HEAT- Definition

( A) Heat and Temperature

Heat is the form of energy which gives the sensation of hotness or coldness of a body.
It is measured in joules (SI units), or calories
1 calorie = 4.2 joule
The measurement of degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature
The instrument which measures the temperature is called Thermometer
Thermometer work on following relation
  melting po int
 Cons tan t
Difference between melting po int and boiling po int
Name of Unit Melting or Freezing Boiling point Difference
point

C 0 100 100

F 32 212 180

K 273.15 373.15 100

U (Unknown or x1 x2 x = x2 – x1
Faulty)
C  0 F  32 K  273 U  x1
    Cons tan t
100 180 100 x2  x1
( B) System ,surrounding , and Boundary
System: The part of universe, containing an extremely large number of particles having a certain
value of pressure, volume and temperature, on which an experiment is carried out and
observed is called system.
Type of system:
1. On the basis of composition
(a) Homogeneous system: If the composition of each part of the system is same in every
respect then the system is known as “Homogeneous system”.
For example: Solution of sugar in water [saturated]
(b) Heterogeneous system: If the composition of any two part of the system is not same or
uniform then system is known as “Heterogeneous system”.
For example: Mixture of sugar and salt
2. On the basis of flow of mass & energy
(a) Open system: If there is flow of mass as well as energy between the system and
surrounding then system is called open system.
(b) Closed system: If there is only flow of energy not mass between the system and
surrounding then system is called closed system.
(c) Isolated system: If there is flow of neither mass nor energy between the system and
surrounding then system is called isolated system.
(d) Imaginary system: If there is flow of mass only, not energy, between system and
surroundings then system is called imaginary system.
Surrounding: The part of universe excluding system, which is around the system is called
surroundings. Surroundings influence the behavior of system.
Boundary: Imaginary lines which separates the system from surrounding is called boundary.
( C) Thermodynamic Property: A quantity which is either an attribute of an entire system or
is a function of position which is continuous and does not vary rapidly over microscopic
distances, except possibly for abrupt changes at boundaries between phases of the
system, e.g., concentration, pressure, temperature, volume, surface tension, and
viscosity, Also known as macroscopic property.

1
(i) Intensive Property: The property of a system which does not depend upon quantity is
called intensive property. For examples: Density, refractive index, thermal conductivity
etc.
(ii) Extensive Property: The property of a system which depends upon quantity is called
extensive property. For example: Volume, mass
Basic Formulae Thermodynamic Process
Q  U  W
( 1) First Law of Thermodynamic Process 
dQ  dU  dW
 PV  nRT
( 2) Universal Gas Law 
 PdV  VdP  R  ndT  Tdn 
( 3) Work done by the system on the surrounding
 WAB   Ve  exp ansion
V2

WAB   PdV   PATH FUNCTION

V1  WAB   Ve  compression
P A Expansion P B Compression V A Compression V B Expansion
V1 V2

B A B A
V2 V1

O V1 V2 V O V2 V1 V O P O P

Figure I: W AB= (+VE) Figure II: W AB= (-VE) Figure III: W AB= (-VE) Figure IV: W AB= (+VE)
( Area Under Curve) ( Area Under Curve) ( Area Under Curve) ( Area Under Curve)
Work Done in a Cyclic Process = ( ) ( Area under cyclic curvres)
3  Monoatomic

( 4) Degree of Freedom f  5  Diatomic
6  Poly  atomic

 f
 n 2 RT
( 5) Internal Energy U    STATE FUNCTION
 f PV
 2
 f  f
 n 2 RT  n 2 RdT
 U   OR dU  
 f Pf V f  PV
 i i  f  PdV  VdP 
 2  2
 1  dQ  f 1 dW
 n  dT   2 R  n dT
  
f P dV
6) Molar Specific Heat c   R 
2 n dT
 P dV
 cV  n dT

cP 2 f R  f  R
   1   Specific Heat ratio cV  R cP    1  R 
cV f 2  1 2   1
Specific heat & Specific Heat ratio of a mixture

2
 n1cV 1  n2cV 2  ...... n  n2  ...... n n
cV  , and 1  1  2  .......
n1  n2  ......  1 1  1  2  1
( 7) Efficiency of a cyclic process whose Work done is positive

Carnot-Cylce & Carnot engine

Source T1 P
ABIsothermal expansion Q1
BCAdiabatic expansion P1 A Q1
CDIsothermal Compression W
DAAdiabatic Compression P2 B
Q2 T1
Sink T2 P3 T2
D
Carnot engine P4 C
Q2
V1 V4 V2 V3 V
V V
  4  3  Adiabatic expansion / compression Ratio
V1 V2
1 1 1
Q2 T2  V1  V  1
    2   
Q1 T1  V4   V3  
Workdone in a cyclic process

Heat SUPLLIED in a cyclic process
1
W Q T 1
 1 2 1 2 1  
Q1 Q1 T1 

( 8) Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator

Q 2 T2
Carnot Refrigerator / Heat Pump: 
Q1 T1
Atmosphere P
Source T1
ABIsothermal expansion
BCAdiabatic expansion Q1 P1 A Q1
CDIsothermal Compression
DAAdiabatic Compression W P2 B
T1
Q2 P3 T 2
D
Sink T2 P4 C
Content of
Q2
Refrigerator V1 V4 V2 V3 V
Carnot Refrigerator

