I N C O L L A B O R AT I O N Prepared by: Eric McDonnell, Bjørn Stankowitz and Felix Scheibmair

Case-Hardened Steel Fasteners

& Mass Timber Construction
TECHNICAL NOTE: DECEMBER 2024
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Case-Hardened Steel Fasteners & Mass Timber Construction (EHE), post manufacturing. The core hardness threshold for
which fasteners are considered susceptible to hydrogen
The use of large (8mm diameter and larger) fully threaded embrittlement is typically cited as being 360 Vickers
and partially threaded screws are critical to facilitate the Hardness (HV) or above, noting that the fastener casing will
design and construction of Mass Timber (MT) structures. This be harder to facilitate installation. Between a core hardness
includes basic applications such as fixing Cross-Laminated level of 360 and 390 HV, the risk to hydrogen embrittlement
Timber (CLT) panels to supporting glued-laminated beams, is believed to be manageable, while the susceptibility of the
but also at critical gravity (i.e. beam-to-column) and seismic fastener to hydrogen embrittlement increases sharply above
(timber lateral systems and/or steel collector plates to a core hardness of 390 HV.
timber) connections.
For fasteners with a core hardness above the susceptibility
In general, case-hardened steel timber screws (i.e. fasteners) threshold (i.e. 360 HV), a sophisticated manufacturing and
have been used on thousands projects globally, with relatively QAQC process is required to control the risk of IHE, often
few reported failures. That said, there are reports of screw fine-tuned over time. This is particularly true during the
failures in large numbers, on isolated projects in Europe, the application of protective coatings, where hydrogen can be
USA and Canada, where project conditions (e.g. prolonged trapped and introduced to the fastener core. Through post-
exposure to excessive moisture) have led to Environmental production quality control validation testing, in accordance
Hydrogen Embrittlement (EHE) in the fasteners. These have with ISO 15330, manufacturers can demonstrate fasteners do
often occurred where thick steel plates are being fixed not have IHE at the time of packaging, even for core hardness
to timber. In New Zealand, some projects have observed well above 390 HV.
similar failures as well. While the projects affected are small
in number, the consequence to individual projects can be Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement (EHE)
significant, and thus this issue deserves additional scrutiny
While the risk of IHE may be able to be controlled for fasteners
for the betterment of the industry.
with a core hardness above 390 HV, these same fasteners
The following tech note will explain the conditions can still be prone to EHE, particularly under adverse storage,
required for hydrogen embrittlement to occur, how to construction and/or permanent in-service conditions.
identify connections with a higher risk profile, along with
For EHE to occur during construction (or in-service), three
recommendations on how to mitigate the risk.
items must be present in unison:
Hydrogen Embrittlement in Case-Hardened Steel Fasteners 1. presence of a susceptible material in the fastener,
2. sustained tension on the fastener and
The screw fasteners typically used in MT construction are
3. a source of atomic hydrogen into the fastener.
of case-hardened carbon steel (Fy > 1000 MPa) in order
to achieve larger structural capacities and enable easier Reducing the Risk of EHE
installation into timber, often without the requirement of pre-
drilling. While this enables for faster and easier construction, If one of these three items can be precluded, the risk of EHE
critical to realising one of the benefits of MT, hardened carbon occurring is significantly reduced, if not practically eliminated.
steel fasteners are potentially susceptible to both Internal The risk of EHE can also be appropriately managed by a
Hydrogen Embrittlement (IHE), during the manufacturing series of risk reduction measures for each of the three items
process, and Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement required for EHE to occur.

Figure 1 – Screw Anatomy(1)

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Susceptibility to Sustained Tension is greatest for steel-to-timber connections, and to a lesser

degree timber-to-timber connections utilising a fastener
The extent of sustained tension required for EHE to occur, in with a washer head. This is because fasteners installed
the presence of the other two ingredients required, is up for into steel plates are more likely to be over-torqued during
debate, varying from any sustained tension, to 10-50% of the installation and have a greater surface bearing area to
ultimate screw capacity. Whatever the threshold may be, the accumulate pressure if the timber swells under excessive MC
risk will be reduced if elevated sustained tension demands gain. The risk increases if thick steel plates are being used, as
are avoided, recognising there can be project conditions these have less ability to deform, and thus activate an even
where fasteners are required to resist permanent tension larger bearing area to resist the pressure from swelling timber.
loads. In this case it is even more important to address the risk Typical timber-to-timber connections, particularly those
of the other two ingredients. without a washer head, are considered to be significantly
The susceptibility to unintended sustained tension during less susceptible, as the fastener heads will be pulled into the
construction (i.e. in addition to design in-service tension) timber if swelling occurs due to MC gain.

