UNIT 1

Programming Language
A programming language is an organized way of communicating with a computer
using a set of commands and instructions, instructing the computer to perform
specific task. It is compiler-based languages. Programming languages run faster
compare then scripting languages
1. It creates a .exe file.
2. Need compiler.
3. Complex
4. More code needs

Examples
1. C
2. C++
3. Java
4. Pascal
5. COBOL
6. Basic

COBOL Common Business-Oriented Language

BASIC Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

Scripting Language
A scripting language is a programming language that supports scripts Scripting
languages don’t require to be compiled rather they are interpreted. Scripting
languages are primarily used for web applications. It an Interpreter based
language Takes less time to code as it needs less coding.
 1. Does not creates a .exe file.
2. NO Need To compiler.
3. Easy to write
4. Less code needs

Examples
1. PHP
2. Python
3. JavaScript
4. VB Script
5. Perl
6. Ruby

PHP Hypertext Preprocessor

Perl Practical Extraction and Report Language

Markup language
Markup language is a computer language that uses tags to define elements within
a document. No Need To compiler. The language specifies code for formatting,
both the layout and style, within a text file.

Examples
1. HTML
2. XML
3. XHTML
4. SGML

HTML Hypertext Markup Language

XML Extensible Markup Language

Scripting Language
Scripting Language is built into a specific application. Complete application is
downloaded to the client browser. Can create dynamic web page.

Scripting language is a programming language that support writing of scripts.

Uses of Scripting Language

1. Interpreter based
2. No need to compile
3. Easy to write
4. Less code required
5. Not Create .exe file
6. Used for Web development

Types of Scripting Language

 1. Client-Side Scripting
2. Server-Side Scripting

Client-side scripting
Client-side scripting cannot used to connect to database on server. It Executed in
the web browser.

Uses of Client-side scripting

1. Source code is visible to user

2. Run on computer browser
3. It is faster as compared to server-side scripting
4. Frontend
5. No need interaction with server
6. Insecure
7. Collect User Input

Examples
1. JavaScript
2. ActionScript
3. VBScript
4. Ajax
5. HTML
6. CSS
Server-side scripting
Server-side scripting used to connect to database on server. It Executed in the
web Server. Generate Content for the dynamic web pages

Uses of Server-side scripting

1. Source code is not visible to user

2. Run on web server
3. It is slower scripting language
4. Backend
5. Interaction with server
6. More secure
7. Collect User Input and process data with web server
Examples
1. PYTHON(.py)
2. RUBY(.rb)
3. PHP(.php)
4. ASP(.asp)
5. ASP.NET(.aspx)
6. JSP(.jsp)
7. PERL(.pl)

Client-side scripting Vs Server-side scripting

 UNIT 2
Regular Grammar
Regular grammar is a type of grammar that describes a regular language. A
regular grammar four Tuple, G = (V, T, P, S)
V: Finite set of non-terminal symbols
T: Finite set of terminal symbols
P: Production rules
S: start symbol.
This grammar can be of two forms:
1. Left Linear Regular Grammar
2. Right Linear Regular Grammar

Left and Right linear Regular Grammars

Left Linear Regular Grammar

All the non-terminals on the right-hand side exist at the left ends.

Example 1

S ⇢ a, S ⇢ Aab, S ⇢ ∈

Where

S and A are non-terminals

a and b are terminal
∈ is empty string
Example 2
S ⇢ B10 | B00

B ⇢ B11 | B1 | 1 | 0
where
S and B are non-terminals
0 and 1 are terminals

Right Linear Regular Grammar

All the non-terminals on the right-hand side exist at the right ends.

Example 1
S ⇢ a, S ⇢ abA, S ⇢∈
where
S and A are non-terminals a and b are terminal
∈ is empty string

Example 2
S ⇢ 10B | 00S
B ⇢ 11B | 1B | 1 | 0
where
S and B are non-terminals 0 and 1 are terminals

Limitations of Finite Automata

1. Finite input.
2. Input tape is read only
3. Finite amount of memory
4. Head movement is in only one direction.
 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPILERS AND ITS PHASES

A compiler is a program takes a program written in a source language and

translates it into an equivalent program in a target language. The sourcelanguage
is a high level language and target language is machine language.

