2.

0 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
2.1 KINEMATICS
Defining Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Distance travelled by an object is the length of path taken.

 SI unit is metre (m)
 Scalar quantity
 Can never be negative.

Displacement is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object.
 SI unit is metre (m)
 Vector quantity
 Can be negative and positive. The sign determines the direction of which an object is
displaced from its starting point.

Speed is the distance moved per unit time.

 SI unit is metre per second (ms−1)
 Scalar quantity
 Equation: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑑/ 𝑡 where d is distance travelled and t is time taken.

Average speed:- the distance travelled divided by the time elapsed.

This can be calculated using or

Practise Question
1 A student went to school 2.5km away with a speed of 5k/h and returned home walking at a
speed of 7.5km/h.

Calculate the average speed of the student in the time interval 0 to 40min

2 A cyclist completes the first of his journey with a speed v1 and the rest of the other half with a
speed of v2.

(a) Deduce the average speed of the cyclist for the journey.
(b) If v1 = 20km/h and v2 = 60km/h find the numerical value of the average speed.

Instantaneous speed is the speed at any instant.

Uniform/constant speed:-speed when a body covers same distance in the same time interval

Velocity:- the rate of change of displacement.

 SI unit is metre per second (ms−1)
 Vector quantity
 The magnitude of velocity is speed
 𝑣 = 𝑠/t , where s is displacement and t is time taken.
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Average velocity:- the displacement travelled divided by the time elapsed.

This can be calculated using or

Instantaneous velocity is the speed at any instant.

Uniform/constant velocity:-a particle is said to have uniform velocity if magnitude and direction of
its velocity remains the same and this is possible only when the particle moves in the same direction
in a straight line i.e. when a body covers the same displacement in the same time interval

Comparison Between speed and velocity

a. Velocity is a vector while speed is scalar but having the same units (m/s).
b. Both depend on time interval over which each is defined.
c. For a given time interval velocity has a single value while speed can have many values
depending on the path taken.
d. If a body returns to original/initial position, velocity is zero because total displacement is
zero while speed is greater than zero and finite.
e. Velocity can be negative or positive while speed can never be negative, i.e. speed is always
positive.

Acceleration: - the rate of change of velocity.

 SI unit is ms−2
 Vector quantity
 𝑎 = (𝑣−𝑢)/t , where v is final velocity, u is initial velocity and t is time taken.
 If the velocity of an object increases, the object is undergoing acceleration. Hence, if the
velocity of an object decreases, it is undergoing deceleration.
 If the velocity of the object is constant/uniform, the acceleration is zero and net force is
zero.
 An object is said to be undergoing uniform acceleration when there is a constant change in
velocity per unit time.
 If the direction of an object changes, it is undergoing acceleration by definition. Change
direction = change in velocity = acceleration

There are three possible ways by which change in velocity can occur:

When only direction of velocity When only magnitude of When both magnitude and
changes velocity changes direction of velocity changes
Acceleration has two
components;- one
Acceleration is perpendicular to Acceleration is parallel or anti-
perpendicular to velocity and
velocity parallel to velocity
another is parallel or anti-
parallel to velocity
e. g. uniform circular motion e.g. motion under gravity e.g. projectile motion

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MOTION GRAPHS
 Three types of graph that can represent motion are displacement-time graphs, velocity-
time graphs and acceleration-time graphs

 On a displacement-time graph…
o slope equals velocity
o the y-intercept equals the initial displacement
o a straight line represents a constant velocity
o a curved line represents an acceleration
o a positive slope represents motion in the positive
direction
o a negative slope represents motion in the negative
direction
o a zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest
o the area under the curve is meaningless

On a velocity-time graph… The gradient of a v-t graph gives the acceleration. Therefore

o The steeper the gradient, the greater the acceleration.

o Increasing acceleration = increasing gradient and
o Decreasing acceleration = decreasing gradient
 the y-intercept equals the initial velocity
 a straight line represents uniform acceleration
 a curved line represents non-uniform acceleration
 a positive slope represents an increase in velocity in the positive direction
 a negative slope represents an increase in velocity in the negative direction
 a zero slope (horizontal line) represents motion with constant/uniform velocity
 the area under the curve equals the change in displacement
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Velocity-time graphs show the speed and direction of an object in motion over a specific period of
time.
 The area under a v-t graph is the displacement.
 Areas under any negative parts of the graph count as negative areas, as they show the
object moving back to its starting point.

o To find the displacement of a curved v-t graph, you estimate the area under the graph
by splitting the graph into squares and counting up the area covered by each square

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  On an Acceleration-time graph

Describing Motion
The graph below shows a velocity-time graph for a journey of a boy from home to school.
Study the shape of the graph and describe the type of motion in each stage.

Solution
 O left home
 0-A moving with uniform acceleration
 A-B moving with uniform speed
 B-C moving with uniform deceleration
 C-D moving with uniform speed (speed lower than that of A-B)
 D-E moving with non-uniform deceleration (decreasing deceleration)
 E-F not moving
 F-G moving with non-uniform acceleration (increasing acceleration)
 G-H moving with uniform deceleration
 H reached school
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Positive Velocity & Negative Velocity
A positive velocity means the object is moving in the positive direction; and a negative
velocity means the object is moving in the negative direction.

 In a velocity-time graph, the velocity would be positive whenever the line lies in the
positive region (above the x-axis) of the graph.
 Similarly, the velocity would be negative whenever the line lies in the negative region
(below the x-axis) of the graph.

 An object is moving in the positive direction if the line is located in the positive
region of the graph (whether it is sloping up or sloping down).
 An object is moving in the negative direction if the line is located in the negative
region of the graph (whether it is sloping up or sloping down).

If a graph line crosses over the x-axis from the positive region to the negative region of the
graph (or vice versa), then the object has changed directions, shown in v-t graphs A and B
below.

Graph A sloping from positve region to negative

region i.e. sloping downwards, has a negative
constant acceleration but has positive initial
velocity and negative final velocity.

Graph B sloping from negatve region to positive

region i.e. sloping upwards, has a positive
constant acceleration but has negative initial
velocity and positive final velocity.

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 SPEEDING UP and SLOWING DOWN

 An object is speeding up when velocity is increasing positively or negatively.

 An object is slowing down when velocity is decreasing positively or negatively.

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Summary of SUVAT Equations
v = u + at ……………………………………………………………… (1)
s= …………………………………………………………...(2)
s= ………………………………………………………..(3)
v2 = u2 + 2as …………………………………………………………. (4)

Example 1
A cheetah starts from rest and accelerates at 2.0 ms-2 due east for 10 s.
Calculate (a) the cheetah’s final velocity, (b) the distance the cheetah covers in this 10 s.

Solution:
(a) Using equation (1): v = u + at
v = 0 + (2.0 ms-2 x 10 s) = 20 ms-1 due east
(b) Using equation (2): s = ½(u + v)t
s = ½(0 + 20 ms-1) x 10 s = 100 m due east

You could also find the displacement by plotting a velocity-time graph for this motion. The
magnitude of the displacement is equal to the area under the graph.

Example 2
An athlete accelerates out of her blocks at 5.0 ms-2
. (a) How long does it take her to run the first 10 m?
(b) What is her velocity at this point?
Solution:
(a) Using equation (3): s = ut + ½at2
10 m = 0 + (1/2 x 5.0 ms-2 x t2) t2 = 4.0 s2 t = 2.0 s
(b) Using equation (1): v = u + at
v = 0 + (5.0 ms-2 x 2.0 s) v = 10 ms-1

Reaction time, Braking Distance and Stopping distance

Reaction Time:- time between seeing danger and taking action to avoid the danger. When
driving a car, it is the time taken to hit the brakes after seeing the hazard.
Stopping distances of Cars:
a. 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
b. Thinking distance: the distance travelled by a vehicle during the drivers reaction time
𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ×𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
c. Braking Distance: the distance a car travels after the brakes are applied until the car
comes to a stop
. Factors that affect the thinking distance of a driver.
a. Consumption of drugs / alcohol increases thinking distance
b. Driver fatigue/tiredness increases thinking distance.
c. Car speed: An increase in the speed will increase the distance over the same reaction
time.

