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SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS AND

EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT IN
ZIMBABWE: NAVIGATING THE DISCOURSE OF
EXCLUSION AND MARGINALISATION
Biri, Kudzaia and Mutambwa, Johnb

ABSTRACT

Africa enjoys large numbers of institutions of higher learning and it

has seen many women sailing through these institutions. This paper
argues that, in spite of the negatives that characterise the
educational system in Africa and the marginalisation of most
women, there exist avenues that can be exploited to promote and
strengthen the relevance of higher education for development.
Women have either been ‘excluded’ from education or ‘bound’ by
socio-cultural factors deterring their potential to contribute to the
development of the continent. This study locates education in Africa
(Zimbabwe) within the global context but at the same time paying
attention to local dynamics. It looks at the contribution made by
women in mainstream national development. The researchers
perused through government bulletins and UNESCO reports on
human capital development. Using a womanist framework, the paper
argues that in order to realise sustainable development, attention
should be paid to socio-religious ethics that ‘disempower’ women
but are often ignored by scholars, politicians and other stakeholders.

KEY TERMS: women, culture, exclusion, education

a
Department of Religious Studies Classics and Philosophy,
University of Zimbabwe. Contacts: [email protected], P. O. Box
MP167 Mt Pleasant Harare, Zimbabwe

.b Department of Linguistics, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe.

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INTRODUCTION

The theme of sustainable development has been topical for more

than a decade. It has to be understood within the context of
widespread poverty, marginalisation and underdevelopment that
characterise most African countries. Educational institutions have
been identified as powerful stakeholders for equipping and
empowering people. The quest for institutional development has
prompted great attention to the workings of both private and public
sector organisations and there is still considerable ignorance of
African institutions, dynamics and of the ways in which
organisations function, both inwardly as well as in terms of their
links to social, cultural and political institutions in the surrounding
societies (Woodford-Berger 1998:34) The paper argues that, despite
the increasing numbers of women with qualifications from tertiary
institutions, the women have failed to make an impact on
developmental issues in the country as well as on the continent. This
poor showing by women has been attributed to socio-cultural and
religious beliefs that continue to chain women to traditional roles,
despite them having acquired expert knowledge from universities
and polytechnics.

BACKGROUND AND PREAMBLE

This paper utilises the Zimbabwean context, at the same time

locating it within the broader context of Africa. It examines how the

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traditional Shona socio-cultural religious orientation prevents

women from participating in development in spite of attaining
education from institutions of higher learning. Several measures
have been undertaken by government and non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and even religious institutions (churches) to
empower women. This came as a result of acknowledging gender
disparities or gaps that exist in almost every sector in the country.
The call for women empowerment through education has seen
universities and colleges in the country adopting affirmative action
in order to encourage the girl child to access education. The paper
argues that development at a ‘micro level’ affects development at the
macro level (national level). The way traditional socio-cultural
religious ethics bind women inevitably affects development at
national level. It also militates against the relevance of education.
The paper examines higher education against the background of
Zimbabweans who are grappling with socio-economic and political
challenges whose negative effects often burden mostly women. This
paper acknowledges the positive contributions made by higher
educational institutions in Zimbabwe and Africa in general,
especially after colonialism.

THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

IN ZIMBABWE

In spite of the positive contributions by institutions of higher

learning and their impact on addressing gender gaps, most women
remain at the periphery of society. Most leadership positions remain

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in the hands of men despite the fact that women enjoy numerical
strength. The UN report of 1991 acknowledges that women are
poorly represented in ranks of power, policy and decision-making.
The report notes that women make up less than 5% of the heads of
state, heads of corporations and top positions in organisations. This
is in spite of the fact that women are found in large numbers in low-
level positions of public administration, political parties, trade
unions and business. However, The Ministry of Education Sport and
Culture module of 2002 concedes that women have made inroads in
the past 20 years in parliament and middle management levels, even
though their representation in these areas still averages less than
20%. This paper acknowledges the diversity that runs through
Africa, but at the same time, does not overlook the unique
experiences that African women rather than men, face, that amount
to exclusion and marginalisation in the developmental process. This
is in spite of many women attaining education from institutions of
higher learning. When navigating the discourse of education for
empowerment of women and sustainable development, Langure’s
(1997:21) thoughts are worth noting;

It is a common and somewhat unexamined belief that

increased schooling for women will automatically bring
about women’ advancement. It is often assumed that it is
lack of schooling which has been holding women back.
Increased enrolment of women in schools is seen as a
means to bring about gender equality in professional

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occupations within government and ultimately within larger

society. Women’s lack of education becomes the
legitimation of male supremacy, yet there is little or no
evidence based on patriarchal explanation for women’s
subordination…

