

Power lines, water tower, certain industrial complexes, highways, advertisement boards,
junkyards (waste dumps), etc., are some examples of eye-sore elements that have to be
taken into account.

Possible auditory nuisance:

Noise produced by heavy automobiles, trains, air traffic etc. and the surrounding
population has to be studied.

Olfactory nuisance:

Dumps, chemicals, other wastes in and around the site have to be taken care of.

. 91
Safety Hazards:

Severe or sudden changes in landform, such as a steep cliff at the edge of the site have
to be noted.

TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT SYSTEMS:

The relationship of traffic pattern to each other and to the site must be studied for adequacy
of access and efficiency of circulation within and outside of the site.

Efficient traffic and transportation systems will result in successful integration of the different
developments in the vicinity.

Direction of dominant traffic flow, both vehicular and pedestrian will also help establish
points of highest visual impact for the site.

Access must also consider pedestrian movement.

DENSITY AND ZONING:

Density refers to the population per unit land area. This data will determine whether existing
utilities and land areas will be sufficient to sustain additional future development, which will
naturally add to the existing population and bear on the capacity of these utilities.

Density is expressed in number of families or dwelling units per hectare. It may also be
expressed in Floor Area Ratio (FAR).

Density influences the privacy, social contact among people, and freedom of movement of an
individual or a group of people.

Zoning regulations, laws and codes are present in every city and municipality to regulate the
type of development. It divides the city or municipality into land use areas that are designated
by building height, building coverage, density of population, and open space.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS:

The study of the community and its social and economic structures are done to determine
whether there is a need, an interest, or any objections on the project.

Any proposed project must be compatible with the economy of the particular community. For
example, a high-end boutique is hardly suitable in a low income community.

The social structure of the community must be taken into consideration to ensure that a
proposed development will not result in any displaced families, andany major disruption in
their businesses and other activities.

UTILITIES / SERVICES:

It is important to determine the existing availability of utilities on site in termsof adequacy and
efficiency. This includes:

92
 tric power supply

Most water systems will supply domestic, industrial, and fire stand-by supply from a distribution
system. Storm drains collect surface water and conduct it to rivers, creeks, or other bodies of water.

HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:-

1. Historical trails or passageways

2. Historic buildings or structures

3. Sites of particular significance

4. Archeology

5. Historic Landmarks

AESTHETICS:-

1. Major spatial Determinants : Landforms that serve as three dimensional masses or barriers to
define spaces from eye level.

2. Promontory : Mountain peaks that serve as landmarks or points of reference. Highly visible and
identifiable landforms.

3. Scenic vista: A visual panorama with particular scenic value illustrating a contrast between closed
views and open views as found from an overlook or clearing

4. Orientation vista : A visual panorama with particular value as a location reference for visitors ;
a site with a strong image

5. Tree cover: An area characterized by a dense vegetation canopy and limited views through
woodlands.

6. Flat grasslands: An open expanse with long views and a high degree of exposure

7. Hilly grasslands: An open expanse with short views and relative hidden or concealed areas

8. Water Image : A large area of surface water with a shallow shoreline profile and a strong sense of
water.

93
NATURAL FEATURES:

When sites are characterized by outstanding natural features of

earth, rock, water or plant material, these may be incorporated
in the site development as natural assets of the land.

SPATIAL PATTERNS:

Spatial pattern is defined as the way an open space of a given site is configured according to an
arrangement of elements that evoke activity or flow, both physically or visually.

VISUAL RESOURCES:

1. View is a scene observed from a vantage point.

A view can be a theme that may

The full view is not always the best view.
suggest and give added meaning to
buildings.
2. Vista is a confined view, usually directed toward
a terminal or dominant feature. It has three
components:
a viewing station,
a view, and
a foreground.

94
A view is usually better if en-framed or seen through an appropriate screen.

MICROCLIMATE:

Climate is an integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment ,

characteristic of a certain geographical location.

A microclimate can be in smaller area that experiences somewhat different climate conditions
than the larger surrounding area. It can be natural or man-made; accidental or deliberate. Your
house, other buildings, fences, presence of water bodies, trees, etc. are all elements that can create
microclimate.