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Factors that affect the braking distance of a car.
a. The speed of the vehicle – An increase in the speed will increase the kinetic energy of
the vehicle. The braking force of the brakes will stay the same. So the brakes will
have to be applied for a longer duration in order to stop the vehicle. Therefore the
distance will increase. Additionally, the braking distance is directly proportional to
the speed squared, (due to Ek = mu2 = Fs. From v2 = u2 + 2as, v = 0 and a is
negative acceleration, so u2 = 2as u2 α s. If the speed doubles, the braking distance
quadruples and a = , so (a) is independent of time t.
b. Mass of the Vehicle: Greater mass means greater braking distance (braking distance
proportional mass).
c. Road Conditions: Wet / slippery / icy road means less friction. As a result, the
braking force will have to be applied for a longer duration (W = F x d), thus
increasing the braking distance.
d. Car conditions: If the tyres of the car have little grip, or they have worn out treads,
then the contact between the tyres and road is less. Therefore, the braking force will
be reduced. As a result, the braking force will have to be applied for a longer
duration (W = F x d), thus increasing the braking distance.

Worked example 1

Distance during reaction time = 0.2s x 34m/s = 6.8m

Braking distance = 50m – 6.8m = 43.2m

Using v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = 342 - 2(5) (43.8)

v = 26.8m/s
Since 26.8m/s < 30m/s, the motorist attains the speed limit.
Worked example 2(a)

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(b)

2(a)(i) time to the road = 5/2.5 = 2.0s

(ii) time to cross the road = 2/2.5 = 0.8s

(b) reaction time = 0.5s

Distance = 0.5 x 40 + 10 = 30m

Worked example 3

A motorist going at 30m/s approached a robot. The robot went red when he was 50m away
from stop-line. The motorist has a reaction time of 0.45s. The safe deceleration on the road is
12m/s2.

Deduce if danger can be avoided.

Solution

Distance during reaction time = 0.45s x 30m.s = 13.5m

Using v2 = u2 + 2as 02 = 302 - 2(12)s

S = 37.5m

Stopping distance = (37.5 + 13.5)m = 51m

Since 50m (given distance) < 51m (stopping distance), the danger cannot be avoided.

Relative velocity:- velocity measured with respect to an observer

When two observers A and B are moving relative to each other at constant velocity, their
velocities relative to each other are different. The two measured velocities are related by:-

Velocity of A relative to B = VA - VB
= (80-50)km/h = 30km/h (to the right)
Velocity of B relative to A = VB - VA
= (50-80)lm/h = - 30km/h
= 30m/s (to the left)
A B
Cars in the same directions
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 Velocity of A relative to B = VA - VB
= (80-(-50))km/h = 130km/h (to the right)
Velocity of B relative to A = VB - VA
= (-50-(80))km/h = -130km/h
= 130m/s (to the left)
A B
Cars in opposite directions

In effect, in both cases, to find the relative of A relative to B, velocity of B is reversed to both
cars. Same applies for velocity of B relative to A.

When velocities are no collinear, i. e. if they are not in the same straight line, they must be
added by the parallelogram or cosine law.

FREE FALL MOTION

Uniformly accelerated motion
•Free fall is motion with no acceleration other than that provided by gravity.

In other words………• A free-falling object is an object which is falling under the sole
influence of gravity.
• Any object which is being acted upon only by the force of gravity is
said to be in a state of free fall.
Free Fall
 Any object which is moving and being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said
to be "in a state of free fall”
 All objects in free fall have the same acceleration, free fall acceleration g =9.81ms-2
when near the earth and air resistance is negligible.
 Speed of a free-falling body increases by 9.81ms-1 every second or when a body is
thrown up, its speed decreases by 9.81ms-1 every second.
 Although the acceleration due to gravity is considered constant, it tends to vary
slightly over the earth since the earth is not a perfect sphere.

Examples of objects in Free fall

 A spacecraft (in space) with its rockets off (e.g. in a continuous orbit, or going up for
some minutes, and then down)
 The Moon orbiting around the Earth.

• Examples of objects not in Free fall

 Standing on the ground: the gravitational acceleration is counteracted by the normal

force from the ground.
 Flying horizontally in an airplane: the wings' lift is also providing an acceleration.

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Representing Free Fall by Graphs
Body Thrown up and Falling

Body Falling

Free fall graphs shows :

o The line on the graph curves.
o A curved line on a position versus time graph signifies an accelerated motion.
o The position-time graph reveals that the object starts with a small velocity (slow) and
finishes with a large velocity (fast).

Acceleration (a)Free Fall Acceleration (g)

 Acceleration due to gravity in free fall is called free fall acceleration (g).
 Free fall acceleration (g) near to the ground is constant and is equal to 9.81ms-2.
 Gravity always acts vertically downwards.
 Free fall acceleration (g) is positive downwards and is negative upwards.
 Linear acceleration (a) and free fall acceleration (g) are related by the expression:
a=-g

 It means that acceleration is constant in free fall motion.

 Constant/uniform acceleration means that velocity is varying with respect to time, we
see this by this formula

 If an object is held stationary in a uniform gravitational field and when it is released,

it will fall. It will do so with uniform acceleration.

What happens if an object is thrown up?

 The acceleration is still downward. If an object is thrown up with an initial velocity u,
it is retarded by gravity.
 Its acceleration is g = -9.81ms-2up to maximum height.
 At maximum height the object has zero velocity.
 Even if the object’s velocity is zero the acceleration is not zero.
 Its acceleration a = -g

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Equations Of Motion in Free Fall Motion
v = u - gt ……………………………………………………………… (1)
y= …………………………………………………………...(2)
y= ………………………………………………………..(3)
2 2
v = u – 2gy …………………………………………………………. (4)

Graphs of free falling :

1. Dropping an object from high place(Taking downward as positive)

2. Launching Object Upward (Taking upward as positive)

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3 . Object moving upward and fall back to the ground(Taking upward as positive)

4. Object falling and bounces back(Taking upward as positive)

Displacement-time graph

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THE PROJECTILE MOTION
A PROJECTILE MOTION

 A free fall motion in which a body/particle moves in two perpendicular directions;-

horizontal and vertical directions at the same time.
 The motion follows a parabolic path called a trajectory.
 The particle/body in projectile motion is called a projectile.

 PROJECTILE is a body/particle thrown horizontally or at an angle relative to the

horizontal which follows a curved path called trajectory.
 A projectile moves in two perpendicular directions;-horizontal and vertical directions
under the influence of gravity; and its path is parabolic called trajectory.

Examples of projectiles:
 Ball being thrown,
 Water coming out of a hose,
 B bullet fired from a gun,
 Arrow shot from a bow,
 Fountains.
 Object dropped from a flying aircraft or bird.
 In the x-direction, an object moves with a uniform/constant velocity; in the y-
direction the object moves with constant acceleration g.
 This means an object is in an accelerated motion in the vertical direction and moves
with uniform velocity in the horizontal direction

Trajectory of a projectile

This graph shows a ball projected at angle θ with initial velocity Vo.
The ball has an initial vertical component Vosinθ or Voy and an initial horizontal component
Vox or Vocosθ.

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REMEMBER:
1. The horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant (never changing in value),
2. There is uniform vertical acceleration (g) caused by gravity; its value is 9.81 m/s-2
3. The vertical velocity of a projectile changes time.
4. The horizontal motion of a projectile is independent of its vertical motion.

Where an object is projected upwards - at the top of its travel its vertical velocity is zero,
BUT its acceleration is still 9.81 m/s-2 downwards. At the top of the motion the object is
changing its direction, which means it is still undergoing a change in velocity and hence it is
still accelerating

EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN PROJECTILE MOTION

Vertical Motion
 = usinθ - gt ……………………………………………………………… (1)
 y= ………………………………………………………..(3)
 = u2 – 2gy …………………………………………………………. (4)
Horizontal motion:- -Vx = ucosθ
-x = utcosθ
Terms in Projectile Motion
 Time of flight:- the total for the entire journey.
 -in the vertical direction, it is the time from starting point to
maximum height and back.
 Vy = usinθ – gt. At maximum height Vy = 0. t =

 Time of flight t =
 Maximum Height:- maximum distance to highest point reached,
 -maximum height (H) is the vertical displacement of the
projectile.

 Maximum height H =
 RANGE:- maximum distance reached in the horizontal direction from the start.
 is the horizontal displacement of the projectile (R).

 Range R =

EFFECTS OF AIR RESISTANCE ON PROJECTILE MOTION

 Air resistance is a resistive force, that opposes motion.
 Air resistance reduces
 maximum height (H) and
 range (R). Horizontally, air resistance (drag) slows down/reduces the
horizontal speed of a projectile and hence reducing its range. Air resistance
increases the time of flight of projectile moving horizontally through air.