Langure (1997) brings out important issues that need to be noted:

increased enrolment of women in schools and its significance, and
the notions of patriarchy that have a bearing on the traditional socio-
cultural religious ethics, which consequently impinge on
developmental processes. The government and NGOs assume that
by simply educating women, they are automatically advanced and
should participate in the developmental processes. Yet, there are
important underlying socio-cultural currents that need to be
addressed. The paper argues that these socio-cultural factors help to
keep women under the checks and balances of men, even if a woman
attains a position of leadership. Cultural socialisation encourages
women to consult and the myth that women need men by their side
to excel is deeply embedded in many circles. The patriarchal society
again perpetuates the myth that educating a woman means her
advancement and independence. According to the patriarchal
system, educated women become difficult to control. Yet, some
women in leadership positions do not lead but continue to be guided
by cultural conditionings of compliance and subservience to men's
ideas. The evidence that validates this argument is the continued
pleas for women’s rights and empowerment. The question that may

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be asked is why women are clamouring for empowerment, when

increased numbers of women are enrolling and graduating from the
institutions of higher learning in society? This question brings to the
fore, the central underlying questions in this study:

- Why do we consider socio-cultural and religious dynamics in

Zimbabwe in the quest for sustainable development against the
backdrop of educating and empowering women?
- Does occupying leadership positions translate to leading and
making decisions?

THE RELEVANCE OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER

EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE: AN APPRAISAL

Higher education is a necessity in Africa, especially after the post-

colonial period. Several governments in Africa, including the
government of Zimbabwe, have taken measures and implemented
policies that ensure access to education by all citizens. Zimbabwe
has a combination of private, government and church –related
institutions of higher learning. Special attention has been paid to the
enrolment of women and girls in these institutions of higher learning
in order to empower them. This has resulted in the rise in numbers of
women and girls who access education and those who attain
qualifications from institutions of higher education. The study pre-
supposes that higher education calls for and implies influence in
developmental processes by all. The plight of women is a case to
reckon if ever sustainable development is to be attained. This comes

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in the wake of the Millennium Development Goals of 2020. While

there are many institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe, these
institutions need to pay attention to the dynamics of socio-cultural
religious ethics that seem to persist in the mindset of many people.
This means that policies by all relevant stakeholders for economic
and political development have to recognize, and factor in, the social
and cultural institutions so that the ‘syndrome’ that prevents women
from being ‘high fliers’ in society, despite going through institutions
of higher education can be exorcised. While the discussion has
noted the significance of institutions of higher learning in
Zimbabwe, there is need to briefly examine the role of education and
religion in Africa and their impact on the developmental process in
society. That way, it will be possible to critique existing challenges
towards and encourage sustainable development of institutions of
higher learning.

THE ROLE OF RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN AFRICA

Religion forms the basis of African ways of life (Ayantayo, 2003).

According to Mosala (1985), certain factors characterise African
religion in a way that somewhat distinguishes it from other world
religions, for example, African religion works more on a communal
rather than individual basis. African ethics is basically religious
ethics, intrinsically dependent on religion, the cultural norms flow
from religious convictions (Ayantayo, 2003).

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According to Oduyoye (1997), myths, folktales and proverbs restate

themes that appear in ethical and moral teaching. Myths, folktales
and proverbs are important in the moral formation. Some of these
encourage women to bind themselves at home, leaving them with
limited time to explore other areas of life. Gelfand (1973) says the
concern of the Shona clansmen is directed at social justice,
obligation and responsibility. Responsibilities have been placed on
women and a typical African woman has the following roles:
woman, mother and wife, apart from her responsibilities at work.
The paper argues that all this is enshrined in patriarchy and places
women within the checks and balance of men. No matter how high a
woman might climb on the educational ladder, she is always
reminded about her place and roles that tradition has assigned to her.
The following examples from Zimbabwe and Zambia best
demonstrate that there is need to go beyond offering higher
education to women so that its relevance can be practical and
manifest. One Shona proverb says, Adzidzisa mwanasikana
adzidzisa rudzi (educating a woman is educating the whole nation).
The proverb acknowledges the traditional role of women in
socialising children and the young as they grow up. Women who are
educationally empowered are most likely to perform this role more
effectively than those without meaningful education. This can be
achieved by providing supportive mechanisms that ensure that
women’s potential is explored to the best of their abilities. The
corollary to this thinking is that educating the girl child enriches the
family in that she will get married and increase the family network.

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In addition to that, an educated girl is most likely to fetch a well-

heeled suitor who will pay a good bride price in order to marry her.