QCold QCold
 
W QHot  QCold
Heat extracted Q 2 Q2 T2 1 
      Co-efficient of performance
Work done W Q1  Q2 T1  T2 

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 ( 9) Process Information
Process Work Done Specific Heat Graph(Comment)
P
 V 
nRT n  f 
  Vi  A(V,P)

  P  c 
Isothermal W   nRT n  i  O V
 Pf 
PV  C  nRT    P
 miso=Slope = tan 
1 1  P2V2
PV V
  nRT n  i 
    dP
 f   V P
dV
Isothermal bulk Modulus Biso 
 V P
 V
Isobaric V
PV  C  nRT
V1 V2 nR  PV  f 
  W  cP    1  R
T1 T2 P 
nR T f  Ti  2  
O T
Greater the slope , lesser the Pressure

Isochoric P
P
C f
T W 0 cV  R
P1 P2 nR 2
  
T
T1 T2 V O
Greater the slope , lesser the Volume

Adiabatic P

PV  C i i  Pf V f
 PV
  1 A(V,P)
TV  1  C  c0
W 
P1 T   C 
  nR T f  Ti  madi=Slope = tan  
P O

V
  1
 V
madi madi   miso

 dP
 V P
dV
Adiabatic bulk Modulus Biso 
 V P
 V

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 Adiabatic P

i i  Pf V f
 PV
m
PV  C
 m 1 A(V,P)
TV m 1  C 
W  f R
P1 mT m  C 
  nR T f  Ti  cP  R 
2 1 m P 
 m 1 m=Slope = tan  m O V
V

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 GRAVITION and ELECTROSTATICS
( 1) Force
( A) Gravitational Force[ Newton’s Laws of Gravitation]

  
 Gm1m2
 2  
F̂12  Use when all masses lie in the same plane
 r
A  r1  B  r2  F12   Gm m  
m1 r m2   1 2  r1  r2   Use when all masses do not lie in the same plane
 r1  r2 3


( B) Electrostatic Force[ Coulomb’s Laws of Electrostatics]

 K Q1Q2

A  r1 

B  r2  

 r
2  
F̂12  Use when all masses lie in the same plane
F12  
Q1 r Q2 KQ Q  
  1 2  r1  r2   Use when all masses do not lie in the same plane
 r r 3
 1 2
( 2) Field
( A) Gravitational Field

  
 GM
 
 2 Ê12  Use when all masses lie in the same plane
 r
A  r1  B  r2  E12   GM  
r M    3  r1  r2   Use when all masses do not lie in the same plane
 r1  r2


( B) Electric field and potential due to some known charge distributions

 Q
 4 r 2 r̂
  0 Q
Q E PA    , and VPA 
( 1) A
r P
 Q  rP  rA  40 r
 40 r 2   3
 rP  rA
-Q +Q
r  4KQar
( 2) B O A P EP 
 r2  a2 
2

OA= OB = a, and OP = r
Direction: From negative charge to positive
Charge
( 3)  2KQa
P EP  3

r r 2
 a2 2
-Q +Q Direction: From positive charge to
B O A OA= OB = a, and OP = r negative Charge

( 4)

P
EP 
2KQr
3  OP


r
r 2
a 2
 2

+Q +Q

B O A OA= OB = a, and OP = r

( 5) Long rod having linear charge density,  = Q/

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   
y y
EP  sin   sin  ˆi  cos   cos  ˆj
4 0 r 4 0 r
r 
 P
x  
r 
 P
x
2K 
EP  sin   , Direction of field along the angle
r 2
bisector of angle formed by system at point P
( 3) Field and Potential due to some known Mass distributions

( A) Gravitational field and Potential due to some known Mass distributions

Type of
Diagram Gravitational field Gravitational potential
distribution
 GM
 
Ring having z GMr
EP   kˆ V
linear mass P(0,0,r)
 r2  R 2  2 r2  R2 
3

density, M
M O
= y
2R x
z  2GM   ˆ 2GM  2
Disc having
areal Mass P(0,0,r) EP 
R 2 
1
r
r R 
2 2
 k V
R 2 
r  R2  r
  
density,
M
M O
= y
R 2 x

 GM
 
Spherical z  GM
P(0,0,r)    k̂ iff R  r    iff R  r  
shell having EP   r 2
 V r
areal mass 0 iff 0  r  R  GM
density, M  iff 0  r  R
O
y  R
M x
=
4R 2

 
Sphere z  GM V=
having
P(0,0,r)
  2  k̂ iff R  r    GM
EP   r  r iff R  r  
volume mass
density, M O
y  R 3  
 GMr  k̂ iff 0  r  R 
 GM 3R 2  r 2  iff 0  r  R
 = 3M/4R
3
x  2R 3  

( B) Electrostatic field and Potential due to some known Mass distributions

Type of distribution with Electrostatic field Electrostatic Potential

Diagram
( 1) Ring having linear  KQr R r KQ R
EP  kˆ  kˆ V 
charge
r  20  r  R  r  r  R2 
3 3
2
R 2 2 2 2 2 2
R 2
2 0 2

Q 
density, = E V
2R
Z
 KQ
2 2 KQ V
P(0,0,r ) E  R
max
3 3 R2

O r O r
O Y R
r
2
X
)

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( 2) Disc having area  2KQ  r ˆ 2KQ  2
EP  1  2 k V r  R2  r
charge density,  =
Q R2  r  R2  R2  
R 2   2
Z   r ˆ  r  R2  r
 1  2 k 2 0  
P(0,0,r ) 2 0  r  R2 
 V
E