95
 MICROCLIMATE PREVAILING INSIDE THE SITE:

Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water which may cool the local atmosphere, or
in heavily urban areas where brick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the sun's energy, heat up, and
reradiate that heat to the ambient air: the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate.

The microclimate and aspect of the site can be used positively in site planning to capitalize on
passive solar gain and natural ventilation to create more sustainable development. The following
points should be considered:

For each site, plotting the suns path at different times of the year may be useful in
determining the building orientation.

Sheltered, sunny areas and pleasant open spaces can significantly improve the quality of a
development and help encourage people to enjoy their environment.

Avoid locating habitable buildings in very exposed positions, such as on hillcrests, frost
pockets, narrow valley bottoms or north facing slopes.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE MICROCLIMATE OF ANY AREA.

The kinds of terrain that can interact with the synoptic pattern and produce microclimates.

Terrain does include mountains, but also forests, farm fields, lakes, basically anything under the sky.

96
 Here are the three major categories of terrain features that produce microclimate:

Mountains and valleys; Land cover: trees, soil types, etc; Bodies of water, lakes and oceans.

Now we will look at each of these categories more closely and see some examples of how these
terrain features affect day-to-day weather and even watch/warning decisions.

Water bodies

Vegetation

Topography/slope/landform

Sun/Wind

Existing buildings

WATER BODIES as a MODIFIER

Water can also be used effectively for cooling of internal as well as surrounding
environment. Ponds, streams, fountains, sprays and cascades can be used where water is available in
summer. These are particularly effective in dry conditions where relative humidity levels are low.

Water bodies major modifiers of micro-climate around the building.

Evaporative cooling through water bodies lower the temperature of micro-climate by

evaporating water.

Bodies of water affect climate in many ways, but perhaps the most significant impact is
based on the fact that large bodies of water act as heat sinks. In other words, large bodies of
water tend to store heat in warm periods and release it in cold periods.

Bodies of water tend to moderate temperatures in both summer and winter in nearby land
areas, compared to areas that are farther inland.

The water temperature at the surface is, therefore, pretty much the average daily
temperature for that
place at that time of
the year. During the
night, it is warmer
than the shore and
during the day, it is
colder. This is what
creates the cycle of
wind called the sea
breeze: onshore during
the day, and offshore
during the night. Impacts will include
temperature, dew point , cloud
cover, precipitation.
 In site/building micro climate can developed by introduction of small ponds ,fountains, flowing
water (canals)

Helps in maintaining thermally comfortable circulation areas and semi-open spaces.

A large, dense shade tree can significantly cool the air and ground below it. The area in
a developed industrial park may vary greatly from a wooded park nearby, as natural flora in parks
absorb light and heat in leaves, that a building roof or parking lot just radiates back into the air.

Trees are the primary elements of an energy-conserving landscape. Climatic requirements

govern the type of trees to be planted. Planting deciduous trees on the southern side of a building
is beneficial in a composite climate. Deciduous plants such as mulberry or Champa cut off direct
sun during summer, and as these trees shed leaves in winter, they allow the sun to heat the
buildings in winter.

Urban vegetation can directly and indirectly affect local air quality by altering the

urban atmospheric environment.

The four main ways that urban trees affect the area.

Temperature reduction

Humidity

Wind breaker

Removal of air pollutants

Energy effects on buildings

LANDFORM as a MODIFIER

SLOPE/ TOPOGRAPHY: Another contributing factor to microclimate is the slope or aspect of an

area. South-facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere and north-facing slopes in the Southern
Hemisphere are exposed to more direct sunlight than opposite slopes and are therefore warmer for
longer.

. Since water flows down

hill, soil at the top of a rise will be more dry then in the bottom of the valley. A slope facing
south or west will be dryer than a slope that faces north because of the angle of the sun. South-
facing slopes create a full-sun situation on the slope. East- and west-facing slopes create more
of a part- sun situation. North-facing slopes (depending on steepness) can produce shade the
same as the north side of a house.

