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SMILE-2025
Special Module to Improve achievement Level in public Exams

=====================
= ZOOLOGY =
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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PLUS TWO ZOOLOGY

1.HUMAN REPRODUCTION
2. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
3. PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
4. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
5.EVOLUTION
6. HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES
7. MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
8. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

SMILE-2023 Team Members

 RAMACHANDRAN KK, AKS GHSS MALAPPATTAM

 SITHARA P, KADABUR HSS

 PRASEETHA KV, GRFTV HSS AZHEEKAL

 PUSHPA PC, GVHSS for GIRLS , KANNUR

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of an organism to produce its young one
Reproductive events
1. Gametogenesis 4. Implantation
2. Insemination 5. Gestation
3. Fertilization 6. Parturition

Male reproductive system

Flow chart showing the path of sperm

Seminiferous tubule Rete testes  Vasa efferentiaEpididymis Vas deferensUrinogenital
duct
Glands associated with Male reproductive organ-
Seminal vesicle, Prostate gland,Bulbo urethral gland.
Seminiferous tubules contain two types of cell
Sertoli cell- Nourish the sperm
Leydig cells- Produce male hormone androgen (Testoterone)
Spermatogonium- Produce sperm
 In human, testes are placed outside the body to maintain lower temperature
Structure of Seminiferous tubule

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Spermatogenesis Spremiogenesis Spermiation

Production of sperm Formation of spermatid to Releasing of sperm from
sperm seminiferous tubule

Female reproductive System

Ovary Fallopian tube(Infundibulum Ampulla Isthmus)UterusVagina

 Layers of Uterus- Perimetrium(outer), Myometrium(middle) ,
Endometrium(inner)
 Fertilisation taken place inside the Fallopian tube
 Hymen is not considered as a reliable symbol of virginity because it may be broken by
exercise

Milk conduction in mammary gland-Mammary tubuleMammary duct Mammary

ampullaLactiferous duct(TDAL)

Structure of Sperm

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 Function of Acrosome-To penetrate the ovum

 Mitochondria –provide energy
 Tail –movement of sperm

 Layers of ovum
Plasma membrane- Vitelline membrane –Zona pellucida-Corona radiata
Mensrual cycle
Phase Days Events

Menstrual phase 1-5 Bleeding

Endometirum regenerate
Follicular phase 6-13
Primary follicle to Graafian follicle
Ovulatory phase 14 Releasing of ovum

Luteal phase 15 -28 Corpus luteum formation

 Function of Corpus luteum-Production of Progesterone

Menarche-First menstruation Menopause-Stopping of menstruation

Structure of Blastocyst

Inner cell mass

Trophoblast

Trophoblast-Become Placenta Inner cell mass- BecomeEmbryo

 Implantation- Attaching of blastula to endometrium
EggZygoteMorulaBlastula
Placenta- connection between mother and foetus
It transports oxygen & nutrients to foetus, removal of waste from foetus
Placenta secretes hCG, hPL, Estrogen, Progesterone
Colostrum- First milk produced in mammary gland –contains Ig A, Provides immunity to bab

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REPRODUCIVE HEALTH
Contraceptive methods
1. Periodic abstinence
Natural Method 2. Coitus interruptus
3. Lactational amenorrhoea
Prevent the meeting of Sperm and Condom
ovum Cervical cap
Barriers
Diaphragm
Vault
1.Non medicated Lippes loop
IUD 2. Cu releasing CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375
3. Hormone releasing LNG 20,Progestasert
Pill Saheli (once a week pill)
Oral contraceptive
Produced in CDRI
Male sterilization Vasectomy
Surgical method
Female sterilization Tubectomy

Vasectomy Tubectomy

 MTP- Medical Termination of Pregnancy- Induced abortion

 Amniocentesis – Technique to identify genetic disorder in developing foetus. It is
banned in our country to avoid killing of female foetus(Female
foeticide)
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STI-Sexually Transmitted Infection

Disease Pathogen Symptom
Fluid discharge, Itching, Slight pain in the genital
Gonorrhoea Bacteria region
Syphilis Bacteria
Chlamydiasis Bacteria
Trichomoniasis Protozoa
Preventive measures
AIDS Virus
1. Avoid sex with unknown/multiple partners
Hepatitis B Virus
2. Use condom during intercourse
Genital Herpes Virus
3. Seeking medical help

INFERTILITY
ART-Assisted ReproduciveTehnologies
1. Test tube baby programme-IVF(Invitro Fertilization) followed by ET(Embryo Transfer-ZIFT,
IUT)
2. GIFT - Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer
3. ICSI - Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection
4. AI - Artificial Insemination
5. IUI - Intra Uterine Insemination

RCH - Reproductive and Child Health care Programme

MMR - Maternal Mortality Rate
IMR - Infant Mortality Rate
IUD - Intra Uterine Device
CDRI - Central Drug Research Institute
AIDS - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
ZIFT - Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer
IUT - Intra Uterine Transfer