2KQ
O Y  V
2KQ R
E 
max R2
X
) O r
O r

( 3) Spherical shell having  KQ  KQ

  k̂ iff R  r    iff R  r  
area charge density,  = EP   r2
Q  V=  r
0 iff 0  r  R  KQ
 iff 0  r  R
4R 2  R
Z  a 2

 2 k̂ iff R  r   R 2
  0 r  iff R  r  

P(0,0,r )
 0 r
0 iff 0  r  R 
  R iff 0  r  R
O Y
E   0
V
 KQ
X E 
) max R2
KQ
V
R
O r

O r

( 4) Non-conducting sphere  KQ  KQ
iff R  r  
having volume charge   2 k̂ iff R  r   
V =  r
density, EP   r
 KQr k̂ iff 0  r  R  KQ 3R 2  r 2  iff 0  r  R
 = 3Q/4R
3
 R 3  2R 3  
Z
 R 3
 R 3  iff R  r  
P(0,0,r )  k̂ iff R  r    3 r
 3 0 r
2
 0
   3R 2  r 2  iff 0  r  R
 r k̂ iff 0  r  R  60  
O Y  3 0
V

E
X 3KQ
V
) 2R
 KQ
E 
max R2

O r
O r

( 5) Non-conducting infinite Potential at a point is not defined

solid cylinder having but potential difference between
volume charge density  two points is defined.

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  R 2
 r̂ iff R  r  
  2 0 r
EP  
 r r̂ iff 0  r  R
 2 0
r P

E

 R
 E 
max 2 0

O r

( 6) Non-conducting infinite Potential at a point is not defined

cylindrical shell having but potential difference between
 R
surface charge density    r̂ iff R  r   two points is defined.
E P   0 r
0 iff 0  r  R



r P E

 
E 
 max 0

O r

( 4) Relation between the field and potential

Case I: If Potential at a point is given and we have to calculate the field at a point in the
space
( a) Field is always perpendicular to equi-potential surfaces or line and its direction is in the
direction of decreasing potential.
  dV 
( b) If V = f( r) then Use E   rˆ
 dr 
  V  V  V 
( c) If V = f( x,y,z) then Use E    i j k 
 x y z 
 V  1 V 

( d) If V = f( x,y,z) then Use E  [ er  e ]
r r 
( e) Greater the number of field lines per unit area, More the strength of the gravitational
field
Similarly for fluid we can say that “greater the number of stream-lines [ stream tubes ] per
unit area, more the magnitude of velocity of fluid.
Case II: If gravitational field at a point is given and we have to calculate the gravitational
Potential at a point in the space
  
( a) If gravitational field is uniform then Use VB  VA  [ E.(rB  rA)]

( b) If E  [ Ex iˆ  E y ˆj  Ez kˆ] , where Ex  f  x  , E y  f  y  , Ez  f  z  then
B      
Use VB  VA    E.d r ,Here dr  [ dxi  dy j  dzk ]
 A

( c) If E  [ Ex i  E y j  Ez k ] , where Ex  f  x, y, z  , E y  f  x, y, z  , Ez  f  x, y, z  then
ˆ ˆ ˆ

9
      
Use VB  VA    E.d r ,Here dr  [ dxi  dy j  dzk ]
( d) Electrostatic field is conservative field; hence, work done by electrostatic field is path
independent
This can be solved by following methods:
( i) Appropriate path selection method
( ii) Using differential equation
( iii) Partial integration Method[ Exact differential equation method]
Note: Electric field of induced charge is not a potential field because displacement of source
charge leads to redistribution of the induced charge and their field turns out to be time
dependent. [So, W  q V ]
( 5) Gauss’ Law
( A) Electrostatic Lines of Force [ Electric Field lines]- An Invisible Reality
( 1) This a pictorial Representation of Electric field
( 2) This is an attempt to explain the Action-at –a – Distance
( 3) The concept of field lines is coined by Michael Faraday in 19th century
( 4) This is an excellent Way to visualising Electric Field without complicated Mathematics
( 5) It is an imaginary concept

dy EPy Co  efficient of ˆj
tan    
dx EPx Co  efficient of iˆ
Property of field lines
Proerty-1: The electrostatic field lines may be the trajectory of charge particle or may not
Proerty-2: No two electrostatic lines of force can intersect each other.
Proerty-3: Unit positive charge gives 1/o lines of force in a medium.
Number of force lines drawn around a charge represents the amount ( magnitude of
Charge
Proerty-4: Lines of force strike and leave the surface of conductor normally.
Proerty-5: Electric lines of force never enter the conductor because inside the
conductor the intensity of electric field is zero.
Proerty-6: Lines of force of a uniform field are parallel and equidistant.
The uniform electrostatic field originates from a positive charge at negative
infinity and terminates at a negative charge at positive infinity.

 
E E

Uniform Field Non-Uniform Field

( B) Gauss’ Law for gravitation in free space

The net gravitational flux through a closed surface is 4 G times the total mass enclosed
by the surface.

10
  n

   4 G  M in  Discrete mass system

net   E  dS   i 1
S
  in
 4 G dM  Continuous Mass system
( C) Gauss’ Theorem for electrostatics in free space

 It is a fundamental and universal law, valid for both static as well as moving charge
 It can be applied to find electrostatic field at a point due to a body, which has a high degree
of symmetry

 It depends upon orientation of plane.