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BUILDINGS:-

Cities experiencing the urban heat island phenomenon where central cities are warmer than the
surroundings rural areas. The cause of this phenomenon is due to four major factors

fewer trees, shrubs, and other plants to shade buildings, intercept solar radiation, and cool
the air by evapo-transpiration ,

impervious materials such as buildings and pavements that are made of dark colors absorb
the heat which causes the temperature of the surface and surrounding air to increase

tall buildings and narrow streets trap heated air between them that reduce air ventilation

heat exhaust from vehicles, factories, and air conditioners add warmth

UHI occurs both during the day and night where the largest urban-rural temperature difference
maximum UHI effect) is often three to five hours after sunset. This is because cities retain much of its
heat in roads, buildings, and other structures that prevents from cooling down

Tall buildings create their own microclimate, both by overshadowing large areas and by
channeling strong winds to ground level.

Wind effects around tall buildings are assessed as part of a microclimate study.
 Areas below roof overhangs tend to stay a few degrees cooler in summers and warmer in
winter than the area farther away from the house.

BUILDING SHAPE AND PLANNING:

The configuration of the building and the arrangement of internal spaces according to
function can help to influence the exposure to incident solar radiation, the availability of
natural daylight and airflow in and around the building.

In general, a compact building will have a relatively small exposed surface, or in other
words a low surface to volume ratio (SVR).

ORIENTATION TO SUN AND WIND

The orientation of the building on site is very important to achieve reduced heat gain and
improved wind circulation and ventilation. The major openings in the building envelope
should be placed on the North while the south face should be adequately protected from heat
gain by using shading devices or vegetation.

Prevailing wind direction should be taken into consideration while deciding the position
and size of the openings to ensure proper cross ventilation. This can go a long way in
improving comfort conditions within the building.

Direct sunlight hitting a wall will cause the area close to the wall to be significantly
warmer than the area that is just a short distance away.

Advocates of solar energy argue that widespread use of solar collection can mitigate
overheating of urban environments by absorbing sunlight and putting it to work instead of
heating the foreign surface objects.

100
101
Site Analysis Diagram: 102
A Site Analysis Diagram: The first stage will consist of a tracing paper overlay on the
base map of the property, showing circulation and weather patterns, orientation of the house
to the site, and identifying the placement of functional areas within the site, and their
relationship to one another.
Problem areas are identified, screening and views are shown.
Site plan building blocks

Site Plans, Elevations and Floor Plans Plan Instructions (Site Plans, Elevations and Floor Plans).

Property lines
Outline of existing and proposed buildings and
structures Distance between buildings
Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
Parking lots, indicating parking spaces
Driveways
Surrounding streets
Landscaped areas
Easements
Ground sign location
Utilities

Site planning in landscape architecture and architecture refers to the organizational stage of the
landscape design process.

It involves the organization of land use zoning, access, circulation, privacy, security, shelter,
land drainage, and other factors.

103
 This is done by arranging the compositional elements of landform, planting, water, buildings
and paving and building.

Site planning generally begins by assessing a potential site for development through site
analysis. Information about slope, soils, hydrology, vegetation, parcel ownership, orientation, etc. are
assessed and mapped.

By determining areas that are poor for development (such as floodplain or steep slopes) and
better for development, the planner or architect can assess optimal location and design a structure
that works within this space.

Transportation planning

Transportation planning is the field involved with the siting of transportation facilities (generally
streets, highways, sidewalks, bike lanes and public transport lines).

Transportation planning historically has followed the rational planning model of defining goals
and objectives, identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and developing
the plan.

Other models for planning include rational actor, satisfing, incremental planning, organizational
process, and political bargaining. However, planners are increasingly expected to adopt a multi-
disciplinary approach, especially due to the rising importance of environmentalism.

For example, the use of behavioural psychology to persuade drivers to abandon their
automobiles and use public transport instead. The role of the transport planner is shifting from
technical analysis to promoting sustainability through integrated transport policies.

Urban planning

Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use planning and
transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of
urbanized municipalities and communities.

Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level.

Based upon the origins of urban planning from the Roman (pre-Dark Ages) era, the current
discipline revisits the synergy of the disciplines of urban planning, architecture and landscape
architecture, varying upon from the inter lectural strategic positioning.

Influencing factors govern siting in a given site:-

Each project has a different set of requirements, limitations, challenges, and opportunities that
e factors presented
below are among the most influential.