Figure 2 – Pressure under Thin & Thick Steel Plates(2)

To reduce the risk of unintended sustained tension loads, The designer also has a critical role to play in the design
it is important to follow the fastener manufacturers of connections to limit the risk of sustained tension. This
recommendations. This includes using the correct tools, can be achieved through thoughtful detailing to limit the
installation speed and limiting torque, all especially critical susceptibility to unintended sustained tension, along with
for steel-to-timber connections, where over-torquing the limiting project conditions where sustained tension is
fastener is more common. Once the fasteners are installed, designed into connections. When a fastener is designed to
it is important to limit the MC gain of the timber (i.e. swelling), resist tension in a connection, the designer also needs to
from time of installation to maximum MC. This can be achieved consider the potential impact of swelling due to MC gain,
through a good moisture management plan and execution. along with a reasonable expectation on seating tension, when
For high-risk connections, such as steel-to-timber, assessing the demand to capacity of the chosen fastener.
consideration should be given to delaying the installation of
the fasteners until after the building is enclosed, eliminating
the role of timber swelling.

Timber-to-Timber Timber-to-Timber Steel-to-Timber Steel-to-Timber

(Countersunk Head) (Washer Head) (Unintended) (Intended)

Figure 3 – Risk of Elevated Sustained Tension

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Susceptibility to Atomic Hydrogen Exposure To reduce the risk of excessive corrosion, it is important to
limit the maximum MC of the timber during construction along
The potential sources of atomic hydrogen are primarily with the duration of any elevated levels. In particular, any
free water and/or the reaction (i.e. corrosion) of a sacrificial standing water should be removed as soon as possible. The
metallic coating, such as zinc. The risk of excessive corrosion clearest limits on the acceptable exposure to moisture during
will depend on project conditions, including proper storage construction are in EN 1995-1-1:2023 DRAFT: Eurocode 5
of the fasteners, MC of the timber (extent and duration), – Design of timber structures – Part 1-1: General rules and
corrosivity of the timber / treatments and atmospheric rules for buildings. The Service Classes noted in this draft
conditions (i.e. vicinity to the ocean). Steel plate to timber standard define a yearly average and upper limit on MC. For
connections require additional care as the coatings can Service Class 2, which covers most temporary construction
be damaged during installation, facilitating a pathway for conditions in ANZ and North America, this includes an upper
hydrogen into the fastener. Water can also become trapped limit MC of 20%, with a yearly average limit of 16%.
under steel plates, increasing the local MC in the timber.

Figure 4 – Thresholds as per EN1995-1-1 Table 4.2(3)

The upper limit of MC permitted in Service Class 2, aligns with the point at which the rate of corrosion spikes considerably.

Figure 5 – Service Class vs Corrosion Models(4)

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The designer also has a critical role to play in the design designed into connections. When a fastener is designed to
of connections to limit the risk of sustained tension. This resist tension in a connection, the designer also needs to
can be achieved through thoughtful detailing to limit the consider the potential impact of swelling due to MC gain,
susceptibility to unintended sustained tension, along with along with a reasonable expectation on seating tension, when
limiting project conditions where sustained tension is assessing the demand to capacity of the chosen fastener.