Gauss’ Theorem in Vacuum:
 Qin
   For DescreteCh arg e system
   0
through a closed surface S   E  dS 
S   dQin
   For Continuous Ch arg e system
 0
 
E   Gauss’ Theorem in differential form
0
( 6) Electrostatic Self energy of the system

Gravitational Self energy

Electrostatic Self energy of the
Type of distribution of the system(always
system (always positive, why )
negative, why )
Disc having uniform surface 4KQ 2 4Gm 2
density U Self  U Self 
3R 3R
Spherical shell having uniform KQ 2 Gm 2
surface density, U Self  U Self 
2R 2R
Non-conducting sphere having
uniform volume density, 3KQ 2 3Gm 2
USelf  USelf 
5R 5R

Conversion Factor between gravitation and electrostatics

( 1) 1 /  0  4 G  for vector quantity, potential and potential energy
1 /  0  4 G  for Scalar quantity
( 2) M  Q
Dipole
Dipole moment of system:[ direction of dipole moment for dipole is from negative charge
to positive charge]
 n 
p   ri qi
i 1
Electric Field and Potential due to dipole
Case-I: Axial Position

11
  
kp 2kp -Q p +Q
VP  and EP  3 P
2
r r r
Case-II: Equatorial Position
 
kp P
VP  0 and EP  3
r
r
-Q +Q
p
Case-III: Any point in space
 
kpcos  k  p  r  ê
VP  
r2 r3 ê r
   
  2k  pcos   k  p sin    kp 3k  p  r  r r
EP   ˆr 
e ˆ  
e 
 r3 r3  r3 r5
Q p1 =pcos
Q


p2 =psin
Dipole in an External Uniform / Non- uniform Electrostatic Field
Parameter Electrostatic Field Magnetic Field
Uniform Non-uniform Uniform Non-uniform
 n   n 
Dipole  n   n 
moment p  ri qi 
i 1

p  ri qi M  Si I i
i 1

i 1
M   Si I i
i 1
Force on the Always zero May or may Always zero irrespective May or may not
dipole irrespective not be zero orientation of dipole be zero
orientation of dipole depending depending upon
upon orientation of
orientation dipole
of dipole
Torque on may or may not May or may May or may not be zero May or may not
the dipole be zero, depending not be zero depending upon be zero
upon the orientation depending orientation of dipole depending upon
of dipole upon    orientation of
  MB
   orientation dipole
  pE
of dipole
   
Potential U = p  E U = M  B
energy
Work in W W  MB  cos 2  cos 1 
rotating a  pE cos 2  cos 1 
dipole from 1
to 2 by
external
agent
Let a dipole is in equilibrium in uniform external field and it slightly rotated with a small angular
displacement and released, then it will perform SHM whose time period is given as
I  I 
T  2 ,  T  2 
pE  MB 

12
Property of Conductor

( 1) In electrostatic condition , Electrostatic field at each point inside the body of

conductor is zero

( 2) In electrostatic condition , each point of conductor is equi-potential

( 3) In electrostatic condition , the net electrostatic field at a point just outside the
 
conductor is EP  pˆ
0
  
EP Re st   EPS   pˆ
2 0
 EP  Re st 

p u  2 1    Electrostatic pressure / Electrical energy density
   0 E P  EP  
 2 0 2
( 4) No free charge can reside inside conductor

( 5) The free surface charge density on the surface of conductor is inversely

proportional to the radius of curvature .

Greater the radius of curvature, lesser the surface charge density

1
 free 
radius of curvature
Note: The bound surface charge density on the surface of conductor is inversely
proportional distance of point from the source charge of induction.

Greater the distance of point from the source charge of induction, lesser the
surface charge density

1
 free 
Distance of point from the source charge of induction

Q
Capacitor: The ratio of is called capacity of conductor and denoted by C
V
Q Q
C  tan 
V
1 QV Q2
U  CV 2    Energy stored in the capacitor Q
2 2 2C
( Shaded Area represents the energy stored in the capacitor)

 V
O V

13
Spherical conductor as Capacitor
B

a a A

O O a
O

Solid spherical Spherical
Conductor of Conducting shell
radius a of radius a
CAB  40 a
Parallel Plate capacitor
d d
0 A + - + -
C AB 
d  t(1  1/ k) + - + -
+ - + -
+ - + -
+ - + -
+ t - + t -
A + - B A + - B
+ k - + k -
+ - + -
+ - + -
+ - + -
+ - + -

Special cases
case I: If t  0 i.e., space between the plate is filled air
 A
C AB  0  C0
d
Case II: t  d i.e., the whole space is filled with dielectric
 Ak
C AB  0  kC0  C0 [  k > 1]
d

Case III: In place of dielectric conductor thickness t is placed between the plates
[k for conductor  ]
 A
C AB  0  C0 > C0
dt
Case IV: conductor of thickness t  d then
C   if conductor does not touch the any plate of capacitor
If conductor touches the plates of capacitor the whole system becomes same conductor
and capacitance of system tends to zero.
Note: ( i) The capacitance of conductor does not depends upon the position of
dielectric/conductor
( ii) Due to insertion of any foreign material, the capacitance of system increases

Spherical capacitor
Case-I: When outermost shell is earthed or no shell is earthed

14
 B
40ba B
C AB 
b  a 
A
A
a a
O O
b b

Case-II: When innermost shell is earthed

B
40b2
C AB 
b  a 
A
B
a a
O O A A
b b

Cylindrical Capacitor
C AB 20
  Cylindrical
 n b  
a
capacitance Per unit Length
A B A B