104
CLIENT

Some clients have a clear idea of a program, budget, and other project objectives, including
the final appearance of the building. Others look to their architect to help them define the project
objectives and to design a building that meets those objectives. In both cases the effectiveness of the
relationship between client and architect is a major factor in making and implementing design
decisions throughout the project.

PROGRAM

All clients have a series of aspirations, requirements, and limitations to be met in design. The
program provides a place for identifying and delineating these factors and any number of related
considerations. The program may be short or long, general or specific, descriptive of needs, or
suggestive of solutions.

COMMUNITY CONCERNS

Clients and their architects must adjust their designs to satisfy community groups, neighbours,
and public officials. These design adjustments are often ad hoc efforts to meet objections or to
gain support rather than direct responses to codified requirements.

CODES AND REGULATIONS

Regulatory constraints on design have increased steadily. Beginning with simple safety
requirements and minimal land-use and light-and-air zoning, building codes and regulations have
grown into a major force in design that regulates every aspect of design and construction.

CONTEXT AND CLIMATE

Contextual factors include the nature of the surrounding fabric of natural and built elements.
Existing patterns and characteristics of this fabric can provide clues or starting points for approaching
site development as well as the building design, influencing its configuration and use of materials,
colors, and textures. Climatic factors include the nature of regional microclimates defined by solar
radiation, temperatures, humidity, wind, and precipitation.

SITE

These factors include site size; configuration; topography; geotechnical characteristics; ecological
features, including vegetation, wildlife habitats, water elements, and drainage; and accessibility to
property.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Building configuration, materials, and systems are rarely arbitrarily chosen and are only partially
based on aesthetic criteria. For example, floor-to-floor height required to accommodate structural,
mechanical, lighting, and ceiling systems in a cost effective manner varies significantly from an
apartment house to an office building to a research facility. Similarly, office fenestration may be
based on one module and housing on another module. In still other cases, these dimensions may be

105
 dictated largely by mechanical systems or even by the knowledge and preferences of the local
construction industry.

SUSTAINABILITY

In its broadest scope, sustainability refers to the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such
ongoing system to continue functioning into the future without being forced into decline through
exhaustion or overloading of the key resources on which that system depends. For architecture, this
means design that delivers buildings and communities with lower environmental impacts while
enhancing health, productivity, community, and quality of life.

COST

In most cases, there is a limit to the funds available for construction. Once defined, this limit has
a major influence on subsequent design decisions, from building size and configuration to material
selection and detailing. Although most budgets are fixed (often by the amount of financing available),
others may be flexible. For example, some owners are willing to increase initial budgets to achieve
overall life-cycle cost savings.

SCHEDULE

The demands and constraints set by the project schedule may influence how specific issues are
explored and considered. For example, an alternative requiring a time-consuming zoning variance
may be discarded in favor of one that can keep the project on schedule. Another example may include
committing to a final site plan early in the process before the building footprint on the site plan is
fully designed.

Techniques of site analysis :

Site Analysis is a preliminary phase of architectural and urban design processes dedicated
to the study of the climatic, geographical, historical, legal, and infrastructural context of a
specific site.

The result of this analytic process is a summary, usually a graphical sketch, which sets in
relation the relevant environmental information with the morphology of the site in terms of parcel,
topography, and built environment. This result is then used as a starting point for the development
of environment-related strategies during the design process.

A number of graphical tools for site analysis have been developed to assist designers in this
task. Examples of traditional climate-related site analysis tools are the Sundial, the Sun Path Diagram,
the Radiation Square, the Wind Rose, and the Wind Square.

These conventional methods of site analysis are efficient in simple sites with irrelevant
close obstructions, where the analysis can be reduced to the parcel at the ground level or even
exclusively to its center point. More elaborated techniques, like Volumetric Site Analysis, can
instead be used to study more intricate and obstructed sites, like those of high and dense urban
settings.

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Process :

As described by Edward T. White the site design process is divided up into three sections; research
phase, analysis phase, and synthesis phase. These three phases are divided into the eight
chronological steps in the design process.

Research phase: The first step is defining the problem and its definition. This is part of the research
phase. The site design and site planning process begins with the initial problem to be solved. This
is started by a client contracting a planner to work with a particular site.