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Time of flight depends only upon the vertical forces since that only decided the time required
to cover the height. Now, if the projectile goes up, then the air resistance contributes to
reducing of flight, since gravity and air resistance act in the same direction on the projectile.
When the projectile falls back, air resistance contributes to increasing time of flight.

A Projectile from A tall Structure:- e g cliff or storey building

The projectile is projected from point P and rises to its maximum height. From maximum
height it falls down to the bottom of the cliff and drops at a point which is at a range x from
the cliff. yo = 0

So net vertical displacement y1 = -y = utsinθ - gt2

(t) is the time of flight, i e time to move from P to maximum height and fall to the bottom of
the cliff.
It is also the time taken to cover the range x. The time of flight t is obtained from the range
equation
x = utcosθ.

If u = 15m/s, θ is 20o and height of cliff is 45.0m, find the range x.

SOLUTION
-45 = 15tsin20o - (9.81)t2
t = 7.20s So x = 15 x 7.20cos20o = 101.5m

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DYNAMICS
Point Mass
1. An an object can be consider as a point mass if during motion in a given time, it
covers distance much greater than its own size.
2. Object with no dimensions is considered as a point mass.
3. Point mass is a mathematical concept to simplify calculation problems

Inertia
 Is a property of all the bodies by virtue of which they cannot change the state of rest
or uniform motion along a straight line
 Is not a physical property, it is only a property of the body which depends on mass of
the body.
 Has no units and no dimensions
 Two bodies of equal mass, one stationary and another in motion, have the same
inertia, because it is a factor of mass oly and does not depend on velocity

Linear Momentum:- the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 p = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 m × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 v (𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣)
Momentum is a vector quantity. This is because velocity is a vector quantity and the product
of a scalar and vector is a vector. The direction of momentum is the same as that of the
velocity of the body.
SI units of momentum are ewton-second (Ns). Base units of momentum are kgms-1.

Observations From p = mv
If p is constant, 𝑣 For a given mass, i.e. if mass For a given velocity, i.e. if
is constant, 𝑝 𝑣 velocity is constant, 𝑝 𝑚

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

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Newton’s First Law of Motion: an object will remain in its state of rest or state of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by an external force.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The resultant force acting on an object is directly
proportional to the rate of change of momentum and it takes place in the direction of the
resultant force.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B
reacts by exerting an equal and opposite force on object A.

IMPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS

Law 1:-
1 It provides definition of a force as an action that can change motion. – A force is
any action that has the ability to change an object’s state uniform motion in a
straight line or state of rest
 If the forces on an object are equal and opposite or if the net force is zero the forces
are not balanced, and the object experiences no change in motion, i. e. the object
cannot accelerate.
 If they are not equal and opposite or if the total forces is not zero, then the forces
are unbalanced and the motion of the object changes.
2 Newton’s first law defines inertia and it is called the law of inertia
Inertia are of three types:
Inertia of rest, Inertia of motion and Inertia of direction
Inertia of rest:-the inability of a body to change its state of rest by itself. This means
that a body at rest remains atr rest and cannot start moving on its own.
Example:
(1) A person standing freely in a bus, is thrown backward whe the bus starts suddenly.
Explanation
When a bus suddenly starts, the force responsible for bringing the bus into motion is
also transmitted to the lower part of the person’s body, so the lower part of the
body comes into motion along with the bus while the upper half of the body receives
no force to overcome the inertia of rest and so it stays in its original position. Thus
there is a relative displacement getween the two parts of the body and it appears as
if the upper part of the body has been thrown backward.

If the motion of the bus is slow, the the force responsible for bringing the bus into motion
is also transmitted uniformly to the entire person’s body, so the body comes into motion
along with the bus and the person will not experience any jerk.

2 In the diagram below:-

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 (a) If string B is pulled with a sudden jerk it will experiennce tension while due to
inertia of rest of mass M this tension will not be transmitted to string A and so
string B will break.
(b) If string B is pulled steadly the force applied to it will be transmitted from string
A to B through mass M and tension I string A will be greater than in string B by
Mg (weight of mass M) and string A will break.

An object with a lot of inertia takes a lot of force to start or stop; an object with a small
amount of inertia requires a small amount of force to start or stop.
In everyday life things don’t keep moving forever because there are always exteral
resistive forces acting upon them, such as friction, viscous forces and air resistance

Inertia of motion
It is the inability of a body to change its state of uniform motion by itself, i. e. a body
in uniform motion can neither accelerate nor retard by its own
For Example
When a bus stops suddenly, a passenger sitting in the bus tends to fall forward. This
is because the lower part of his/her body comes to rest with the bus but the upper
part tends to continue its motion due ti inertia of motion.

Inertia of direction
It is the inability of a body to chage direction of motion by itself.
For Example
When a stone tied to one end of a string is whirled and the string breaks suddenly,
the stone flies off along the tangent to the circle. This because the pulling force in
the string was forcing the stone to move in a circle. As soon as the string breaks, the
pull vanishes. The stone in a bid to move along the straight line flies off at a tangent
to the circle.

How law of inertia in a car is overcomed

 The engine – supplies force that allows you to change motion by pressing the pedal.
 The brake system – is designed to help you change your motion by slowing down.

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  The steering wheel and steering system – is designed to help you change your
motion by changing your direction.

Applications of Inertia In everyday Life

1. Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when riding on a
descending elevator.
2. The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by banging the
bottom of the handle against a hard surface.
3. To dislodge ketchup from the bottom of a ketchup bottle, it is often turned upside
down and thrusted downward at high speeds and then abruptly halted.
4. While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off the board when
hitting a curb or rock or other object that abruptly halts the motion of the
skateboard.

Mass will resist changes in motion

 When you are standing on a bus, and the bus starts very quickly, your body seems to
be pushed backward, and if the bus stops suddenly, then your body seems to be
pushed forwards.
 Notice that when the bus turns left, you will seem to be pushed to the right, and
when the bus turns right, you will seem to be pushed to the left
In both cases, an object with mass is opposing a change in motion.
 In the first case, it is your body that tries to stay moving as it was before the change.
 In the second case, your body tries to stay in a straight line when the bus turns,
although it appears to be moving to the side
Law 2:- It is used to show that F = ma

Law 2 provides definition of force as rate of change of momentum.

Force = rate of change of momentum

Law 3:- For every force acting on an object, there is an equal force acting in the opposite
direction.
Any agent appying a force also experiences a force pf equal magnitude but opposite
in direction. The force applied by the agent is called ‘ACTION’ and that is
experienced by the agent is called ‘REACTION’

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 Forces occur in pairs. The two forces in a pair are called action and reaction. They
are called Action – Reaction pairs.
Action – Reaction pairs i. Action and Reaction never act on the same body. They
act on different bodies.
ii. Are equal in magnitude
iv. Are of the same type/nature.
v. The forces cannot cancel because they act on different
objects, i.e. they do not produce a resultant force

Examples of Action-Reaction Pairs

1 Book resting on table. The book exerts a force on table;-ACTION, and the table
reacts by exerting an equal and opposite force on the book.

Misconception :- The diagram below shows a book resting on a table. In the diagram the forces
acting are weight of the book and reaction of table on the book.
The weight of book and reaction of table on the book do not form action-reaction pair
because they both act on the book, which is one body. Action-reaction pairs act on
different bodies

2 Flying. Wings push air downwards and the air reacts on wings by pusing them upwards
generating a lift force
3 Walking. While walking a person presses the ground backwards (action) by his/her feet.

IMPULSE:- product of force and time. Impulse = Force x time. Impulse is also defined as
change of momentum. Impulse = Final momentum – Initial momentum
When a force acts on a body for a short time interval, it is called an impulsive
force. Impulsive force does not remain constant, but changes from zero to

22
 maximum and then from maximum to zero. Impulse of a force is a measure of
total effect of a force.
Impulse is a vector quantity and its direction is that of force.
SI units of impulse are newton-seconds (Ns)

Force-Time graphs:- Impulse is equal to the area under F-t graph.

If an F-t graph is plotted, the area under the graph line and the time axis gives the value of
impulse.