Source program -> COMPILER -> Target program

Necessity of compiler
• Techniques used in a lexical analyzer can be used in text editors,
information retrievalsystem, and pattern recognition programs.

• Techniques used in a parser can be used in a query processing system such as

SQL.

• Many software having a complex front-end may need techniques used in

compiler design.

• A symbolic equation solver which takes an equation as input. That

program should parsethe given input equation.

• Most of the techniques used in compiler design can be used in Natural

LanguageProcessing (NLP) systems.

Properties of Compiler
1. Correctness
2. Correct output in execution.
3. It should report errors
4. Correctly report if the programmer is not following language syntax.
5. Efficiency
6. Compile time and execution.
7. Debugging / Usability.
 Compiler Interpreter
1. It translates the whole program 1. It translate statement by
statement.
at atime. 2. Interpreter is slower.
2. Compiler is faster.
3. Debugging is easy.
3. Debugging is not easy.
4. Interpreter are portable.
4. Compilers are not portable.

Types of compiler
Native code compiler
A compiler may produce binary output to run /execute on the same
computer and operatingsystem. This type of compiler is called as native
code compiler.
1) Cross Compiler
A cross compiler is a compiler that runs on one machine and
produce object code foranother machine.
2) Bootstrap compiler
If a compiler has been implemented in its own language . self-hosting compiler.
3) One pass compiler
The compilation is done in one pass over the source program, hence the
compilation is completed very quickly. This is used for the programming
language PASCAL, COBOL, FORTAN.
4) Multi-pass compiler (2 or 3 pass compiler)
In this compiler , the compilation is done step by step . Each step uses the
result of theprevious step and it creates another intermediate result.
Example:- gcc , Turboo C++
5) JIT Compiler
This compiler is used for JAVA programming language and Microsoft .NET
6) Source to source compiler
It is a type of compiler that takes a high level language as a input and
its output as highlevel language. Example Open MP
List of compiler
1. Ada compiler
2. ALGOL compiler
3. BASIC compiler
4. C# compiler
5. C compiler
6. C++ compiler
7. COBOL compiler
8. Smalltalk comiler
9. Java compiler

ASSEMBLER

1. It translates assembly language code into machine understandable language.

2. Assembly language is in between the high level languages and machine language.
3. It is also called low level language.
4. This language is not easily readable and understandable by the programmer

Source-to-source Compiler
Source code of one programming language is translated into the source of another language.

Loader
A loader is a program that places programs into memory and prepares them for execution.
loader is a part of the OS, which performs the tasks of loading executable files into memory
and run them

Compiler Construction Tools

These tools use specific language or algorithm for specifying and implementing the component
of the compiler.
1. Parser generators.
Input: Grammatical description of a programming language
Output: Syntax analyzers.
Produces a syntax analyzer.
 2. Scanner generators.
Input: Regular expression description of the tokens of a language
Output: Lexical analyzers.
Produces a Lexical analyzer.
3. Syntax-directed translation engines.
Input: Parse tree.
Output: Intermediate code.
Generates intermediate code.
4. Automatic code generators
Input: Intermediate language.
Output: Machine language.
5. Data-flow engines

Various phases of a compiler

There are two major parts of a compiler: Analysis and Synthesis

In analysis phase
1. Lexical Analyzer
2. Syntax Analyzer
3. Semantic Analyzer.
In synthesis phase
1. Intermediate Code Generator
2. Code Generator
3. Code Optimizer

1. Lexical Analysis
Lexical analyzer phase is the first phase of compilation process. It takes source code as input.

2. Syntax Analysis
Syntax analysis is the second phase of compilation process. It takes tokens as input and
generates a parse tree as output.

