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122 on July 16, 2024

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Judson T. Bauman

of Rubber Components
Guide for Design Engineers
Fatigue, Stress, and Strain
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Fatigue, Stress, and Strain of Rubber Components

Bauman
Fatigue, Stress, and Strain of Rubber Components downloaded from www.hanser-elibrary.com by 187.9.56.122 on July 16, 2024
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 Judson T. Bauman

Fatigue, Stress, and

Fatigue, Stress, and Strain of Rubber Components downloaded from www.hanser-elibrary.com by 187.9.56.122 on July 16, 2024

Strain of
Rubber Components
A Guide for Design Engineers
For personal use only.

Hanser Publishers, Munich Hanser Publications, Cincinnati

 The Author:
Ph. D., P. E. Judson T. Bauman, Arlington, TX, USA

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For personal use only.

Bauman, Judson T.
Fatigue, stress, and strain of rubber components : a guide for design
engineers / Judson T. Bauman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-56990-431-2
1. Rubber--Testing. 2. Reliability (Engineering) 3. Engineering design.
I. Title.

TA455.R8B38 2008
620.1‘946--dc22
2008039447

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 Inhaltsverzeichnis V

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objective................................................................................................................ 1
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1.2 Discovery............................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 First Vulcanization.................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Early Manufacture of Rubber Products ................................................... 2
1.2.3 Discovery of Reinforcement ..................................................................... 2
1.2.4 Production of Rubber ............................................................................... 2
1.3 The Rubber Molecule ........................................................................................... 3
1.4 Synthetics .............................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Curing and Crosslinking........................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Fillers and Reinforcement......................................................................... 5
1.4.3 Curing Ingredients .................................................................................... 5
1.4.4 Other Additives ......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Principal Uses of Several Elastomers ................................................................... 6
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................... 7
For personal use only.

2 Rubber Stress-Strain Behavior ...................................................................................... 9

2.1 Challenges of Rubber Behavior ............................................................................ 9
2.2 Characteristics of Stress-Strain Behavior............................................................. 9
2.2.1 Low Elastic Modulus, High Elongation at Break, and Non-Linearity.... 9
2.2.2 Hysteresis................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Stress Relaxation ....................................................................................... 11
2.2.4 Creep.......................................................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Mullins Effect ............................................................................................ 12
2.2.6 Reinforcement........................................................................................... 13
2.2.7 Cyclic Frequency and Strain Rate............................................................. 14
2.2.8 Temperature.............................................................................................. 15
2.2.9 Immersion Effects ..................................................................................... 15
2.2.10 Strain Crystallization ................................................................................ 16
2.2.11 Permanent Set ........................................................................................... 17
2.2.12 Recovery .................................................................................................... 17
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................... 18

3 A Theory of the Elastomer Stress-Strain Curve .......................................................... 19

3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 19
3.2 The Internal Structure of the Vulcanized Elastomer .......................................... 20
3.3 Assumptions and Hypotheses .............................................................................. 21
3.3.1 The Coil Spring Analogy........................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Chain Segments and Terminations.......................................................... 24
 VI Inhaltsverzeichnis

3.3.3 Statistical Distribution of Chains in Length

and End Point Separation........................................................................ 24
3.3.4 The Presence of van der Waals Bonds...................................................... 25
3.3.5 Reinforcement by Particle Rotation......................................................... 28
3.3.6 Migration of Entanglements..................................................................... 31
3.3.7 Temperature-Induced Chain Vibration .................................................. 32
3.3.8 Bond Breaking and Remaking in Deformation....................................... 33
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3.3.9 Parallelism-Induced Crystallization......................................................... 33

3.4 Elastomer Behaviors ............................................................................................. 34
3.4.1 The Non-Linear Stress-Strain Curve........................................................ 34
3.4.2 The Mullins Effect..................................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Low Elastic Modulus and High Elongation at Break .............................. 36
3.3.4 Hysteresis................................................................................................... 37
3.4.5 Stiffening by Reinforcing Fillers ............................................................... 37
3.4.6 Strain Rate Stiffening ................................................................................ 37
3.4.7 Temperature Response ............................................................................. 38
3.4.8 Stress Relaxation and Cyclic Stress Relaxation ........................................ 38
3.4.9 Creep and Creep under Cyclic Conditions.............................................. 38
3.4.10 Permanent Set ........................................................................................... 39
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3.4.11 Recovery .................................................................................................... 39