Examples of Situations where Impulse is Used

Hitting, kicking, catching, jumping, diving, collisions, etc
In all of these cases an impulse acts. Impulse I = Fave x t = change in momentum (∆p) =
constant. So if time t is increased, , average force Fave is decreased and vice-
versa.
i. In kicking or hitting a ball, time of contact t is decreased so that large average force
can act on the ball producing a greater acceleration.
ii. In catching a ball, a player by drawing his/her hands backwards, increases time of
contact, so less force acts on his/her hands, thereby reducing damage to hands.
iii. In tennis player, player follows through with racket to increase time of contact, so
that a large impulse ;-( a large change in momentum) is produce. The ball then leaves
off the racket with very high velocity.
iv. In jumping on sand the time of contact is increased due to yielding of the sand so
force is decreased and jumper is not injured. If the jumper jumps on hard cemented
floor, the motion stops in a very short interval of time resulting in a large force due
to which a serious injury occurs,

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

If no external force acts on a closed/isolated system of constant mass, the total momentum
remains constant.

23
According to this law for a system of particles, .
In the absence of external force = 0, then

i. e. p = p1 + p2 + p3 +. . . . . = constant or m1v1 + m2v2 +m3v3 + . . . . . .= constant.

This equation shows that, in the absence of external force for a closed/isolated system, the linear
momentum of individual particles may change but their sum remains unchanged with time.

Conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton’s third law of motion. For a system of
two colliding bodies in the absence of external force by law of conservation of momentum:
p = p1 + p2 + . . . . . . = constant
m1v1 + m2v2 + . . . . . . .= constant.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to time:

.
i. e. to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Practical Applications of Law of Conservation of Momentum

a. When a man jumps out of a boat on shore, the boat is pushed slightly away from the
shore.
b. A person on frictionless surface can get away from it by blowing air out of his/her
mouth or by throwing some heavy objects in a direction opposite to the direction in
which he wants to move.
c. Recoiling of a gun:- For bullet and gun system, the force exerted by the trigger will
be internal so the momentum of the system remains unaffected.

Initial momentum of system = 0

Final momentum of system = MgunVgun + mbulletvbullet = 0 by the law of
conservation of momentum
MgunVgun = - mbulletvbullet

The negative sign shows that the final moment of bullet is opposite to the final
momentum of the gun

COLLISION:- is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between two or more bodies
for a very short time as a result of which energy and momentum of interacting
bodies change.
A collision has the following features:
1. It occurs in a short interval of time
2. What happens before a collision differs from what happens after a
collision.
3. The colliding bodies may be assumed to constitute a closed system.

24
Stages of collision:- There are three identifiable stages in a collision, namely, before,
during and after. In the before and after stages, the interaction forces are zero .
Between the two stages, the interaction forces are very large.

Types of collisions:
a. Perfectly elastic:
i. a collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.
ii. relative speed of approach is equal to the of relative speed separation.
-(u1 – u2) = v1 - v2
Relative speed of approach = Relative speed separation.

b. Inelastic:
i. A collision in which only momentum is conserved while total kinetic energy
before the collision is not equal total kinetic energy after the collision .
ii. The lost kinetic energy is transferred to other forms of energy (like heat,
sound and internal energy) after the collision.

CLASSES OF COLLISIONS
1. Head on collision

Relative velocity of approach is equal to relative velocity of separation

25
 3 Right angle collision: a collision when a body collides perpendicularly with another
body.

ISOLATED /CLOSED SYSTEM:- a system not acted upon by any external force.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

For a closed system, the total momentum of objects before a collision = total momentum of the
objects after collision, i. e. in a closed/isolated system of colliding bodies, total momentum is
constant.conserved.

Explain how the principle of conservation of momentum is a natural consequence of

Newton’s laws of motion.
a. Newton’s third law states that in a collision the forces acting on the two
objects are equal but opposite.
b. The collision time is the same for both so the impulses on the objects are
equal and opposite. As Impulse = change in momentum, the gain in
momentum for one object is equal to the loss of momentum for the other
object. So momentum is conserved.
PROOF of the conservation of momentum
Suppose there are two bodies of masses m1 and m2 which are moving with velocities u1 and
u2 respectively, before collision. During collision, m1 exerts a force F1 on m2 and m2 exerts a
force F2 on m1. According to Newton’s third law of motion:

F1 = -F2

F1 = -F2

26
 c.

Expressing:- v1 and v2 In terms of m1, m2, u1 and u2

Case 1:- v1 In terms of m1, m2, u1 and u2
From u1 – u2 = v2 - v1
v2 = v1 + u1 – u2 …………………………………..3
Substituting equation 3 into equation 2
27
m1 (u1 – v2 ) = m2(v2 – u1 )
m1 (u1 – v2 ) = m2(u1 + v1 –u2 –u2)
m1 (u1 – v2 ) = m2(u1 + v1 –2u2 )
m1u1 –m1 v2 = m2u1 + m2v1 –2m2u2
– –
v1 (m1 + m2 ) = u1(m1 – m2) –2m2u2 ) v1=

Case 2:- v2 In terms of m1, m2, u1 and u2

From u1 – u2 = v2 - v1
v1 = v2 - u1 + u2 …………………………………..4
Substituting equation 4 into equation 2 and simplifying gives

–
v2=

Observations

28
Case 2

29
e. Head restrain:
i. If a passenger is in a car hit from behind, his/her head tends to stay in the same
place while the body moves forwaed, causing severe damage to the spine.
ii. Head restrain can prevent this by pushing the head forwards so that the
passsennger’s whole body moves forward as one.

30
An airbag reduces the risk of injury to the driver in several ways:
1. *Cushioning effect*: The airbag inflates rapidly to create a cushioning effect, which
absorbs the force of the driver's impact, reducing the deceleration force on the body.
2. *Distribution of force*: The airbag distributes the force of the impact across the driver's
body, reducing the concentration of force on a single point, such as the head or chest.
3. *Reduction of contact velocity*: The airbag slows down the driver's forward motion,
reducing the velocity of contact with the steering wheel, dashboard, or other hard surfaces.
4. *Prevention of head and neck injury*: The airbag helps prevent the driver's head from
striking the steering wheel or dashboard, reducing the risk of head and neck injuries,
including whiplash.
5. *Restriction of movement*: The airbag constrains the driver's movement, preventing
them from being thrown around the vehicle or ejected from the seat.
6. *Gradual deceleration*: The airbag provides a gradual deceleration, allowing the driver's
body to slow down more safely, reducing the risk of injury.

By reducing the force, velocity, and impact of a crash, airbags significantly reduce the risk
of injury to drivers, particularly to the head, neck, and torso.

Apparent Weight of a Body in a Lift

When a body of mass m is placed on scale balance which is in a lift, the actual weight of the
body is mg. This acts on the scale balance which offers a reaction R given by the reading on
display screen of the scale balance. This reaction exerted by the surface of contact on the
body is the apparent weight of the body.

Condition Figure Velocity Acceleration Reaction Conclusion

Apparent
R – mg = 0
Lift at rest v=0 a =0 weight =actual
R = mg
weight

Lift moving
upward or Apparent
R – mg = 0
downward v = constant a=0 weight =actual
R = mg
with constant weight
velocity

Lift
Apparent
accelerating R – mg = ma
v = variable a>g weight >actual
upward at a R = m(g +a)
weight
rate ‘a’
a

31
 Lift
Apparent
accelerating R – mg = mg
v = variable a=g weight =2
upward at a R = 2mg
actual weight
rate ‘g’
g

Lift
Apparent
accelerating mg – R = ma
v = variable a<g weight <actual
downward at R = m(g –a)
weight
a rate ‘a’
a

Lift
Apparent
accelerating mg – R = mg
v = variable a=g weight =0
downward at R=0
(weightlessness
a rate ‘g’
g
Apparent
weight negative
Lift
mg – R = ma means the body
accelerating
v = variable a>g R = mg –ma will rise from
downward at
R = -ve the floor od lift
a rate ‘a>g’
and stick to the
a>g
ceiling of lift

QUESTIONS ON LIFT

1 A man of mss 80kg stands on a scale balance in a lift which is moving upwards with
an acceleration of 5ms-2. Determine the scale reading.

Acceleration and Force

(a) When the pull F is horizontal

R = mg and ma = F a =

(b) When the pull F is inclined to the horizontal at angle θ

Horizontal component of the pull F causes acceleratrion a its vertical component

reduces reaction R

32
 R = mg and ma = Fcosθ

Acceleration of a Block on a Smooth Inclined Plane

(a) When the pull F is upwards

Perpendicular component of weight mg to inclined plane

balances reaction R
F and component mgsinθ provide a resultant that causes
acceleration a upwards.
and

(b) When body slides downwards

Perpendicular component of weight mg to inclined plane

balances reaction R
Component mgsinθ causes acceleration a upwards.
and

33
Motion of Bodies in Contact
Bodies in contact exert equal and opposite forces on each other. There is contact force f
between the bodies in contact as in free body diagrams below. F is push force on body A

m1 m2 m1 m2
If push force F causes acceleration a, each body has the same acceleration a

Substituting for f into

Therefore
If three bodies are contact

and

2.3 FORCES:- A force can be a push or a pull.

Effects of a force.