3. Semantic Analysis
Semantic analysis is the third phase of compilation process.
4. Intermediate Code Generation
Compiler generates the source code into the intermediate code.
5. Code Optimization
6.Code Generation

Lexical Analyzer
Lexical Analyzer reads the source program character by character and returns the tokens of the
source program.
Syntax Analyzer
1. A Syntax Analyzer creates the syntactic structure (generally a parse tree) of the given
program.
2. A syntax analyzer is also called a parser.
3. A parse tree describes a syntactic structure
4. The syntax of a language is specified by a context free grammar (CFG).
Semantic Analyzer
1. A semantic analyzer checks the source program for semantic errors and collects the type
information for the code generation.
2. Type-checking is an important part of semantic analyzer.
3. Normally semantic information cannot be represented by a context-free language used in
syntax analyzers

Symbol table
Symbol table information is used by the analysis and synthesis phases.
Essential data structure in compiler.
It is used to verify if a variable has been declared.
It is used to determine the scope of a name.

Regular definition
Defining a pattern for finite strings of symbols. language defined by regular grammar is
known as regular language
Properties of Regular Languages
Union
If L1 and If L2 are two regular languages, their union L1 𝖴 L2 will also be regular

Complement
If L(G) is regular language, its complement L’(G) will also be regular.
L(G) = {an | n > 1}
L’(G) = {an | n <= 1}

Kleene Closure
If L1 is a regular language, its Kleene closure L1* will also be regular.
L1 = (a 𝖴 b)
L1* = (a 𝖴 b)*
Concatenation
If L1 and If L2 are two regular languages, their concatenation L1.L2 will also be regular

Intersection
If L1 and If L2 are two regular languages, their intersection L1 ∩ L2 will also be regular.

Precedence

1. * highest precedence.
2. Concatenation (.) second-highest precedence.
3. | (Union operator) lowest precedence.
Example
Σ = {a, b}
a* (e, a,aa, aaa, aaaa …)
a+ (a, aa, aaa, aaaa …).
L* = {Empty, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aab, aba, aaba, … }
L+ = {a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aab, aaba}
L2 = {aa, ab, bb, ba}
L3 = {aaa, aab, bbb, bba ,..}
L4 = {aaaa, aabb, bbbb, bbaa,…….}

Lexical analysis
lexical analyzer is the first phase of compiler. Its main task is to read the input characters and
produce as output a sequence of tokens that the parser uses for syntax analysis
It converts the High-level input program into a sequence of Tokens.
• Type token (id, number, real, . . . )
• Punctuation tokens (IF, void, return, . . . )
• Alphabetic tokens (keywords)
Role of Lexical Analyser

The lexical analyzer is the first phase of compiler. Its main task is to read the input characters
and produces output a sequence of tokens that the parser uses for syntax analysis. As in the
figure, upon receiving a “get next token” command from the parser the lexical analyzer reads
input characters until it can identify the next token.

It helps you to convert a sequence of characters into a sequence of tokens. The lexical analyzer
breaks this syntax into a series of tokens. It removes any extra space or comment written in the
source code.
1. Error can be detected.
2.Error is found during the execution of the program.

3. Removes white spaces and comments from the source program.

Difficulties (Issues) in Lexical Analysis
Why separating lexical analysis from parsing
1) Simpler design
2) Compiler efficiency is improved.
3) Compiler portability is enhanced (Linux to window)

Basic Terminologies
Token
Sequence of characters which represents a unit of information in the source program.
1) Identifiers
2) keywords
3) operators
4) special symbols
5)constants
Example
int a = 9;
where
int- keywords
a- identifier
= operator
9 constants
; special symbol
Solution
Token=5
Non-Token
1. Comments
2. Blanks
3. New line
Lexeme
Sequence of characters in the source program that is matched by the pattern for a token.

Pattern
A set of strings in the input for which the same token is produced as output.