3.4.12 Strain Crystallization ................................................................................ 39
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 39
References ............................................................................................................................. 40

4 Stress-Strain Testing ...................................................................................................... 43

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Tensile Testing ...................................................................................................... 43
4.2.1 Specimens .................................................................................................. 43
4.2.2 Testing with the Dumbbell Specimen...................................................... 44
4.2.3 Testing with the Planar Stress Specimen.................................................. 49
4.2.4 Testing with the Loop Specimen .............................................................. 52
4.3 Shear Testing......................................................................................................... 54
4.3.1 Stress-Strain State...................................................................................... 54
4.3.2 Specimens .................................................................................................. 54
4.4 Biaxial Strain Testing ............................................................................................ 57
4.4.1 The Bubble Test ........................................................................................ 57
4.4.2 The Cross Specimen.................................................................................. 63
4.5 Compression Testing ............................................................................................ 64
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 66
References ............................................................................................................................. 66
 Inhaltsverzeichnis VII

5 Design Equations ........................................................................................................... 69

5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 69
5.1.1 Use of Design Equations........................................................................... 69
5.1.2 Elastic Constants ....................................................................................... 69
5.2 Design Equations for Various Geometries .......................................................... 71
5.2.1 Pads in Shear ............................................................................................. 71
5.2.2 Pads in Torsion ......................................................................................... 73
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5.2.3 Bushings..................................................................................................... 74
5.2.4 Pads in Compression ................................................................................ 76
5.2.5 Compression of a Long Strip.................................................................... 80
5.2.6 Solid Rubber Rollers ................................................................................. 81
5.2.7 Rubber-Covered Rollers ........................................................................... 82
5.2.8 Compression of a Rubber Sphere............................................................. 82
5.2.9 Compression of Solid Rubber Tire .......................................................... 83
5.2.10 Compression of Solid Rubber Ring of Circular Cross-Section .............. 84
5.2.11 Solid Rubber Ring with Rectangular Cross-Section................................ 84
5.2.12 Indenter, Flat Ended Cylinder.................................................................. 85
5.2.13 Indenter, Spherical Head .......................................................................... 86
5.2.14 Indenter, Conical ...................................................................................... 86
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5.2.15 Indenter, Long Narrow Flat End .............................................................. 86

5.2.16 Protrusion Through a Round Hole.......................................................... 87
5.2.17 Protrusion Through Long Narrow Gap................................................... 87
5.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 87
References ............................................................................................................................. 88

6 Calculation Methods for Spherical Elastomer Bearings ............................................. 89

6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 89
6.2 History of the Spherical Bearing .......................................................................... 89
6.3 Mathematical Description of the Bearing............................................................ 91
6.3.1 Overall Bearing Parameters ...................................................................... 92
6.3.2 Parameters of Particular Pads................................................................... 92
6.3.3 Angular Moment....................................................................................... 95
6.4 Shear Strain of Pads under Angular Deflection................................................... 95
6.5 Axial Loads ............................................................................................................ 99
6.5.1 Compression of Pads under Axial Force.................................................. 100
6.5.2 Bulge Shear Strain ..................................................................................... 101
6.5.3 Summary of Calculations ......................................................................... 103
6.6 Torsional Loads..................................................................................................... 103
6.6.1 Shear Strain of Pads under Torsional Rotation....................................... 104
6.6.2 Computational Procedure ........................................................................ 104
6.6.3 Limitations ................................................................................................ 105
References ............................................................................................................................. 105
 VIII Inhaltsverzeichnis

7 Finite Element Analysis ................................................................................................. 107