Analysis phase: The next step involves programming the site as well as site and user analysis,
which is focused on in-depth below. There are numerous site elements related to the analysis
during this phase. This is part of the analysis phase in site planning.

Synthesis phase: From the analysis, a program is developed, which is part of the synthesis phase.
The third step deals with schematic design of a site plan as well as a preliminary cost estimate for
the site. Step four involves more developed designs and a detailed cost estimate. Step five is the
construction documents for the plan. Bidding and contracting for the project follows as step six.
Construction then will take place as step seven. The final step, step eight, in the site design process
is occupation and management of the site.

Elements :

These elements include location, neighbourhood context, site and zoning, legal elements,
natural physical features, man-made features, circulation, utilities, sensory, human and cultural, and
climate components.

The following elements typically are considered in most sites:

Location: The site should be related to major streets or landmarks previously existing.
Aerial photographs help in this assessment stage. There should be documentation of distances
and time from major places. This should be completed by either driving or walking the
distance first-hand.

Neighbourhood context: Zoning of the neighbourhood is important and information of this

type can typically be found at the municipal planning department of the site. Numerous issues
at this stage require direct observation. Features of this sort include architectural patterns,
street lighting, and condition of existing buildings. This would also include the immediate
surroundings of the site.

The reaction of the surrounding buildings towards the site and people moving around should
be analyzed. Other important components of the neighbourhood context include an analysis of
existing paths (pedestrian, cyclist, and vehicle), landmarks and nodes.

Landmarks are distinctive sites that provide way-finding for people in the area, and which
define the character of a neighbourhood. Nodes are key public gathering places that encourage
people to linger and socialize.

10

Size and zoning: Site boundaries can be located by either verifying the dimensions
phys
 ically
classifications, set-backs,
height restrictions, allowable site coverage, uses, and parking requirements are
obtained by obtaining zoning classifications from a zoning map, which can be
located from the city planning department. Infrastructure, social, and political
boundaries.

Legal: Typical legal information can be obtained from the deed to the property.
The deed is held by the owner of the title insurance company. In this deed is
information such as the property description, present ownership, and the
governmental jurisdiction the site is located in, and the city or county.

Natural physical features: Most of this information will be derived from the
topographic features on the site. A contour map of this magnitude can be located
from the survey engineer. Drainage problems as well as existing natural features of
trees, ground cover, ground texture, and soil conditions on the site should be
directly observed.

Man-made features: Features located on the site such as buildings, walls, fences,
patios, plazas, bus stop shelters should be noted. The site and location of such
features should be directly measured. Documentation of existing historical districts
should be made, some of which may already have reports completed. Locating this
information can be done through the municipal planning department for the site.

Circulation: The uses of streets, roads, alleys, sidewalks, and plazas are important
in this inventory step. It is not necessarily an analysis of these elements but more an
analysis of what occurs on these circulation gateways.

Utilities: Information for utilities concerning the site can be found through the
utility departments and companies in the local area. Generally this company has a
print of the drawing of this information needed. Information in this print
includes the location of all utilities and their locations around or on the site
itself.

Sensory: Much of the sensory information collected will be done through firsthand
experience. This type of information is obtained from sketching and photographs
(sometimes aerial photographs).
Direct observation of other sensory elements of noise, odours, smoke, and pollutant areas
must also be completed.

Human and cultural: This information can be obtained through census statistics on the
neighbourhood. Information regarding these statistics is available from the local municipal
planning agency. This information includes activities among people on the site and their
relationships to these activities.

Climate: This information can be obtained through the local weather service. Conditions
such as rainfall, snowfall, humidity, and temperature over months must be considered and
analyzed. The sun- path and vertical sun angles throughout an entire year are important to
note.

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 MAPS OF MATRIX ANALYSIS & COMPOSITE ANALYSIS METHODS:

MATRIX ANALYSIS In a matrix type of analysis, the most important / significant parameters /
elements are taken into consideration for analysis / decision making or working out proposals /
alternatives.