Enhanced Coating Enhanced Coating Standard Coating Standard Coating

(Low MC Expected) (Design MC Expected) (Low MC Expected) (Design MC Expected)

Figure 6 – Risk of Hydrogen Exposure to Fastener Core

Susceptibility of Fasteners: National Building Code of Canada – New Hydrogen

Embrittlement Provisions:
The root susceptibility of hardened carbon steel fasteners
to hydrogen embrittlement falls into three bands. These To address the susceptibility of IHE and EHE to hardened
bands are recognised in standards such as ISO 4042:2022 carbon steel fasteners, the National Building Code of Canada
Fasteners – Electroplating Systems, which applies varying created a task group to investigate the topic. The outcome of
requirements for electroplated coatings onto hardened the task group was to introduce new limits on the maximum
carbon steel elements. core hardness of case-hardened carbon steel timber screws,
to reduce the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement, and
Low Risk – Core Hardness < 360 HV:
to introduce language to ensure the screws are produced in
The primary way to reduce the susceptibility of the compliance with the appropriate and consistent standards.
fastener itself, is to use a non-hardened carbon steel
The baseline requirements for fasteners used in a ‘dry-service’
screw (e.g. stainless steel) or a hardened steel fastener
conditions, roughly equivalent to Eurocode Service Class 2,
with a core hardness below 360 HV, the lower bound
are now included in CSA O86:2024: Engineering Design in
threshold at which HE is typically believed to not be of
Wood, clause 17.6.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement. This includes
concern. This is likely not practical in all situations based
fabrication of the base fastener to two acceptable standards,
on the in-service structural performance requirements
ASME B18.6.3 or ISO 2702, along with an upper core hardness
of timber fasteners and cost / availability but should be
limit of 390 HV (as required by these standards). It also
considered in high-risk applications. It should be noted
includes quality control measures for fasteners with a core
however, that even with the use of fasteners with a core
hardness between 360-390 HV, intended to limit the risk of
hardness below 360 HV, particularly those with a standard
IHE.
zinc coating, it is still very important to limit the fastener to
excessive moisture (i.e. enhanced corrosion). For ‘wet-service’ conditions (i.e. in-service MC > 19%),
High Risk – Core Hardness > 390 HV: roughly equivalent to Eurocode Service Class 3, the allowable
core hardness for carbon steel fasteners is limited to 360 HV,
Above a core hardness of 390 HV, the susceptibility of
per Table 12.1 of CSA O86:2024, irrespective of the fastener
a fastener to hydrogen embrittlement is considered
coating. This is to reflect the fact that the fasters will have
to increase significantly as noted in Technical Report
greater potential exposure to the hydrogen embrittlement
ISO-TR-20491-2019 – Fasteners – Fundamentals of
triggers (i.e. source of hydrogen combined with sustained
hydrogen embrittlement in steel fasteners. This is
tension).
also the maximum hardness allowed if fasteners are
fabricated in conformance with ISO 2702:2022 Fasteners
– Heat treated tapping screws – Mechanical and physical
properties.

Manageable Risk – Core Hardness between 360-390 HV:

Between a core hardness of 360-390 HV, the risk to

hydrogen embrittlement is believed to be manageable
with the appropriate precautions to limit the susceptibility
of fasteners to unintended sustained tension and to
excessive moisture, which could lead to the introduction
of hydrogen into the fastener.
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< 360 HV 390 HV 460 HV <

Figure 8 – Fastener Risk Profile vs Core Hardness

Summary and Recommendations Appropriate measures are still required to limit the exposure
of the fasteners to sustained tension and a source of
While the elimination of one of the three ingredients required hydrogen. While many of the screw manufacturers on the
for EHE to occur would eliminate the risk of hydrogen market can produce screws in conformance with this new
embrittlement, this is often not practical. Most large fully standard, many either have old stock on the market or are
threaded and partially threaded screws on the market have still producing fasteners with a core hardness above 390 HV.
a core hardness above the lower bound hardness threshold Note, since neither the European Assessment Document
of 360 HV. A realistic allowance for exposure to moisture (EAD) 130118-01-0603 Screws and threaded rods for timber
during construction is also required, which depending on constructions or the ICC-ES Acceptance Criteria for Dowel-
the application, could simultaneously lead to the build-up of type Threaded Fasteners Used in Wood (AC233) currently
sustained tension and a source of hydrogen. address core hardness, the associated European Technical
The new CSA O86:2024 core hardness limits are intended Assessments (ETA’s) and Evaluation Services Reports (ESR’s)
to reduce the susceptibility of the fastener to hydrogen cannot be relayed upon to assume conformance with CSA
embrittlement, thus providing a greater margin for error. O86:2023.