Force on the dielectric inside parallel plate capacitor( Dimension of plate:   b )

0bV 2  k  1 
F  Force on the dielectric
2d +++++++++++++++
( Constant Force) k
Note: when dielectric is completely inside the d x
capacitor , no force will act V

----------------------

Gravitational potential

15
   GM
( a)  
VP  Gravitational Potential at point P r1 due to Mass M at point S r2 =  
r1  r2
 
( b) Derivation and Use of Formulae of some well-known bodies [ring, disk, shell solid sphere]
( c) plot the graph between V and r
( 1) Motion of satellite
( a) Velocity of Object at the time of projection and nature of its path
Velocity of Nature of Relation b/w KE & Total Energy Eccentricity
object path PE at earth ( e)
surface
V < V0 spiral KE < | PE | Negative Not defined
V = V0 circular KE < | PE | Negative e=0
V0<V < Ve Elliptical KE < | PE | Negative e<1
V = Ve Parabola KE = | PE | Zero e=1
V (= n Ve) > Ve Hyperbola KE > | PE | Positive e>1
( b) Orbital velocity
P vO
2
GM gR
Orbital Velocity = V0   r
r r
1/2
 4 r 3 
Time period of Revolution = T   2 
O
R
 gR 
Parking orbit (Parking radius) = h = r- R

( b) Escape velocity
ve
m
2GM
ve   2gR
R O
R

( 2) For elliptical Motion

OA  OB  a  Semi-major Axis P
y
C v1
OC  OD  b  Semi-minor Axis r X
(Perihelion)B S(-ae,0) O A(Aphelion)

2 v2 D
b
e  1     Eccentricity of ellipse
a
SA  r2  a 1  e  and SB  r2  a 1  e 

16
Kepler’s Law
st
I Law : Each planet moves in an elliptic orbit about the sun, with sun at one focus
nd
II Law: The line joining the sun and planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals
rd
III Law: For each planet, the square of the period of revolution is proportional to the cube of the
mean radius of planet from the sun
2 3
T   R 
T R  1   1 
2 3

 T2   R2 
( a) Outcomes of First Law ( law of Orbit)
GMm GMm 1 2
( i) E A  EB  EP  E    mv
2a r 2
GM (1  e) GMr2 GM (1  e) GMr1
( ii) v1   , and v2  
a(1  e) ar1 a(1  e) ar2
GMr1r2
( iii) L  mr1v1  m
a
2GM  1 1 
( iv) v 22  v12  
a  1  e 1  e 
( b) Outcomes of Second Law ( law of Orbit)
dA L GMr1r2
 
dt 2m 4a
4 2 3
( c) Outcomes of Third Law ( law of Orbit) T 2  a
GM
( 3) Variation of g
( a) due to height h above the earth surface
P
2
R h h
gP  g  
 R 
R
O

( b) due to depth h below the earth surface

h
P
R h
gP  g   O
 R  R

( c) due to rotation of earth

g '  g  R 2 cos2  , where  is the latitude of the point

17
Current Electricity
Ohm’s law
Statement: The potential difference across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the resistor, provided temperature remains same.
V I

R R

A I B
R  
O I O V

Figure-I Figure-II Figure-III

According to Ohm’s Law ( From Figure –I)
V = VA –VB  I
 V = VA –VB = R I  Ohm’s Law ( Graph will be Straight –Line)

V VA  VB
I 
R R
If we plot graph V (Potential difference) versus I (Current), it will appears like
figure-II and greater the value of  , more the resistance

V
tan   R
I
If we plot graph I (Current) versus V (Potential difference), it will appears like
figure-III and lesser the value of  , more the resistance

I 1
tan   
V R
( 1) Resistivity [  , m, Scalar]
m
Resistivity =  = ,
nq 2
Where is the mass of charge carrier, n is them number of charge carrier per unit
volume of the conductor, q is the amount of charge on each charge carrier and  is the
relaxation time
Factor affecting the resistivity
( a) Nature of material
( b) Temperature
  0 1   T 
Note: ( i) Resistivity of a material does not depends upon the dimension of conductor
( ii) Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity
1
  Conductivity

( iii) Resistivity is also known as specific resistance of the conductor

18
( 2) Resistance[ R , , Scalar]
 
 A

1  M
Resistance = R  
G  A2 d
 2d

 M
Where  is the length of conductor, A is the cross-sectional area of conductor, d is the
density of material of conductor and M is the mass of conductor.
Factor affecting the resistance
( a) Nature of material
( b) Temperature
R  R0 1   T 
( c) Dimension of conductor
Note: ( ii) Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
1
R  Conductance
G
( 3) Current in a conductor
I = n e A Vd

( 4) Ohm’s Law : [1928, German Physicist George Simon Ohm]

“At constant temperature and a given physical condition, current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference across the conductor”.
 V  RI
( 5) Combination of Resistances[Calculation of Equivalent Resistance]

( A) Series Combination

If there is no branching between two given points , then the resistances are called
in series

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

A C D E F B

19
 E E

R3
R4

R1 R2 R5

A C D F B

The resistances R1, R2 , R3 , R4 and R5 are in Series

In general
n
Req  R1  R2  R3  .........  Rn   Ri  Ri
i 0

Rule-1: If resistances are in series, the current flowing through each resistance will
be same,
But
Converse may or may not be true
( B) Parallel Combination

If all resistances are connected between two given points , then the
resistances are called in Parallel.