Chiunduramoyo (1986) says:

Dzidzo chombo chako chemuchihwande, hachisi chinhu

chekuti unofamba wakadengezera pamusoro…

(Education is your private weapon, not something to

display to the public)

This traditional attitude and understanding of education, while

plausible, somehow contradicts the purposes of education within the
current global context. It is education for development, to compete
on the global market and should not be confined to the individual.
This also shows the shortcomings and limitations of traditional
attitudes towards education with respect to women. They have to
confine themselves to the home, if they cross the home boundary,
they have trespassed. Gundani (1991) captures this very clearly,
using the example of politics in Zimbabwe. Gundani points out that
the exploits of Ruth Chinamano were heroic for most men to
acknowledge. She had entered into politics, a domain that was
generally perceived as men’s. Ruth’s achievements lie in
encouraging other women to participate in domains perceived as
men’s. Also, it affirms the observations by Chiunduramoyo that
education was important (formal and informal) for the empowerment
of an individual to make exploits in society. Socio-cultural
perceptions and socialisation need to be addressed in order for

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women to break from their closets into the public domain with
confidence. Lack of confidence means women cannot exploit their
full potential, with the effect that education offered in institutions of
higher learning becomes less appreciated.

WHY DO WE PAY ATTENTION TO SOCIO-CULTURAL

RELIGIOUS ETHICS: GENDER ORGANISATIONAL: AN
OVERVIEW

Neither institutions nor particular organisational settings are gender-

neutral because specific organisations are connected to overall
societal cultures, attitudes and systems and meaning through their
structures and symbols and through the women and men who make
them up (Woodford-Berger, 1998). Of importance is the fact that
institutions are arenas wherein a particular kind of socialisation takes
place, including re-enforcement of gendered perceptions through the
allocation of work tasks, the relative positioning of men and women
within an organisation, the distribution of authority and legitimate
use of power, and the symbolic representations of gendered social
relations manifested in, for example, language and metaphors,
through regiment work practices, routines and processes. How does
all this contribute to development? Gendered perceptions and habits
inform organisational performance and development as structures
and cultures and with respect to both formal and informal
dimensions (Woodford-Berger, 1998:36). In actual fact, innumerable
studies have shown that women and men may be assigned or
considered qualified for very different work duties or benefits due to

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their different positions in the organisation or in society in general.

They may even be allocated duties and granted access to
organisational resources in terms of what is considered to be
“fitting” for their sex. It is not uncommon that even organisations
composed of nearly all women are still controlled by men-women’s
branches or wings of political parties or other state or parastatal
organisations, or have men in their top managerial and decision-
making echelons (Woodford-Berger 1998:37-39). All these lead to
gender inequalities and imbalances of power and authority.

There is, however, no need to blanket women’s experiences. This

paper acknowledges some women who have acquired higher
education and who also occupy ‘free space’. However, these are just
a handful as most women are bound by traditional societal norms.
The incorporation into higher education curriculum of socio-
religious ethics for all, including men, will cultivate a spirit of
partnership between male and females in order to strengthen the
relevance of higher education in their lives. In order to create a
vicious cycle of strengthening institutions of higher learning and
promoting sustainable development, it would be necessary to tackle
the socio-cultural and religious challenges that have prescribed on
women, certain norms, values and perspectives. Strengthening
institutions of higher learning is a long process that needs to be
multi-dimensional in approach by taking into cognisance, the most
central issues for sustainable development. Women need a
sustainable and enabling environment that ‘releases’ them into the

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public domain confidently so that they can perform and this

performance will lead to development. This way, it is possible to
measure institutional relevance against the backdrop of changes and
how they are affecting the excluded and marginalised.

Globalisation in the economic sense means that all countries

increasingly find themselves part of intense worldwide economic
competition. Investment in education as a means to improve
productivity is considered crucial by most governments today.
Internally, most African countries have moved away from a centrally
planned economic system and consolidation of the nation state
towards pluralism, a market economy and democratization of the
political system. Planning of education can no longer be seen as a
technical and linear process but a gradual process of negotiation and
consensus building between different actors (Gustafsson, 1998:138).
Therefore this paper calls for negotiation with social and religious
institutions as platforms that can effectively initiate ‘the release of
women’ to their domains of interest, which may lead to positive
development.

Factors affecting sustainable development and empowerment of

women are a contested area, as there is lack of cohesion because of
the fragmentation of ideologies, perspectives and attitudes.
Contradictions naturally remain between modern and traditional
forms and institutions of governance, and between the state and the
people, leading to discussion on how to integrate the traditional and
the modern into one African style state (Dia, 1993). Yet the

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developmental process depends on the strength of the link between

work carried out at the micro level and growth and development at
national level and it is not unreasonable to assume that good results
at national level (macro level) are as a result of what goes on at the
micro level (Carlsson, 1998:14). But why does education appear
irrelevant at times and does not seem to change the lives of women
much? Organisational development and change are not a matter of
simply transferring one model - the Western model - to an African
setting (Carlsson, 1998:21). It is a matter of paying attention to the
socio-cultural religious dimensions in Africa that largely define and
dictate the space for women and what they should achieve in life.
The success and relevance of Higher Education Institutions will
depend on whether or not they ensure that individuals (women) do
not become isolated islands but are integrated into a larger context of
development work.