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PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Mendelian laws
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment
Monohybrid Cross

 Monohybrid Phenotypic Ratio-3:1

 Genotypic Ratio-1:2:1
Test cross and Back cross
Test cross - Crossing of F1 progenywith the recessive parent (test cross ratio1:1)
Back cross - Crossing of F1 progeny with any one of the parent
Incomplete dominance

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 F1 progeny shows a character in between two parents( Dominant gene is incompletely

dominant over recessive gene)
 Genotypic & phenotypic ratio of incomplete dominance is 1:2:1

Multiple allelism and Codominance

Multiple allelism -Involvement of more than two alleles for a single trait Eg. Human blood
group
Co-dominance -Two dominant alleles are equally dominant and express at the same time AB
Blood group
 Dihybrid phenotypic ratio-9:3:3:1
Sex determination
XX-XY Type - Drosophila and Human-Male heterogamy
XX-XO Type -Insect(Grasshopper)- Male heterogamy
ZW-ZZ Type -Birds-Female heterogamy

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

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GENETIC DISORDERS
A. Mendelian Disorders
1. Haemophilia (bleeder’s disease or Royal disease)- Clotting of blood is delayed

Sex linked recessive trait

Sickle cell anaemia -Autosomal recessive trait. Substitution of Glutamic acid by Valine at the 6th
position of beta globin chain.

2 Phenyl ketonuria -Inborn error in metabolism

Chromasomal Disorders
1.Down’s Syndrome - 45A+XX/XY =47(21 Trisomy) – short stature, Mentally retarded
2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome-44A+XXY=47 -Sterile male, gynaecomastia
3. Turner’s Syndrome -44A+X0 =45 -Sterile female ,Rudimentary ovary

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MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

a. Nucleoside:

Nucleoside=Nitrogen base + Pentose sugar

b. Nucleotide:

Nucleotide=Nitrogen base + Pentose sugar + Phosphate group

 Bond present between nucleotides = Phosphodiester bond.
CENTRAL DOGMA

 Francis Crick proposed central dogma.

The Double Helical Model of DNA

 Proposed by Watson and Crick.

 Contains 2 polynucleotide chains.

 Nitrogen bases–ATGC.

 Sugar–Deoxyribose.

 Hydrogen bond – Connect Nitrogen bases.Between A and T – 2 hydrogen bond.

Between Gand C –3 hydrogen bond.
 Phosphodiester bond–Connect Sugar and phosphate.
Heterochromatin Euchromatin
Densely packed Loosely packed
It stains dark It stains light
It is transcriptionally inactive It is transcriptionally active
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Nitrogen bases are ATGC Nitrogen bases AUGC
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Purines and pyrimidines are Purines and pyrimidines are not

present in equal amount present in equal amount

DNA REPLICATION
Semi conservative mode of replication proposed by Watson and Crick
Structure of Replication fork

Transcription Unit

Properties of Genetic code

1. Genetic code is triplet
2. Genetic code is commaless
3. Genetic code is unambiguous
4. Genetic code is degenerate
5. Genetic code is universal
AUG–Start Codon, it codes for methionine
Stop codons–UAA,UAG,UGA.
Template Strand–3’TACGTACGTACGTACG5’

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Coding strand–5’ATGCATGCATGCATGC3’

mRNA strand–5’ AUGCAUGCAUGCAUGC3’

o Cistron:It is a segment of DNA, coding for a polypeptide.

LAC Operon

VNTR (Variable Number of Tandem Repeats)

DNA Finger printing

The technique was developed by Alec Jeffry

1. Isolation of DNA
2. Digestion of DNA by Restriction endonuclease
3. Separation of DNA fragments by Gel Electrophorosis
4. Transfering of DNA fragments into nitrocellulose paper(Blotting)
5. Hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe
6. Detection of hybridised DNA fragments by Auto radiography
Application of DNA Finger printing

 Used in forensic science to solve the problems of paternity,rape,murder etc.

 Used to diagnose genetic disorders.

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EVOLUTION

 Origin of universe – About 20 billion years ago

 Origin of earth – About 4.5 billion years ago
 Origin of Life –500 million years ago
Theory of Chemical Evolution
olution- Proposed by Oparin and Haldane
-It
It states that life was originated from non living organic molecules by chemical reaction
The Hypothesis was experimentally proved by Urey and Miller
 They created electric
ctric discharge using electro
electrodes
des in a closed flask containing methane(CH4),
ammonia(NH3), hydrogen(H2) and water vapour(H2O).

HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN ANALOGOUS ORGAN

Same structure but different function Different structure but same function
Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution
Eg-
Eg-
 Fore limb of Whale
 Eye of octopus and man
,bat,mammals
 Wings of insect and birds
 Thorns and tendrils

Adaptive radiation
The process of evolution of different species iin a given geographical area starting
ing from a point and radiating
to other geographical areas or habitat .
Examples
1. Darwin Finches
2. Australian Marsupials
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
 Sum total of frequencies of all the alleles=1

Factors Affecting Hardy Weinbergequilibrium

 Gene Migration
 Genetic Drift
 Mutation

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 Genetic recombination
 Natural selection
Effects of natural selection

a). Stabilizing selection

b). Directional selection

c) Disruptive selection

 Evolutionary stages of Man

Dryopithecus More ape like 15mya

Ramapithecus Man like 15 mya

Australopithecines Hunted with stone weapons, ate fruit 2 mya

Homo habilis Did not eat meat,650-800cc brain capacity 1.4 mya

Homo Erectus Ate meat ,900cc brain capacity 1.5 mya

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Used hides to protect their body,buried their

Neanderthal man 1,00,000-40,000years
dead,1400cc

Homo sapiens Modern man

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES.

Immunity

2 types of immunity. Innate and acquired.

Innate immunity - 4 types of barriers

1. Physical barrier - skin , mucus

2. Physiological - HCl, saliva,Tear
3. Cellular - WBC - Neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages.
4. Cytokine – Interferon

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Acquired immunity - Antibody mediated

Structure of antibody - H2L2 model

Active lmmunity Passive immunity

1. Antibody produced in response. to 1. Ready made antibody
antigen 2. It is faster
2. It is slow 3. Shorter period
3. Stays longer period Eg. Colostrum , Tetanus antitoxin
Eg . vaccination

 Graft rejection by cell mediated immunity

 Vaccine - Inactive pathogen
 Antigen - antibody generating substances
 Auto immunity
Eg . Rheumatoid arthritis

MALT Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue

AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
HIV Human Immuno DeficiencyVirus
ELISA Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay
NACO National AIDS Control Organization

AIDS
 Pathogen - HIV(Human Immuno deficiency Virus)
Transmission
 By sexual contact with infected person
 By transfusion of contaminated blood
 Sharing of infected needle
 From infected mother to foetus through placenta
Test ELISA

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Cancer
Two types of tumour
1. Benign- Do not spread
2. Malignant-Spread from one place to other( Metastasis)

DRUGS
Types of Drug Origin(Plant) Effect
Opioid Morphin, Heroin Papaver somniferum Sedative, Pain killer Depressant
Cannabinoid Cannabis sativa Affect CNS
Coca alkaloid Erythroxylum coca Affect CNS
LSD Fungus Hallucinogenic

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MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

House hold products

Lacto bacillus Lactic Acid Bacteria(LAB) Converts milk to curd
Increasing Vitamin B12
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Baker’s Yeast Used making bread
Propionibacterium sharmanii Bacteria Used making Cheese

Industrial Product

Industrial product
a) Beverage
Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae
b) Antibiotic
Penicillin-Penicillium notatum

c) Organic acids
Acid Microbe Category
Citric acid ASpergillus niger Fungus
Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti Bacteriun
Butyric acid Clostridium butylicum Bacteriun
Lactic acid Lactobacillus Bacteriun
Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fungus

Enzymes

 Pectinase& Protease-Clear fruit juice

 Lipase-Removing oily stain from cloths
 Streptokinase-Clot buster(Remove blood clot from blood vessel)

Bio active molecules

Cyclosporin A Trichoderma polysporum Immuno suppressive agent
Statin Monascus purpureus Lowering blood
cholesterol

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Microbes in biogas

 Methanobacterium- Bio gas is a mixture of methane and CO2

Microbes as bio control agents

 Bacillus thuringiensis-Bacteria (Bt) is used to control caterpillar

 Trichoderma(Fungus)-To control plant diseases
 Baculo viruses- Destroy insects and other arthropods
 IPM- Integrated Pest Management

Microbes as bio fertilisers

 Bacteria-Rhizobium(Symbiotic Bacterium)
 Azospirillum, Azotobactor-(Free living bacteria)
 Cyanobacteria-Nostoc,Anabaena, Oscillatoria
 Fungus– Mycorrhiza

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BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION.

Biodiversity - Edward wilson

Levels of biodiversity

1. Genetic level
2 .species level

3. Ecological level

Tropics contain more species than temperate and polar regions. Because

● Undisturbed area.
● Less seasonal
● More solar radiation and more productivity.
Amazon rain forest in south America - Lungs of planet. - greater biodiversity on earth

Species - Area relationship by alexander Von Humboldt.

Species richness increases with increasing area but up to a certain limit.

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Causes of biodiversity loss -The Evil quartet

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

2. Over exploitation

3. Invasion of alien species

4. Co - extinction

Conservation of biodiversity

In-situ conservation (on site )- Within the natural habitat

Eg . 1). Hot spot

2). Biosphere reserve

3).National park

4). Wild life sanctuary

5). sacred forest

2.Ex - situ conservation (Off site )- Organisms are protected outside the natural habitat under human care'

Eg. Zoo, Aquarium, Botanical garden ,pollen bank ,Gene bank, cryopreservation

 IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources

 The Earth summit - Rio de Janerio in 1992
 The World summit - Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002..

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