DECISION MATRIX - A decision matrix is basically an array presenting on one axis a list of
alternatives, also called options or solutions , that are evaluated regarding, on the other axis, a list
of criteria, which are weighted dependently of their respective importance in the final decision to
be taken. (also known as comparison matrix, grid analysis, performance matrix, evaluation matrix)

Uses
1. Extensively used in comparison studies of site alternatives in the selection process of a site
2. Can be used to evaluate between several sites for the same project / or for 1 site itself

Decision Matrix Activity

In creating a decision matrix, use the COWS method, shown below, that describes all the information
you should come up with in order to make an impartial decision:

C Criteria.
Develop a hierarchy of decision criteria, also known as decision model.
O Options.
Identify options, also called solutions or alternatives.
W Weights.
Assign a weight to each criterion based on its importance in the final decision.
S Scores.
Rate each option on a ratio scale by assigning it a score or rating against each criterion.

This method can be used to evaluate between 3 sites chosen for a particular project. The set of most
significant parameters (location, extent, terrain, infrastructure, land cost) can be plotted on the vertical
axis and weights can be assigned to each site (ranking).Then the total of the weights assigned can help
identify the best suited site for the project.

ALTERNATIVES
Option A Option B Option C
CRITERIA Weight Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1)
Criterion C1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
Criterion C2 2 2 4 1 2 2 4
Criterion C3 3 1 3 3 9 2 6
Total 6 4 10 7 14 7 13

(1)
Score = Rating * Weight

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An adjacency matrix is a useful tool for summarizing and evaluating the desired spatial
relationships among program elements. But spatial relationships among programmed uses
entails more than simple physical proximity.

Adjacent land uses may be connected functionally (e.g., pedestrian circulation), or visually, or
both. Whether or not adjacent uses are functionally and/or visually linked is often an important
design issue that should be identified in the programming phase

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 COMPOSITE ANALYSIS
A composite analysis is a drawing which combines and summarizes the layers of
information previously gathered and interpreted during the inventory process, beginning with a
base map of the site. As each layer of information from the inventory is added to the base map, a
series of zones will become apparent which reflect the characteristics of the included layers.

The composite analysis provides a means of simplifying a large quantity of complex

information into a form which can be used as a design tool. Since it will be used as a decision-
making tool during the design process, the composite analysis provides an ideal opportunity to
identify and emphasize the importance of the existing natural drainage features on a site.

In addition, this stage will help developers to see the limitations of the site. Some portions
of the site will have relatively few development constraints, while others will have many. Layers
which will present physical limitations to development include: steep slopes, soils constraints, and
vegetation patterns. Other layers will dictate where development can or cannot occur regardless of
physical limitations; these areas include property lines, setbacks, rights-of-way, easements, buffers
or other restricted zones.

The composite analysis should note site features which offer advantages as well as
disadvantages to development. Attractive views, access points for circulation, access to utilities,
site amenities, or climatic features, as well as those portions of the site which have existing
drainage features and significant vegetation should be noted so that these elements can be
incorporated into the site plan.

Disadvantages such as odors, noise, unattractive views or proximity to conflicting land uses
should be taken into consideration as well. Depending upon the complexity of the program for
development and the existing conditions found on a site, many additional inventory layers can be
prepared to map out information which is pertinent to the specific site. Such additional information
may include surrounding land uses, historical resources, ecological resources, zoning information,
climatic information, visual inventories, utilities, access, or any other information which needs
to be considered during the design process. Some of this additional information will not relate
directly to decisions regarding storm water but will influence other aspects of the design.

Once the various layers of information have been gathered and brought to a common scale,
they can be overlaid and evaluated to determine which portions of the site are best suited to the
development of each component of the intended land use. The process of overlaying the various
layers of information can be conducted manually with clear overlay sheets, or digitally by using a
computer.

A composite of the site inventory drawings will reveal the location and severity of
constraints to proposed development. Those areas which have the fewest or least severe constraints
would typically be best suited to most components of a development program. Constraints may
dictate adjustments in the design. For very small sites or sites which are not complex, a simpler
method of evaluating development constraints can be used, especially by individuals with
significan e
development experience. The overlay method is presented here as an illustration of the process
of gathering and interpreting information about a site.
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TOPOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS - Topographic analysis gives a general understanding about

an area, its land form and ground surface variability (terrain). These are basically represented
in the form of slope, aspect, hill shade, contour, directional flow (curvature), area, volume