A force can:-
i. make a stationary body move
ii. change the speed of a body
iii. change the direction of motion of a body
iv. change the size or shape of the body

A net/resultant force is needed for an object to accelerate. If there is no resultant force acting on an
object, then the object is in equilibrium.
34
Free body diagram:
a. They show the forces acting on a single body.
b. They do not include the forces the object exerts on other objects.
c. Some forces that may act on an object:
o Weight
o Normal contact force.
o Tension
o Friction.
o upthrust

DEFINITIO OFA RESULTANT FORCE:- 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ×𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐹 = 𝑚 ×𝑎 )

Where: i F is the resultant force measure in Newtons (N)
ii m is the mass of an object measured in kilograms (kg)
iii a is the acceleration of the object measured in metres per second squared (ms-2)

 The acceleration is always in the same direction as the resultant force.

 Acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.
 The greater the resultant force the greater the acceleration.

Newton:- 1N is the force that causes a mass of 1 kilogram to have an acceleration of 1ms-2.

Forces can also be resolved into vertical and horizontal components. When three coplanar forces all
act on an object in equilibrium, there is no net force on the object. These forces can be drawn as a
closed loop

TYPES OF FORCES
Gravitational Force, Electric Force, Magnetic Force and Weak force.
Four types of fundamental forces that govern the physical universe. They are gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, nuclear force and weak force.

The forces on mass and charge in uniform gravitational and electric fields.

In Physics, a field refers to a region of space within which a force is experienced.

 A gravitational field due to a mass is a region of space within which a gravitational

force is experienced by another mass.
 An electric field due a charge is a region of space within which an electric force is
experienced by another charge.
 A magnetic field is a region of space within which a magnetic force is experienced by
a moving charge.

UPTHRUST- Upthrust is an upward force that fluids exert on objects that are completely or
partially submerged in a fluid.

35
ORIGION OF UPTHRUST
Upthrust is from pressure difference between the top and bottom parts of an object submerged in
a fluid. It’s caused because the top and bottom of a submerged object are at different depths.
Pressure in a fluid increases with depth. Since = 𝑕 , the bottom surface of the body
experiences a greater pressure than the top surface because the bottom surface is at a
deeper depth h than the top surface. So there is a net upward pressure difference between
the top and bottom surfaces, which causes an overall upwards force known as upthrust.

Archimedes’ Principle
According to Archimedes' Principle, the upthrust on an object in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced. So the volume of the object multiplied by the density of
the fluid and gravity is the upthrust.

Upthrust U = Weight of Fluid Displaced = volume of displaced fluid (V) x density of

fluid (ρ) x gravity (g). * U = Vρg]

Archimedes’ principle states that, a body partially or wholly immersed in a fluid

experiences a net upward force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

Real weight of body in fluid decreases by a value equal to the upthrust, thus the body experiences
an apparent loss in weight. This apparent loss in weight of a body in a fluid = upthrust.

A BODY WHOLLY SUBMERGED IN A FLUID DISPLACES ITS OWN VOLUME, i e volume displaced fluid
is equal to the volume of the body wholly immersed in the fluid.

A FLOATIG BODY
A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid, i e a floating body experiences an upthrust
equal to its own weight.

FRICTION
Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between bodies in contact. It is known as drag
or air resistance when considering the friction in air, viscous force when considering liquids,
static friction when considering solid bodies at rest and dynamic friction when looking solid
bodies in motion.

FRICTIONAL FORCES CONVERT KINETIC ENERGY INTO OTHER FORMS SUCH AS SOUND
AND HEAT

Nature of Friction

36
Types of Friction
 Static/Limiting friction- friction just before motion of body starts. It is maximum
friction possible, (μ R).
 Kinetic/Dynamic friction-friction acting when body is motion. Kinetic friction <
Limiting friction.

Reaction R

Direction of motion

Friction f Rough surface

Weight mg
Coefficient of Friction
Friction f is proportional to normal reaction/normal force R (ie f α R)

Thus f = μ R where μ is coefficient of friction.

Reaction R

Force P

Friction f Rough surface

Weight mg

(i) f=μR and R = mg

(ii) 𝑓

EXAMPLE
A block of mass 5kg rests on a rough horizontal plane, the coefficient of friction between the block
and the plane being 0.6. Find the force P and the frictional force f if the block moves with uniform
velocity.
SOLUTION

Since motion is uniform, friction f = forward force P

f = μ R = μmg R = 5 x 9.81N
f = P = 0.6 x 5 x 9.81N
= 29.43N

37
 APPLIED FORCE NOT HORIZONTAL

EXAMPLE

A10kg trunk lies on a horizontal rough floor. The coefficient of friction between the trunk and the
floor is 0.43. Calculate the magnitude of the force P which is necessary to pull the trunk horizontally
if P is applied at 30o above the horizontal.
SOLUTION

Resolve vertically; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

In limiting equilibrium, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓

𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑥

Rough Inclined Plane

A body of mass m restihg on an incline has a component of weight

balancing reaction R = mgcosθ

A component of weight parallel to plane is balancing friction F up

the incline F = mgsinθ
But F So F =

At limiting friction,
𝑡𝑎𝑛

EXAMPLE
A mass of 6kg rests in limiting equilibrium on a rough plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal.
Find the coefficient of friction between the mass and the plane.

38
SOLUTION

The mass is on the point of moving down the plane, so the frictional force F acts up the plane and
has its maximum value

Resolving perpendicular to the plane gives R = 6 x 9.81cos300 = 51.0N

Resolving parallel to the plane gives, Friction Fmax =

Viscous Force (Friction in fluids)

 It is the frictional fore acting on a body that is moving through a fluid i. e. a liquid or
gas. Example of a viscous for is air resistane.
 It is dissipative in nature
 Viscous force arises in fluids because the attractive forces between fluid molecules.
 Viscous force increases proportional with speed in steady flow and in turbulent flow
it increases with prortionally with the square of speed.

39
TERMINAL VELOCITY:- the maximum speed reached by an object when the drag force
on it is equal and opposite to the force causing the motion of the
object.

Objects falling in the atmosphere are acted upon by air resistance upwards and by gravity
downwards. Air resistance increases as speed of object increases.

The graph of velocity against time for the free-fall period is shown below.

Parachutist’s Motion In Free Fll Before and After Opening Parachute

1. A skydiver jumps from a plane several kilometres above the ground. Before opening
parachute:
a. Immediately after jumping:
i. speed = 0
ii. drag = 0
iii. net force = weight
b. at a time before terminal velocity (during free-fall) is reached:
i. acceleration = g
ii. speed has increased
iii. drag has increased (drag proportional speed2)
iv. net force has decreased (net force = weight – drag
v. net force F = ma therefore acceleration is less than g
c. at terminal velocity (during free-fall)
i. acceleration = g
ii. speed has increased
iii. drag has increased and becomes equal to weight
iv. net force has decreased to zero (net force = weight – drag)
v. net force F = 0. Velocity is constant.

Factors that affect drag:

a. Viscosity of the fluid an object is travelling in.
b. The speed of the object. Drag increases as speed increases.
c. Shape and size of the object

40
The graph below shows v-t graphs for the parachutist before and after opening parachute.

 A small dense object, like a steel ball bearing, has a high terminal velocity. A light
object, like a raindrop, or an object with large surface area like a piece of paper, has a
low terminal velocity.

Stoke’s Law
A ball moving through a fluid will always experience a drag force. This force resists the motion of the
object. The magnitude of this force on the ball can be calculated using Stoke’s Law:
F = 6π𝜂rv
Where: ● r = the radius of the ball
● 𝜂 = viscosity of the fluid
● v = velocity of the ball

Viscosity is a quantity that depends on the surface of the ball and the liquid that it is moving
through. It is also temperature dependant.

Note that Stoke’s Law only applies to small spherical objects travelling at low speeds in laminar, or
non-turbulent, flow.

A sphere falling in a viscous fluid reaches a terminal speed for which the total force, consisting of
the weight of the sphere and the viscous retarding force, is zero, and the sphere no longer
accelerates. Let ρ be the density of the sphere; then the weight of the sphere is is given by the
expression:-
and Drag force on sphere F = 6πηvt

41
When the sphere reaches terminal speed, the total force on it is zero:
Weight W of sphere = Drag force F on sphere

The terminal speed vt for the sphere can be cakculated from thismequation.