R1

R2
A B

R3

The resistances R1, R2, and R3 are in parallel

20
In general
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
    .........    Req  Ri
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn i 0 Ri
Rule-2: If resistances are in parallel, the potential difference across each resistance will
be same,
But
Converse may or may not be true
NAMING of Points of the circuit
Rule-1: All the points of connecting wire having nothing should given same name,
because they are equi-potential points.

For example, consider a connecting wire as shown in the figure

A A A A A A

Consider another example

A A

A
A
A A

A A

Conclusion: This Rule is valid for straight connecting wire s well as any
zig- zag shape

Rule-2: Name each point of the circuit where two or more than electrical
components ( Resistance, battery etc) are connected
Circuit solving techniques
Step-I: Count the number of of nodes in the circuit and re-arrange circuit as per number of
Nodes
( 1) Circuit is having two nodes or three nodes
( A) Circuit is having two nodes :

21
 Redraw the circuit , keeping nodes ( say node A and
node B) at extremes and connect all the electrical A B
components as shown in the figure
( B) Circuit is having three nodes :
Redraw the circuit , keeping nodes across which we have
to calculate the equivalent
( say node A and node B) at extremes and connect all the A C B
electrical components as shown in the figure
For example consider the following circuits.
Step-II: Now circuit can be solved using basic concept of series and parallel with
( a) Concept of short –circuit
( b) Concept of extra component or useless component of the circuit
( c) Concept of parallel capacitors
( d) Concept of parallel capacitors with dielectric.

( 2) Circuit is having Four nodes

Redraw the circuit , keeping nodes across which we have C
to calculate the equivalent
( say node A and node B) at extremes and connect all
the electrical components as shown in the figure
A B

D
Now use the concept of Wheat stone bridge.
( A) Balanced Wheat stone bridge
Extension of wheat-stone bridge:
( A) Horizontal
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
R1 R2 R3 R 4 R5 1 3 5 7
If     ,
R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14
then ckt is called balanced A B

horizontally extended wheat stone 2 4 6 8

bridge, then R6 R7 R8 R9 R10
V1 = V2, V3 = V4, V5 = V6 and V7 = V8
( B) Vertical
R1 R6
R1 R6 R 2 R7 R3 R 8 1
If  and  and  and
R 2 R7 R 3 R8 R 4 R9 R11
R2 R7
R 4 R9 2
 ,
R5 R10 R12
R3 R8
then V1 = V2= V3 = V4=V5 3
A B
R13
R4 R9
4

R14
R10
5
R5

22
( C) Mixed
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3 1 4
 
R 4 R5 R 6
R10 R12
R R R
and 4  5  6 , then 2 5
R 7 R8 R 9 A
R4 R5 R6
B
R11 R13
ckt is called mixed extended
balanced wheat stone bridge
3 6
 V1 = V2 = V3 and V4 = V5 = V6 R7 R8 R9

( B) Unbalanced Wheat stone bridge

( a) Unbalanced symmetrical Wheat stone bridge

2n  m  mn 2n  m  mn
Ceq  C Or Req  R
2m  n  1 2m  n  1
( b) Unbalanced unsymmetrical Wheat stone bridge
Either Use the method of symmetry with Kirchhoff’s Law
Or simply Kirchhoff’s Law
Or Star – delta conversion method
Star – delta conversion method
( I) Star – delta conversion method For Capacitors
Star to Delta conversion
1 1 Remember that
C12
C1 C12C3  C23C1  C31C2  k ,
C31
 where
C2 C3
N

2
C23
3 2 3 C12C23  C23C31  C31C12

Delta circuit Star circuit k   C1C2C3
Star to Delta conversion C  C  C
1 1  1 2 3

C1 As per requirement , put the

C12
C31 value of k.
C2 
N C3

2 3 2 3
C23
Star circuit Delta circuit

( I) Star – delta conversion method For Resistors

Star to Delta conversion
1 1 Remember that
R1
R12 R3  R23 R1  R31R2  k ,
R12 R31 where

R2 N R3

2 R23 3 2 3

Delta circuit Star circuit

Star to Delta conversion

23
 1 1
 R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1

R1
R31
k   R12 R23 R32
R12
 R  R  R
R2 N R3  12 23 31
As per requirement , put the
2 3 2 R23 3 value of k.
Star circuit Delta circuit

( 3) Circuit is having infinite components

(4) Circuit is having more than Four nodes
( a) Use method of symmetry
( b) Use Kirchoff’s Law

R-C circuit
( A) Simple Circuit
C I
B D
C R Q R
Q
After
time t
V
V
S A C
S

Capacitor has no charge and switch is Capacitor has charge Q

closed at t = 0
V  t/ 
Q= CV 1  e  t/   and I = e 
R
( B) Reducible to Simple Circuit

Step I: Calculation of 
Replace of all the source of emf by its internal resistance and find the equivalent
resistance Req across the points where capacitor is connected, then
 = Req C
Step II: Calculation of maximum charge on the capacitor
Assuming ckt is in steady state . Let Q0 be the maximum charge on the capacitor
after long time ,then
Q = Charge on the capacitor at time t = 
Q0 1  e t/  