How can this resistance to change be explained? The experiences

from organisational development work in Africa are not very
encouraging. The continent probably offers one of the most difficult
administrative environments imaginable. But the need for change is
great. At the same time, the resistance to change is just as great
(Carlsson, 1998).

EXPLORING THE ISSUES: CHALLENGES AND

LIMITATIONS

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Strengthening Higher Education Institutions relies on the availability

of committed motivated, competent and dedicated people. In order to
substantiate the point that the mere provision of education does not
translate to relevance of institutions of higher learning and
development, below are some examples. Zimbabwe got its
independence in 1980. It also embarked on programmes that were
designed to empower women. There has been a rise in the number of
women going through colleges and universities. Female politicians
rank among the most educated, yet there is a lot of exclusion and
marginalisation. Entry points at institutions of higher learning are
lowered in order to make sure that these institutions include many
female students. However, in spite of the good intention in some
circles, it translates to the inferiority of women because they cannot
compete with male students. As an example, both male and female
students can pursue the same degree programme with female
students being accepted into these programmes with inferior points
to those of the male student. This has been described as affirmative
action, whose objective is to increase the number of females in areas
that were dominated by men. Areas that easily come to mind are
Engineering, Architecture and Veterinary Science. In spite of all the
large numbers, women are still clamouring for change and
empowerment. The writers’ experiences as lecturers at university
show that some married female students go through painful
experiences with their newly acquired qualifications. After
completing their degrees, they are told by their husbands that their
place is in the home, not in the public sector. This view emanates

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from the traditional patriarchal notion of the role and place of a

woman that is ‘written within the hearts and minds of Africans’ but
poses challenges in this current global system. Such decisions are
blind to global socio-economic dynamics because, for higher
education to become relevant in the contemporary world, we need to
locate it within the broader context of the world system. There is,
therefore, need for transformation of mentality that places women
within a closet innovation in order to make the higher education that
they acquire relevant; there is need for creativity in order to make
sound female intellectual scholarship that initiate sustainable
development.

As an illustration, Zambia got its independence in 1964. The

government embarked on educating women in order to empower
them and to develop their nation. Educating women and empowering
them was part of the national agenda designed to negate the ills of
the colonial system. Educating women is a positive step in the
direction of empowering and developing them.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RELIGION AND CULTURE

Pentecostals are seen as people who encourage empowerment and

leadership of all people regardless of gender (Kalu 2008). They
advocate for empowerment through education. Soothill’s (2010)
analysis of Ghanaian Charismatic churches resonates well with the
situation in Zimbabwe. She correctly points out that in Zimbabwean
Pentecostalism, God is not a democrat, but has his dictates that have

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to be followed. There are no rights, hence, a complex trajectory they

have sourced from both biblical patriarch and the traditional
paradigm of male supremacy. This acts as a hindrance towards
development of women. The religious models presented to women
militate against the quest for upward mobility in zones that are
generally referred to as male domains. All this has a negative impact
on the developmental process of women because it translates to
exclusion and marginalisation. Women are also disempowered
through inheritance. Inheritance within the Zimbabwean culture
means that women are like property; when their husbands die, they
are passed on to the brothers. The traditional Zimbabwean culture
does not allow women to inherit any property from their deceased
husbands; this makes them economically powerless. This cultural
arrangement seems to shape female identity within the Shona
society, and the custom is very strong among traditional as well as
modern Zimbabwean men. This cultural practice, while it holds the
people together, is retrogressive as it works against women’s
empowerment.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Having established that putting women through university education

is no guarantee for women’s empowerment, the paper argues that
there is need for deliberate creation for opportunities for women.
The quarter system is a case in point where a certain number of
positions in political as well as administrative duties are deliberately
set aside for women so that they are not in competition with men.

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Perhaps more important than setting aside positions of responsibility

for women is the drive to sensitise men on the need to take women
as their equals at workplaces. As already suggested elsewhere in the
paper, this is the biggest hurdle that stands in the way of women
empowerment because of the fact that such attitudes are entrenched
in people’s culture.

CONCLUSION

Several factors that militate against the empowerment of women as

well as their meaningful participation in national issues have been
discussed. These include deep-seated traditional beliefs, the small
number of females with higher education when compared to men,
and the lack of opportunities for women to prove themselves.
Because of these factors, the provision of higher education to women
is not a guarantee for sustainable development. This is in light of the
existence of traditional socio-cultural religious ethics that limit,
confine and designate specific space for women who have attained
higher education. These socio-cultural and religious ethics militate
against women, leading to their exclusion and marginalisation, much
to the detriment of the developmental process.

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