LEX (Lexical Analyzer Generator)

1. Program that generates lexical analyzer.

2. It is used with YACC parser generator.
3. Lex tool itself is a lex compiler.
4. Flex and Bison both are more flexible than Lex and Yacc and produces faster code.
Transition diagrams
Transition Diagram has a collection of nodes or circles, called states. Each state represents a
condition that could occur during the process of scanning the input
Edges are directed from one state of the transition diagram to another. each edge is labeled by
a symbol or set of symbols
Attribute
Lexeme Token Name Value
Any ws _ _
if if _
then then _
else else _
pointer to table
Any id id entry
pointer to table
Any number number entry
< relop LT
<= relop LE
= relop ET
<> relop NE
 UNIT 2
Terminologies
1. Alphabet
An alphabet is any finite set of symbols
Example − ∑ = {a, b, c, d, e} is an alphabet set

2. String
A string is a finite sequence of symbols taken from ∑.
Example
{0,1} is a valid string on the alphabet set

3. Length of a String
It is the number of symbols present in a string.
Examples −

• If S = ‘caeda’, |S|= 5
• If S = ‘010111’, |S|= 6
• If |S|= 0, it is called an empty string

Language
It can be finite or infinite.
Example

∑ = {a, b}, then L = {ab, aa, ba, bb}

Syntactic specification of Programming Languages
1. Non-terminals (also known as variables) represent the set of strings in a
language.

Examples
A,D,E,F,G

2. Terminals represent the symbols of the language.

Examples
A,d,e,f,g (small letters)

3. Null String
NIL, ∈
Context free grammar
G= (V, T, P, S)

V Non-terminal symbols

T Terminal symbols.

P Production rules

S Start symbol

Derivation Tree
• Root vertex − Start symbol.
• Vertex − Non-terminal symbol.
• Leaves − Terminal symbol
Derivation Tree Approaches

There are two different approaches to draw a derivation tree

1. Top-down Approach
2. Bottom-up Approach

Top-down Approach −
• Starts with the starting symbol S
• Goes down to tree leaves using productions

Bottom-up Approach −
• Starts from tree leaves
• Proceeds upward to the root which is the starting symbol S

Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation

• Leftmost derivation − Production applying leftmost variable in each step.
• Rightmost derivation − Production applying rightmost variable in each step

Grammar Ambiguity
1. More than one leftmost derivation
2. More than one rightmost derivation
3. More than one derivation tree or parse tree

Example 1

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

Find out leftmost derivation string "a+a*a"
X → X+X → a+X → a + X*X → a+a*X → a+a*a
Example 2

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

Find out rightmost derivation string "a+a*a"
X → X*X → X*a → X+X*a → X+a*a → a+a*a
Context Free Language
context-free language (CFL) is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG).
Context Free Language is accepted by a Pushdown automaton.

Example
L={anbn}
Properties of context free grammar
1. Union Operation

The context free languages are closed under union. L1 and L2 are two context free
languages.
Example

L1 𝖴 L2 is also a context free language.

2. Concatination

Context free languages are closed under concatenation. L1 and L2 are two context free
languages.

Example

L1.L2 is also a context free language.

3. Kleene closure

Context free languages are closed under kleen closure. L1 and L2 are two context free
languages.
Example

L1* and L2* are also context free languages.

4. Intersection
context free languages are not closed under intersection. L1 and L2 are two context free
languages.

Example

L1 ∩ L2 is not a context free language.

5. Complement

Context free languages are not closed under complement. L1 and L2 are two context free
languages.
Example

L1′ and L2′ are not context free languages.

Application of context free grammars

1. Parsers constructing syntax tree

2. Describing arithmetic expressions
3. Construction of compilers
4. HTML (Markup Languages)
5. XML (Extensible Markup Languages)

Parser

• Parser works on a stream of tokens.

• The smallest item is a token.

Syntax analysis
Syntax Analyzer creates the syntactic structure of the given source program.
This syntactic structure is mostly a parse tree.
Syntax Analyzer is also known as parser.
The syntax of a programming is described by a context-free grammar (CFG). We will use
BNF(Backus-Naur Form) notation in the description of CFGs.
The syntax analyzer (parser) checks whether a given source program satisfies the rules implied
by a context-free grammar or not.