24
Cell and grouping of cells
Cell is the source of EMF (Electromotive force) which produces current in the closed
circuit. Terminal A is called terminal of higher potential (Positive potential) and Terminal
Bis called terminal of lower potential ( negative potential).
VA or VB is not defined.
 VT  VA  VB  Terminal potential difference or terminal voltage.
 Either 0  VT  E or VT  E  Depending upon the state of use cell.
r  Internal resistance of cell.
The internal resistance of the cell depends upon
( i)
State of use of cell
( a) Discharging of Cell : When cell is supplying current to the external circuit then cell is
called in the state of discharging
0  VT  E  Ir  E , External circuit
E
A r B
E
r  I

Discharging State
( b) Charging of Cell : When cell is withdrawing current from the external circuit then
cell is called in the state of charging
VT  E  Ir  E External circuit
E
A r B
E
r  I

Charging State
( c) Ideal State of Cell : When cell is neither withdrawing current from the external circuit
nor supplying current to the external circuit then cell is called in the ideal state
VT  E External circuit
E
A r B
E
r  I=0

I=0

Charging State

Grouping of cells
The meaning of grouping of cell is the process in which we replace the all cells by a
single cell which supplies same current to the external circuit, i.e.
External circuit External circuit then cell is called equivalent cell and E is
EMF of the equivalent cell, which is equal
 to the VT if cell is disconnected from circuit.
A
E
r r  Internal resistance of equivalent cell
Combination of B A B
Cells b b b
I I

Grouping of cells

25
( A) Series Grouping

R R

E1 E
r1 E2 A r B
A C r2
b b b
b B I
I
b

n n
E   Ei , and r   ri
i 1 i 1

Special case: If all cells are identical, then E  nE0 , and r  nr0
Now consider in the grouping of n identical cells in series, m (2m<n) cells are connected
wrongly then, E   n  2m  E0 , and r  nr0
( B) Parallel Grouping

C D
b R b R

E1 E
r1 A r B
A b b
B
b I1 I
b

E2
C r2
F b E E
b I2 b I  ……….( 2)
Rr
E1 E2

r1 r2 rr
E , and r  1 2
1 1
  r1  r2 
r1 r2
Hence in general, we can say that
E1 E2 E
  ...........  n
r r2 rn 1 1 1 1
E  VA  VB  1 , and    ........... 
1 1 1 r r1 r2 rn
  ........... 
r1 r2 rn
r0
Special cases: If all n- cells are identical and connected correctly, then E  E0 , and r  .
n
( C) Mixed Grouping of N-identical cells ( N = m  n) : Circuit contains n-cells are
connected in series and m-such groups are connected in parallel

26
 R
I
E E
R
E r r
r
C D
b R b
I nE
E E
A B
r E nE
r r
nr b b
A
B I
b I1
b nr/m

nE
C nr
F b E
I
b 2 b

nE mE
I max  
R nr
Condition for maximum current
R n External resis tan ce No. of cells in series
  
r m Internal resis tan ce No. of combinations in Parallel
Check
R
First find , then
r
R
Case I: If 1  N implies
r
( a) if we find m & n , and it comes some positive integer, then cells are
connected in mixed grouping
( b) if we find m & n , and it does not come some positive integer, then state
cells can not be found to achieve maximum current directly.
R
Case II: If 0  1 implies, all the cells are connected in parallel to supply
r
maximum current to the external circuit.
R
Case III: If N   implies, all the cells are connected in series to supply
r
maximum current to the external circuit.
Potentiometer
Potentiometer, basically contains two circuits first is called
primary circuit. AB = Potentiometer wire of length L whose
resistance per unit length is x
 
RAB = L = L  N
A A A B

When switch is closed

E
IP   Primary current ( Constant
R AB  Rh  r
E
VAN = Potential drop across AN = VA  VN = RANI =  IP   k
R AB  Rh  r
 VAN    Principle of potentiometer

27
 V
If we plot graph between Potential difference VAN
verses  , then
dV VAN
tan  = tan     IP  k
d  

Sensitivity of potentiometer = d/dV
As we knot that V

V = k
 dV/d = k  d/dV = 1/k
So, greater the k, more the sensitivity 
 k    sensitivity 
tan  = k

Ex
As we know that k =
R AB  Rh  r
1 R AB  Rh  r Lx  Rh  r 1  R r
Sensitivity =  =  L  h
k Ex Ex E x 

Ammeter
Definition: It is an electrical device, used to measure the amount of current or to indicate the
presence of current in the branch, where it is connected.
Connection: It is always connected in Series with the branch in which current has to be
measured.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter: Connect a small resistance, known as Shunt in
parallel to galvanometer.

Ig Rg Ra
A B A B

I I

S
C I-Ig D
Fig I: Galvanometer with Shunt Fig II: Equivalent Ammeter

Rg S Rg
Ra    Resistance of Ammeter
R
g  S n
Reading of Ammeter: The reading of Ammeter is the current flowing through the Ammeter ,
when it is connected in the branch in which current has to be calculated .
Voltmeter
Definition: It is an electrical device, used to measure the amount of potential difference or
potential drop between the two points of the branch across which it is connected.
Connection: It is always connected in parallel across the branch, across which potential
difference or potential drop has to be measured.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter: Connect a very high resistance R in series with
galvanometer.

28
 Ig Rg C B Rv
A A B

R Ig

Fig I: Galvanometer with Resistance Fig II: Equivalent Voltmeter

R   n  1 Rg , where n > 1
Rv  Rg  R  nRg  Resistance of Voltmeter
Reading of Voltmeter: The reading of Voltmeter is the potential difference across the
Voltmeter, when it is connected across the branch between which potential
difference has to be calculated.