Moment: The product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the
force and the pivot point.
 The moment is the turning effect of the force.
 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 to 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡
 Moment of Force F1 = Force F1 × X1
Where moment is measured in Newton Metres (Nm)
F1 is the Force measured in Newtons (N)
X1 is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the
pivot point.

 For a set moment, the greater theperpendicular distance the less the force F required to
produce that moment.
 To produce the same moment, the smaller the perpendicular distance, the greater the force
required to produce the required moment
42
 The principle of moments: states that, the sum of clockwise moments about a point are equal to
the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point. The
resultant moment about a point must be zero.

How to verify the principle of moments:

Experiment:
i. The masses are moved until the beam is in equilibrium.
ii. Upon a uniform beam, known masses are placed on either side of the pivot.
iii. The distance between the pivot and the centre of mass of each mass is
measured.
iv. This is repeated with other masses.

The weights of the masses on either side of the pivot are calculated. Moment for each weight and
the perpendicular distance to the pivot on either side of the pivot is calculated. Clockwise and
anticlockwise moments are the compared. These should be equal if the principle of moments is
correct.

COUPLE
A couple is a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces, whose lines of action
do not cross and tend to produce rotation only. A couple does not cause any
resultant linear force, but does produce a turning effect which is called a
torque.

For two forces to be a couple they must be…

 Equal in magnitude
 Opposite in direction
 Parallel to each other
Torque: The product of one of the forces in a couple and the perpendicular distance
between the forces.
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 × 𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑇 = 𝐹×𝑑
Where T is the torque of a couple measured in Newton Metres (Nm)
F is one of the forces in couple measured in Newtons (N)
d is the perpendicular distance between the forces.

43
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
A system is in equilibrium when all the forces are balanced. This means: There is no resultant force
and no resultant torque

An object in equilibrium will therefore remain at rest, or remain at a constant velocity, and it does
not rotate. The system is in an equilibrium state when applying the principle of moments

44
EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY UNDER CONCURRENT FORCES
Concurrent forces are forces whose lines of action pass through a single common point, as
shown below.

F1

Common point

F3

F2

If a system is in static equilibrium, under the action of three coplanar forces,

the lines of the forces must intersect at a common point, see diagrams
below.

45
Examples of Concurrent Forces.

 To find normal reaction or weight, tension or weight, principle of

moments is applied by taking moments about the rough surface or
about the hinge.
 To find reaction of the ground on the ladder or reaction of vertical
wall/mast on flagpole, balance of forces is applied.

2.4 WORK, ENERGY and POWER

WORK
Work is the product of force and component of displacement in the direction of the force. In the
diagram below F is the force doing work on a body and Fcosθ is the component of the force F in the
direction of displacement s

Work done W = Fscosθ

Work is maximum when θ = 0o

Maximum Positive Work

Work done W = Fscosθ

Work is maximum when θ = 0o
Work done W = Fs

Maximum Negative Work (when θ =180o)

Work done W = Fscos180o cos180o =-1

Work done W = -Fs
e.g. work done against gravity or resistance.

46
 Work is zero when θ = 90o

Work is a scalar quantity, SI unit = joule (J).

1J is the work done when a force of 1N is applied on an object and the object moves 1m in the
direction of the applied force.

Work done against gravity

(a) (b)

In (a) F is doing work against gravity in raising body of weight mg through a height h, while in (b) F is
doing work against gravity in raising the body through height h and against friction along an incline
of length l inclined at angle θ to the horizontal.

Work done = Fh F = -mg so Work done -mgh

Work done against gravity = Fh so Work done against gravity = mgh
Work done against friction = fl = mgsinθ

Work done by a Gas

When the gas pressure is greater than the

atmospheric pressure, the piston is displaced a
distance s outwards.

47
Graph below shows variation of pressure p of gas with volume V. Shaded area shows the work done
on piston by the gas. Gas expands from V1 to V2

Area under p-V graph =

ENERGY
Energy is capability to do work. Enegy is measured in joules (J).
Forms of Energy
1 Kinetic energy
The energy of a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.

𝐸 𝑚𝑣

Proof
Consider a body of mass m is at rest. Its initial velocity u = 0. Then a force F acts on it and its velocity
increases to v after covering a distance s in the direction of the force. The force F does work to
accelerate the body.
Work done by the force W = Fs.
From Newton’s laws, F = ma, so work done W = mas
From equations of linear motion, v2 = u2 + 2as so 𝑎𝑠
𝑣 𝑢
𝑚( )

Since u = 0, 𝑚𝑣 but 𝐸 𝑚𝑣

In general, when u 0, 𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑢 (Work – Energy theorem)

i. e. Work done is eqaul to change in kinetic energy.

Relationship between Kinetic energy and Momentum

Momentum 𝑚𝑣 𝑣

Kinetic energy 𝐸 𝑚𝑣 𝐸

Gravitational potential energy

The energy of a body due to its height above the earth’s surface is called gravitational potential
energy.

48
 Gravitational potential energy = mgh

Proof
Work done W = Fs
= Fh
W = mgh
W = P.E = EP = mgh
 This formula is used only for uniform gravitational fields.
 Gain in gravitational potential energy = work done against gravitational force.

Internal Energy of a System

Internal energy U of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy EK and potential energy EP of the
molecules of the system.

Internal energy U = Ek + Ep
Internal energy of a system can be increased by supplying heat energy to the system and doing work
on the system.
Increase in internal energy 𝑈 = heat supplied to system + work done on the system

𝑈= +

Principle of Energy Conservation

Energy can neither be destroyed nor created, but can only be converted from one form to another.

49
E.g. In a body falling downwards, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. On impact with the
ground, the kinetic energy is converted to sound and heat and finally to internal energy of air of the
atmosphere, body and the earth.

Power
Power is the rate of doing work.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Power and velocity
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹

𝐹𝑠

𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑣 𝐹𝑣

2.5 Circular Motion

Terms in Circular Motion
Angular Displacement, θ

As an object travels from X to Y it has travelled a distance of s and has covered a section of the
complete circle it will make. It has covered and angle of θ at the centre of the circle. The angle θ is
called the angular displacement.

Angular displacement is the angle turned through by an object in a given direction. Angular
displacement is measured in radians.
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠 𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠 𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑟

Angular Displacement is measured in radians, rad

Radians
A radian is the angle made when the arc of a circle is equal to the radius.

50
Angular Velocity ω
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement.

Angular velocity is measured in radians per second, rad/s or rad s -1

Frequency, f
Frequency is the number of complete circles/revolutions per unit time. It is measured in hertz (Hz)

For a circle θ = 2πrad and time for a complete cycle/revolution is a period T. If we substitute this
into equation for ω,

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓 𝑓
𝑇 𝑇

Relationship between Linear velocity v and Angular velocity

Linear velocity v = . In circular motion, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠 𝑟

𝑠𝑜 𝑣 𝑟
𝑡

Centripetal Force and Acceleration

Moving in a Circle

Centripetal force is provided by/originates from a number of things:

 For a satellite orbiting the Earth it is provided by gravitational attraction.
 For a car driving around a roundabout it is provided by the friction between the wheels and
the road.
 For a ball on a string being swung in a circle it is provided by the tension in the string.

Centripetal force acts from the body to the centre of a circle.

Centripetal force is defined as force that keeps object in its circular motion and it is always directed
towards the centre of rotation

51
Since F=ma the object in circular motion must be accelerating. Therefore centripetal force is a
resultant force causing acceleration in the same direction as the resultant force. The object is
accelerating by virtue of constantly changing its direction. This acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration.

Centripetal acceleration has direction from the body to the centre of the circle

Derivation of Centripetal Acceleration

The centripetal acceleration of an object can be derived if we look at the situation to the right. An
object of speed v makes an angular displacement of ∆θ in time ∆t.

Why an object in Uniform Circular Motion is In accelerated motion

 In uniform circular motion velocity is constantly changing. Velocity is a vector quantity with
both magnitude and direction.

52
  An object in circular motion is constantly changing direction, while its speed remains
constant.
 Rate of change of velocity is acceleration. Therefore, an object undergoing uniform circular
motion is constantly accelerating. This type of acceleration is known as centripetal
acceleration.

Q: Explain whether speed of an accelerating object is increasing or not increasing.

A: It depends. Its speed could be increasing, or it could be accelerating in a direction opposite to its
velocity (slowing down). Or, its speed could remain constant yet still be accelerating if it is traveling
in uniform circular motion.