7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 107
7.2 Procedure .............................................................................................................. 107
7.2.1 Symmetry................................................................................................... 108
7.2.2 Loads and Boundary Conditions ............................................................. 108
7.2.3 Element Selection and Meshing ............................................................... 108
7.3 Material Model or Constitutive Equations.......................................................... 109
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7.3.1 Simpler Constitutive Equations ............................................................... 110

7.3.2 Higher Order Constitutive Equations...................................................... 110
7.4 Fitting Equations to Test Data ............................................................................. 111
7.5 O-Ring Seal with Pressure .................................................................................... 112
7.6 Rubber Boot .......................................................................................................... 114
7.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 115
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 115
References ............................................................................................................................. 115

8 Fatigue Testing............................................................................................................... 117

8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 117
8.2 Parameters Affecting the Strain-Life Curve......................................................... 117
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8.2.1 Parameters to Be Specified........................................................................ 118

8.2.2 Selecting Strain Amplitude ....................................................................... 118
8.3 Failure Criteria ...................................................................................................... 118
8.4 R-Ratio .................................................................................................................. 119
8.5 Combined Strain State.......................................................................................... 119
8.6 Wave Form............................................................................................................ 121
8.7 Creep and Stress Relaxation ................................................................................. 122
8.8 Frequency and Strain Rate.................................................................................... 122
8.9 Effect of Temperature........................................................................................... 123
8.10 Liquid Immersion ..................................................................................... 124
8.11 Recovery .................................................................................................... 125
8.12 Scragging.................................................................................................... 125
8.13 Batch Variation ......................................................................................... 125
8.14 Storage ....................................................................................................... 126
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 126
References ............................................................................................................................. 126

9 Fitting the Strain-Life Curve ......................................................................................... 127

9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 127
9.2 Development of an Equation for N in εa , R and T............................................ 127
9.3 The Strain-Life Curve Equation with Nagel’s Equation for Temperature........ 130
9.4 Employing the Simple Empirical Formula for Temperature............................. 131
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 132
References ............................................................................................................................. 133
 Inhaltsverzeichnis IX

10 Fatigue Life Estimation.................................................................................................. 135

10.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 135
10.2 Single Wave Form, the ε-N Method .................................................................... 135
10.3 The Miner’s Number ............................................................................................ 136
10.4 The Deterministic Fatigue Spectrum................................................................... 136
10.5 Sample Calculation of the Miner’s Number........................................................ 137
10.6 White Noise........................................................................................................... 138
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10.6.1 Rainflow Counting.................................................................................... 139

11 Fatigue Crack Growth and Tearing Energy.................................................................. 143

11.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 143
11.2 Griffith Strain Energy Release Rate...................................................................... 143
11.2.1 Griffith Criterion....................................................................................... 143
11.2.2 Derivation.................................................................................................. 143
11.2.3 Griffith Condition for Fracture ................................................................ 146
11.2.4 Critical Assumptions................................................................................. 146
11.3 Rivlin and Thomas and Tearing Energy .............................................................. 147
11.3.1 Modification of Griffith’s Criterion for Fracture of Metals .................... 147
11.3.2 Application to Rubber .............................................................................. 147
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11.3.3 State of Critical Assumptions ................................................................... 149

11.4 Shortcut Formulas for T ....................................................................................... 150
11.5 Tearing Energy Applied to Fatigue Crack Growth.............................................. 151
11.5.1 Pioneering Developments in Fatigue ....................................................... 151
11.5.2 The Change in Definition of Tearing Energy .......................................... 151
11.6 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 152
11.6.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Parameter............................................................. 152
11.6.2 Cycles to Failure by T or εa ? ................................................................... 154
11.7 Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................. 156
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 157
References ............................................................................................................................. 157

Appendix I. Rubber Nomenclature .................................................................................... 159

Appendix 2. Fatigue Terminology ...................................................................................... 167
Appendix 3. English to Metric Conversion ........................................................................ 177
Appendix 4. Fitting the Strain-Life Curve .......................................................................... 179
Appendix 5. Derivation of Tearing Energy Equations...................................................... 187
Appendix 6. Derivation of Equations for Spherical Elastomer Bearings ......................... 193

Sachregister ........................................................................................................................... 213