29
Magnetics
Concept involved in Calculation of magnetic field using Biot –Savart’ s Law
 
 0I(d   r )
( A) Concept: dB  Tesla
4 r 3
( B) Magnetic field at any point due to straight current carrying B
 0I
wire B cos   cos Bˆ 
4 R
 
Special Case I: If  = 90 and  = 0 ,wire AB is called semi-
  I
infinite wire and B  0 Bˆ I P
4R r
 
Special Case II: If  = 0 and  = 0 ,wire AB is called infinite

  I
wire and B  0 Bˆ
2R A
( a) Calculation of B̂ using left hand palm rule or right hand curl rule
 
Id   r
( b) Calculation of Bˆ as Bˆ   
Id   r
( C) Magnetic field at any point on its axis due to Circular current carrying wire
Point For single loop For N-loop Single arc of N-similar Arc of
angle  angle 
Diagram

O O  
P P

N-loop
Magnitude of  0IR 2
N 0IR 2 I  NI 
Magnetic field B B B 0  B 
2(R  r )
2 2 3/2
2(R 2  r 2 )3 / 2 2R 2 2R 2
If r = 0 If r = 0
0I N0I
B B
2R 2R
( b) Calculation of magnetic field at point due combination of circular and straight
wires
( c) Miscellaneous
( D) Calculation of magnetic field using integration
( E) Calculation of magnetic field using Biot –Savart’ s Law in Polar Form
d cos   AB  rd
C
0Id sin(90    d) 0Id cos  0Id B d
dB    
4 r 2
4 r 2 4 r
90-d
A
d

0Id
dB   Magnetic field at origin
4 r
Ampere’s Circuit law (Ampere’s law)

30
  
Concept-1: The circulation  B  d  of resultant magnetic field along a closed loop (plane
curve) is equal to 0 times the total current crossing the area bounded by the
closed curve provided “electric field inside the loop remains constant”.
Hence according to ampere’s law
 
 B  d  = 0    Ii
  
Concept-2: Meaning of  B  d  and nature of B

B  Magnetic field at any point on the selected element MN of length d  due to all
current carrying wires in the vicinity of element [ Inside or outside of the loop.
Consider a loop which contains I1, I2, …………..In currents inside i1
the loop and i, i1, i2………….in currents outside the loop as 
shown in the figure. I2 B
     I1 M
   out in
I1
0 i
i3 i2
B  d    [I
0 1  I2  ................  In ]  (B  B )  d    I N
   I3
  B out  d    Bin  d    0  Ii in

If there is no current inside the loop then

   
 Bin  d   0   Bout  d   0  
If there is any current inside the loop or not, the  B out  d   0 must be zero
Concept-3: Magnetic field inside Cavity using Ampere’s Circuit law
Magnetic field inside cylindrical cavity
       
BP  BP(I)  BP(II)  0  j  CP  j  C1P 
2
 0  
P
BP  ( j  CC1 ) C C1
2

Ampere force law: (force on a current carry wire in magnetic field)


Consider a current carrying wire having current I, is kept in the space of magnetic field B . Let

an element AB through which dq charge passes in dt time with velocity v .

According to lorentz’s force law


    d    dq  
dF  dq[v  B] = dq   B   (d   B)
 dt  dt
    S  
 dF  Id   B (This is called Ampere’s force law)  F   Id   B
P
If magnetic field is uniform

  rS       
F  I d    B  F  I[(rS  rP )  B]
 rP 


Motion of charged particle in Electro-magnetic field

When a charged particle enters in electro-magnetic field it experiences a force, called
Lorentz’s force
     
F  q(v  B)  qE  Fm  Fe , where

Fm  Force experienced by charged particle due to magnetic field

Fe  Force experienced by charged particle due to magnetic field
   
As we know from the concept of a  b , that a  b is always perpendicular to plane containing
 
vector a and b , so

31
   
Fm is perpendicular to plane containing v and B

Since the magnetic force is always perpendicular to v , so it can only change the direction of
velocity not its magnitude.
 
Pmi = Instantaneous power generated by magnetic force = Fm  v  0
 Work done by magnetic force on a charged particle is zero (always).
If we use work –energy theorem for a charged particle enters in electro-magnetic field, then we have
K = WF  WF  WF , Since WF  0 .
m e e m

Hence we can conclude that in presence magnetic field only, the speed of charged
particle remains same at each point of trajectory

Motion of charged particle in uniform magnetic field Only

 
Case I: Velocity of projection is parallel to the uniform magnetic field B || v 
 
If B || v , the no magnetic force will act on the charged particle , so charged particle will move
undeflected.
 
Case II: Velocity of projection is perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field B  v 
Case III: Velocity of projection has components, which are both parallel and
  
perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field  v  v   vII 

 
( B) Either B or E or, both are non-uniform: Follow the same methods / step which are
mentioned in the case of Non uniform magnetic field
Magnetic moment of charged system uniform charge density , rotating with angular speed

Suppose a charged particle of charge q and mass m is rotating with I
angular speed  on a circular path of radius R as shown in the figure.
L = m R2 …………..( 1) O
R
q q q q R 2
I   M   R2  I   R2   ……..( 2)
T 2 2 2
M q
With the help of equations ( 1) and ( 2), we can write,  ………………..( A)
L 2m

32