Recall Newton’s Second Law

When a net external force acts on an object of mass m, the acceleration that result is directly
proportional to the net force and has a magnitude that is inversely proportional to the mass. The
direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.

How Newton’s laws are used to explain how a body in uniform circular motion experiences
acceleration.
 First law: The body in a circle tends to maintain its straight line motion, but in this case, it’s
constrained to move in a circle.
 Second law: Since the acceleration is towards the centre of circle, there must be a resultant
force causing acceleration towards the centre of circle. This force is called
centripetal acceleration.
 Third law: The centripetal force is provided by friction (in the case of a car going through a
flat curved road) or tension ( in the case of body whirled in a circle by a string) or
reaction ( in the case of a car on curved banked road) or net force between reaction
and weight ( in the case of a car going over a hill/hump). The body un turn exerts an
equal and opposite force on the external agent.

Everyday Examples of Circular Motion

1. Motion in a Horizontal Circle (Conical Pendulum)
2. Motion in a Vertical Circle (e.g. Loop-a-loop or bucket of water whirled in vertical circle)
3. Banked Roads

Motion in a Horizontal Circle (Conical Pendulum)

53
A particle is attached to the end of a light inextensible string at B and the upper end A of the string is
fixed to a support. When the particle is whirled in horizontal circle, the string describes a conical
curve. This arrangement is called a conical pendulum.

The string moves outwards so that the tension provides a vertical component which balances weight
of particle downwards.

Weight mg = Tcosθ

The horizontal component of the tension provides the centripetal force towards the centre of the
circle.

Vertical Circular Motion

In vertical circular motion the gravitational force (i e weight) and tension provide centripetal force.
The diagram below shows a particle of mass m attached to one end of an inextensible string. The
particle is whirled in a vertical circle.

At point A, the top of the vertical circle, weight and tension point towards the centre of the circle, so
they provide centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑇
𝑟
𝑇 𝑚𝑔

So tension T is a minimum at the top.

At points B and D, tension only provides centripetal force. 𝑇
At point C, thr resultant force between tension and weight provides the centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑇 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑇 𝑚𝑔
𝑟

So tension T is a maximum at the bottom. The string is most likely to break at the bottom.

54
 Going Over a Hill/Hump

Explain why normal reaction is less than weight when a car is going over a hill/hump
When the car goes over the top of a hill/hump/ curved bridge, the passengers experience a normal
reaction/apparent loss in weight less than their true weight due to centripetal force and reduced
reaction/normal force.
As the car car goes over , it experiences a centripetal force directed towards the centre of
curvature.The centripetal for is downwards in a direction opposite to that of the normal reaction. As
indicated by the equation below, the centripetal force subtracts from the weight of the passengers,
resulting in the reduced normal force. This reduced normal force makes passengers feel lighter or
experience a decrease in their apparent weight.
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑚𝑔

𝑚𝑔
So reaction force is less than weight.
NB:- In order for the wheels to stay on the ground the sum of weight downwards and reaction
upwards has to equal the net force down to centre of curvature. Since the net force is
downwards, the normal force must be less than weight
If , the car remains in contact with the road, so (𝑚𝑔 ) 𝑣 √𝑟𝑔
When R = 0, the car always loses contact with the ground, (𝑚𝑔 ) 𝑣 √𝑟𝑔

Why a car going over a hill experiences an acceleration

It experiences an acceleration due to gravity and change of direction. The car’s motion is curved, so
its direction changes, resulting in acceleration. Gravity contributes to the acceleration as the car
crests the hill.
 As a car is crests a hill, gravity pulls it downwards, creating a down ward force. Since the hill
is curved, the direction of pull of gravity changes, resulting in a force component directed
towards the centre of curvature and providing centripetal force coursing acceleration.
 As the car moves over the hill, its direction changes but its speed remains constant. This
change in direction at constant speed means velocity is changing, hence car is accelerating.
The aaceleration is directed downwards due to gravity and towards the centre of the curve due to
curvature of the path.
Going Through a Depression

55
When a car goes through a depression, such as a dip or valley, passengers feel/experience a
sensation of:
1 Weightlessness: As the car descends into a depression, passengers feel a tempoary
decrease in weight often described as “floating”.
2 Reduced normal force: normal force exerted on passengers by the seatsdecreases
because the seats seem to escaping them, leaving them without supports. This causes
them to feel lighter.
3 Upward motion: As the car reaches the bottom of the depression and starts to climb
out, passengers experience an upward motion, often accompanied by a feeling of being
pushed back into their seats. When the car is at the lowest point in the depression, the
resultant force between the normal force R and weight mg provides centripetal force.

𝑚𝑣
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑔
𝑟
So reaction force R is greater than weight, hence a sensation of being heavier.

This sensation is due to the change in the direction of the normal force, which is caused by the car’s
motion through the depression. The normal force is perpendicular to the surface of the seat, and as
the car descends and climbs, this force changes direction, creating the sensation of weighlessness
and upward motion (sensation of being heavier).

Examples of vertical circular motion include the vertical “loop-the-loop” motorcycle stunt,
big wheel and water in a bucket that is swung in a vertical circle.

Bucket of water whirled in vertical circle

Loop-a-loop

56
Loop-a-loop

Bucket of water whirled in vertical circle

At the TOP, Centripetal force 𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔

At the BOTTOM, Centripetal force 𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔

57
Minimum speed for rider to remain in contact with track or Water not to fall out of bucket
There is a minimum speed the rider or bucket must have at top point in order to stay on the loop or
water not to fall out of the bucket.

This speed may be found by setting FN3 = 0 or Reaction R = 0 in the centripetal force equation for the
TOP point.

𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜 𝑚𝑔

𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜 𝑚𝑔
𝑟 𝑟

𝑣 √𝑟𝑔

BIG WHEEL
Big Wheel

A B

Big wheel physics is directly related to centripetal force which makes riders feeling “heavier” or
“lighter” depending on their positions on the wheel.

At every point in the ride, a rider is acted on by weight (mg), downward, and reaction (R), upwards
since the rider moves in a vertical circular motion. The combination of mg and R provide the
necessary centripetal force at each point. The feels/sensations the rider gets in the ride are because
of the varied amounts of the reaction on his/her body.

REACTION (R) MAKES ON FEEL A SENSATION OF WEIGHT OR WEIGTHLESSNESS, i e, feel a sensation

of being heavier or lighter. If R is small one feels being lighter or weightless but if R is large one feels
heavier or weighty.

58
Top Position
As shown in B, the resultant force, from the combination of R and mg, is downward providing
centripetal force.
So 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 Rider feels lighter

Bottom Position
The resultant force, from the combination of R and mg, is upward providing centripetal force.

So 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 Rider feels heavier

BREAKING OF BLADES FROM A SPINNING TURBINE WHEEL

Each blade on the turbine is attached separately to a small section on the rim of the wheel as shown
in the diagram below. The blades are small and each behaves like a point mass of mass m at a
distance d from the axis of rotation.

It is observed that the blades break off at a particular certain angular velocity. Why?
The blades are held to the frame by a binding force F as shown below.

Why a cog fixed to a rotating wheel will entually break away

The combination of increasing centrifugal force and tangential velocity eventually
overcomes binding force of the cog to the wheel. This leads to the breaking away of the cog
from the wheel.

A cog fixed to rotating wheel will ultimately break away from the wheel when the wheel
exceeds a certain speed of rotation due to:
1 Centrifugal force: As the wheel rotates faster, the cog experiences a centrifugal
force, which pushes the cog away from the center of rotation.

59
 2 Tangential velocity: The cog’s tangential velocity increases with the wheel’s
speed causing it to try to move in a straight line away from the centre.
3 Binding force: The force holding the cog to the wheel, such as friction or a
mechanical attachment, has a limited strength.
4 Overcoming binding force: When centrifugal force and tangential acceleration
exceed binding fprce, the cog breaks away from the wheel.

This happens because the centrifugal force increases with the square of the angular velocity
(ω2), while binding force remains constant. At a certain speed, the centrifugal force
overcomes the binding force, causing the cog to detatch from the wheel

Banked Roads
On a horizontal curved road, the static frictional force provides the necessary centripetal force.
Friction prevents skidding off the road/slipping at curves if the road is unbanked.

