HOMEOSTASIS
NAME: NYARADZO TERERAI GUMBO. STUDENT ID: 3230300277
CLASS : 3. GROUP : 3
DATE : 2025/02/26
A. Background of homeostasis
Homeostasis is defined as the process of maintaining a stable internal environment despite
external changes . Homeostasis is dynamic process as it involves continuous adjustments by the
body to maintain stable internal conditions. This concept was first introduced by Claude Bernard
by later on refined by Walter Cannon. A person may be homeostatic for one variable but not
homeostatic for another. Homeostasis is fundamental. Organ systems work together to maintain
it for example the nervous and endocrine system work together to detect change and respond to
this change. When homeostasis is compromised the body cannot perform normal physiological
functions and this has serious health implications for example hyperthyroidism.
B. Content
The activities of cells, tissues, and organs must be regulated and integrated with each
other so that any change in the extracellular fluid initiates a reaction to correct the
change. The mechanisms that mediate these responses are performed by homeostatic
control systems. At the core of these systems are four primary components ; stimulus ,
receptors, control centre and effectors. Firstly the stimulus occurs , this is any initial
change be it internal or external , that disrupts the bodys balance triggering the body
to respond . Receptors detect the change in stimulus and send signals to the control
centre , which compares the current state to the normal range. If a deviation is detected,
the effecter which is an organ or tissue, carries out the response signaled by the control
center to counteract the initial stimulus. It is not always possible for homeostatic
control systems to maintain every variable within a narrow normal range in response to
an environmental challenge. There is a hierarchy of importance, so that certain variables
may be altered markedly to maintain others within their normal range.
Mostly homeostasis occurs via negative feedback . In negative feedback, a change in the
variable being regulated brings about responses that tend to counteract the original
change meaning that the variable is brought back toward the initial value which is set
point When the body’s temperature rises above the normal range (36.1-37.2 degrees
celcius) sensors in the skin and brain detect the increase and send signals to the
hypothalamus. In response, the hypothalamus triggers mechanisms such as sweating ,
relaxation of hair muscles, vasodilation to dissipate heat and bring the body
temperature back down. Conversely, if the body becomes too cold, the hypothalamus
initiates shivering , contracting of hair (done by arrector pilli muscles ) , vasoconstriction
to generate heat and restore the normal temperature.
In contrast to this , positive feedback loops works to amplify a response rather than
reversing it. For example in childbirth, where uterine contractions stimulate the release
of the hormone oxytocin, which in turn strengthens the contractions, creating a positive
feedback loop that intensifies until the baby is delivered.Furthermore oxytocin triggers
the milk ejection as the baby continues suckling.. Another type of regulatory process
often used in conjunction with feedback systems is feedforward, in which changes in
regulated variables are anticipated and prepared for before they actually occur. For
example smell of food triggers nerve responses from odor receptors in the nose to the
cells of the digestive system. The effect is to prepare the digestive system for the arrival
of food before we even consume it . In a nutshell , homoeostasis is not solely managed
by individual systems in isolation but rather it involves the integration of multiple organ
systems.
C. Application and/or clinical relevance
1. Blood glucose regulation
Blood gucose levels are mainly regulated via negative feedback loop via hormones released
by the pancreas .The main hormones of the pancreas that affect blood glucose include
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and amylin .When food is ingested blood glucose levels
naturally rise. To counter this, the pancreas releases insulin, which helps cells absorb
glucose from the bloodstream, lowering the blood sugar levels back to normal. On the other
hand, when blood glucose levels drop too low, such as between meals or during fasting
stages , the pancreas releases glucagon, which signals the liver to convert glycogen to
glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
Clinical Relevance
Poor glucose metabolism leads to diabetes mellitus . Type 1 diabetes is due to deficient
insulin secretion whereas in Type 2 diabetes is due to insulin resistance with a defect in
compensatory insulin secretion,where cells become resistant to insulin. Both types of
diabetes if untreated result in too much glucose remaining in the blood this is
hyperglycemia . To manage this the primary treatment involves regulating blood glucose
levels through insulin therapy e.g IV insulin , oral medications, and lifestyle changes such as
daily exercise and diet changes . Monitoring and maintaining blood glucose within the
normal range is crucial to prevent complications such as cardiovascular disease, kidney
failure, and neuropathy.
2. Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure
Negative feedback is used to control arterial pressure using baroreceptors. Baroreceptors
are located in the carotid arteries and aortic arch, they detect changes in blood pressure by
sensing the stretch of arterial walls. Signals from the baroreceptors are sent to the medulla
of the brain, where they are compared with a reference set point. When arterial pressure
increases above normal, this abnormal pressure increases nerve impulses from the
baroreceptors to the medulla of the brain, where the input signals are compared with the set
point, generating an error signal that leads to decreased sympathetic nervous system
activity. Decreased sympathetic activities causes vasodilation of blood vessels and reduced
pumping activity of the heart, which return arterial pressure toward normal. Conversely,
when blood pressure drops too low, the baroreceptors reduce their signaling, activating the
vasomotor center. This triggers vasoconstriction and increased heart pumping, restoring
blood pressure to a normal range
Clinical Relevance
Dysfunction in this system can contribute to conditions such as hypertension, where the
body fails to properly regulate high blood pressure, increasing the risk of heart disease and
stroke. On the other hand, impaired baroreceptor sensitivity can lead to orthostatic
hypotension, causing dizziness and fainting when standing up due to inadequate blood
pressure regulation. Treatments such as antihypertensive medications and interventions for
circulatory shock can be used to manage some symptoms.
References
1. Raff, H., Strang, K., & Widmaier, E. (2018). Vander’s Human Physiology (15th ed.,
Chapter 1). McGraw-Hill.
2. 李相尧 General introduction of the course: Physiology [PowerPoint slides]. Zhejiang
University.
3. Guyton, A. C., & Hall, J. E. (2016). Textbook of medical physiology (13th ed chapter 1.).
Elsevier
4. Cleveland Clinic. (2023.). Diabetes: Symptoms, causes, treatment & prevention.