Figure 9 – Overall EHE Risk Profile

While these new requirements greatly reduce the risk of EHE, they should not preclude good design and detailing, along with a
robust and comprehensive moisture management plan. This is true even for fasteners with a core hardness below 360 HV.
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Recommendations for Consideration Existing Enclosed Buildings

Once a mass timber structure is enclosed, the risk to EHE

1. Create a risk profile for each screw type and application.
reduces significantly as potential sources of hydrogen are
This will help guide any additional mitigation measures
typically eliminated. The amount of tension on the fasteners
required, particularly at critical gravity and/or thick steel
will also typically be reduced, as the timber shrinks with a
plate to timber connections.
reduction in MC. Thus, there is not a significant concern for
2. For case-hardened carbon steel fasteners, limit the
installed fasteners in existing enclosed buildings which do not
allowable core hardness of fasteners to less than 390 HV
meet the core hardness limits in now specified in CSA O86.
for Service Class 1 & 2, in conformance with the new CSA
O86:2024 requirements. Note, this requirement could Special attention should still be given to any significant
be relaxed, at the designer’s careful discretion, if the risk moisture ingress, particularly if it results in elevated timber
profile of sustained tension and/or hydrogen exposure is MC for an extended period of time.
low (i.e. if the fasteners were installed after the building
is enclosed). For Service Class 3 and above, special
consideration is required by the designer to account
for seasonal changes in MC, along with coordination
with the screw manufacture to ensure the appropriate
fastener / coating is selected.
3. Ensure manufacture installation instructions are well
communicated to the installer. This should include
recommended tools, speed, torque limits, pre-drilling,
angle of installation tolerance, etc.
4. Request limits from the screw manufacturer on the
MC range of the timber at time of installation, during
construction (extent and duration) and for the in-service
condition.
5. Ensure the screw and coating specified is in alignment
with manufacture limitations and realistic construction
constraints. Adjust the screw or coating specification as
required.
6. Develop a clear and achievable comprehensive moisture
mitigation plan as a design and construction team. This
is critical, even for fasteners with a core hardness below
the lower bound threshold of 360 HV.
7. Exercise heightened caution at thick steel plate to timber
connections, as the majority of the reported cases of EHE
the authors are aware of have occurred at this condition.
Provide specific attention to these conditions in the
project moisture mitigation plan, potentially designing
and detailing these connections per the requirements of
Service Class 3 in lieu of Service Class 2.

Figure Notes & Credits:

(1) Figure 1 provided courtesy of Rothoblaas
(2) Figure 2 provided courtesy of Rothoblaas
(3) Figure 4 is a partial reproduction of Zelinka, S.L., 2014, Corrosion of Metals in Wood Products, Table 4.2
(4) Figure 5 is a partial reproduction of ISO / TR 2049, Figure 4-2
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References
ISO 2702. (2022). Fasteners – Heat treated tapping screws – Mechanical and physical properties. International Organisation
for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland.

ASME B18.6.3. (2013). Machine screws, tapping screws, and metallic drive screws. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

EN 14592. (2022). Timber structures – Dowel-type fasteners – Requirements. European Committee for Standardization.
Brussels, Belgium

ISO 4042. (2022). Fasteners – Electroplating systems. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva,
Switzerland.

ASTM F1941-16. (2016). Standard specification for electrodeposited coatings on mechanical fasteners. ASTM International.
West Conshohocken, USA.

ISO/TR 20491. (n.d.). Fasteners – Fundamentals of hydrogen embrittlement in steel fasteners. International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland

ISO 15330. (1999). Fasteners – Preloading test for the detection of hydrogen embrittlement – Parallel bearing surface method.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland.

ASTM F606. (n.d.). Standard test methods for determining the mechanical properties of externally and internally threaded
fasteners, washers, direct tension indicators, and rivets. ASTM International. West Conshohocken, USA.

EN 1995-1-1. (2023). Eurocode 5 – Design of timber structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (Draft version).
European Committee for Standardization. Brussels, Belgium

CSA O86. (2024). Engineering design in wood. Canadian Standards Association. Toronto, ON, Canada
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