Friction = 𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑔 𝑓 𝑚𝑔

𝑣 √ 𝑟𝑔
This gives the minimum value of the coefficient of friction. In other words, for safe going of the
vehicle round the circular road, the required condition is :

From the above relation, the maximum speed with which a vehicle can go round a curve is. That is,
the speed of the vehicle for safe negotiation of the curve should be :

If you are driving and approaching a curve, it is important to slow down because your acceleration
increases by a factor of velocity squared. The sharper the curve is (the smaller the radius of circular
motion), the more acceleration you will need to be able to turn. This acceleration is caused by the
force of friction between the tires and the road. The friction force keeps the car going along the
curved road. Thus, when it is raining (and the force of friction is decreased), remember to slow down
while turning.

Roads are banked (i) to avoid reliance on friction between road surface and tyres.
(ii) so that cars can go through the curved road safely at high speed
(iii) to reduce wear and tear of tyres due to friction

This friction changes with circumstances like oil and water on the roads. Thus this friction becomes
inadequate and vehicles may skid off the road.

60
On a banked curve, the centripetal force is provided by horizontal components of normal/ reaction
force and friction. The vertical components of friction and the normal force balance the car’s
weight.

• Look at the following free body diagram for a banked curve:

• In an ideal scenario where the car has no tendency to slip either up or down the slope, there
exists no friction.

The horizontal component of normal force meets the requirement of centripetal force.
Rcosθ = mg

Taking ratio

• If a car is travelling on a banked curve at a speed greater or smaller than v, it may skid either up or
down the slope depending on its actual speed.

How Banking Roads reduces Friction

When the road is banked, a portion/component of the reaction provides the necessary
centripetal. Reliance on friction is reduced and as a result the effect of friction becomes
secondary, wear and tear is reduced.

2.6 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

1. Gravitational Field
A region where a mass/body experiences a force of attraction due its mass. It is a field of
gravitational force.

61
Representation of Gravitational Field
Gravitational field is represented by field lines with arrows on the field line.
The arrows show direction of (i) field
(ii) field strength and
(iii) force on a point mass

The Earth has a radial field of gravity, which means that the gravitational field is circular and
acts towards the centre point.

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

M1 M2

The force of attraction between point masses M1 and M2 is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation (r).

OR
The force between two bodies, M1 and M2, is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r separating their centres.
The equation for the gravitational force of attraction is given by:

Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nkg-2 m2

Basing on N3rd Law of motion- both the bodies will experiences the forces of same
magnitude of but opposite in directions.

62
Assumptions About the Earth :
i) the earth is point mass with mass concentrated at its centre.
ii) the density of the earth uniform.
iii) the earth is a perfect sphere with uniform radius.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH, g

Gravitational field strength is defined as force acting per unit test mass.
Gravitational field strength where F is gravitational force and m is unit test mass.

Test mass/unit mass m is significant in that it is used to measure field strength g and to map
field patterns for point masses without distorting the field patterns.

Gravitational field strength is a vector quantity

SI units of gravitational field strength are NKg-1

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH, g Due To A Point Mass M

Test mass m M
r

Gravitational force F =

This equation shows that value of g does not depend upon the mass m of the small object.
This proves that the field strength g alone is the same on all objects independent of their
mass, their size, their density, or even their speed.

63
Variation of g with Altitude and Depth:

Inside earth, g varies linearly with r, 𝑔 𝑟

Outside earth, g varies inversely with r, 𝑔

g near to Earth’s surface

Near to earth’s surface g is constant and is called free fall acceleration. If r is distance above
earth’s surface from the centre and R is radius of earth:

and r=R+h

On earth’s surface =

( )
( )

Ignoring higher powers of h, ( )

Near to the surface of the earth , so near to earth’s surface g is constant.

64
ORBITS
An orbit is the path taken by one celestial/planetary/astronomic body around another.
Planetary bodies are distinguished from each other by the terms orbiting body/satellite and
central body/planet.

Earth-Moon Rotation
The moon is a satellite of the Earth. If RE is earth radius and RO is the radius of orbit of the
moon, force of attraction between the earth and the moon provide centripetal force that
keeps satellite in its orbit.

GEOSTATIONARY/GEO-SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

Orbit in the equatorial region which is at a height of 3.6 x 10 7m above the equator. A
satellite in this orbit has a period of 24hrs as that of the earth

65
GEOSTATIONARY Satellite
Satellite in geostationary orbit.

Characteristics of a Geostationary Satellite

i. Orbits from west to east.as the earth
ii. Has an orbit that lies in the same plane as the equator of the earth.
iii. Period of 24hrs as that of the earth.
iv. Maintains a fixed position above a point on the earth’s surface
v. Has same angular speed as the earth

ADVANTAGE:- Offers uninterrupted/ continuous communication between transmitter and

receiver
Dishes need not be moved
Easy to track, so does not need a tracking system
Application:- (i) weather monitoring
(ii) telecommunication
(iii) surveillance and tracking of cars on roads
(iv ) entertainment
Using the expression below height h above the equator can be calculated from the period of
orbit of 24hrs.

R is radius of the earth, m is mass of satellite and M is mass of earth.

Satellites in orbits nearer the Earth than geo-synchronous satellites may be used in the
future to track road vehicles.
Geo-synchronous satellites would not be suitable for this purpose because the signal
spreads out more the further it travels so

i signal would be too weak at large distance, 3.6 x 10 7m above earth’s surface
ii large aerial would be needed to detect/transmit signal,

Advantages of tracking cars on roads:- (i) pricing would reduce congestion

(ii) stolen vehicles can be tracked and recovered
(iii) uninsured/unlicensed vehicles can be
apprehended
Disadvantages of tracking cars on roads:- (i) pricing would increase cost of motoring
(ii) possibility of state surveillance/invasion of
privacy

66
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
Gravitational potential, Φ, at a point in gravitational field is the work done per unit mass
brought from infinity to the point. OR

Gravitational potential, Φ, at a point in gravitational field is the work done in bringing a unit
mass from infinity to that point.

Mathematically, Φ is gravitational potential

M point mass and G is universal gravitational constant
r is distance from centre of mass M to point P in
gravitational field.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIL IS ZERO AT INFINITY.

Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity.

SI units are JKg-1

The minus sign for denotes that (i) the gravitational potential at infinity is zero and
decreases as a point mass M is approached. Anywhere
else in the universe gravitational potential is negative.
Approaching a point mass gravitational potential
becomes more and more negative, i e it becomes smaller
and smaller. Moving away from a point mass potential
increases.

(ii) gravitational force F is attractive, the force is in the

opposite direction to the distance from the mass
(displacement).

Negative = Attractive
Positive = Repulsive

67
Graph
The graph below shows how gravitational potential varies with distance r from the centre of
point mass/planet M. R is radius of the planet M
As distance r approaches infinity, gravitational potential approaches zero.

The gradient of tangent to the graph is called potential gradient and it gives gravitational
field strength at that point.

The relationship between gravitational field strength and potential gradient is:

Gravitational Potential Difference/ Change in Potential

ΦA is potential at point A ΦB is potential at point B

ΦA < ΦB

Change in potential 𝐵 𝐴 ( )

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy of mass m at a point in gravitational field is the work done on
the mass m in moving it from infinity to that point.
Mathematically, gravitational potential energy EP is given by the expression EP = Φm,
where Φ is gravitational potential and m is mass.

Gravitational potential, , so

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CHANGE IN POTENTIAL ENERGY NEAR TO EARTH’S SURFACE
On the surface of the earth, Potential energy 𝐸

At height h above the surface of the earth, 𝐸 ( )

( )

Change in potential energy

So change in potential energy near to the surface of the earth is,

ENERGY OF A SATELLITE
A satellite in orbit has both potential energy U and kinetic energy K.
Total energy ET = U + K

Diagram above shows a satellite in orbit P of radius R1. The satellite shifts orbit from P to Q.

In orbit P, 𝑈 and in orbit Q, 𝑈 R2 < R1, so 𝑈 𝑈

Change in potential energy ( )

Let ( ) 𝑠𝑜 ………………………………….1

In orbit P, In orbit √ so

In orbit Q, Since R2 < R1, so

Change in kinetic energy ( )

………………………………………………………………………….2

From equations 1 and 2, change in potential energy ΔEP is twice change in kinetic energy
ΔEK. This means when a satellite changes orbit to one of smaller radius, its k e
increases and its p e decreases. Decrease in p e is double the increase in k e.
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A SATELLITE ORBITING CLOSE TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE WILL LOSE POTENTIAL ENERGY DUE TO
ATMOSPHERIC FRICTION AND MOVE TO A LOWER ORBIT. Its kinetic energy INCREASES. Decrease in
potential energy is double increase in kinetic energy. Some energy is used to overcome friction.

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71