Key Topic 1 The origins of the Cold War 1941 – 58

Key AO focus

All questions in this topic target AO1 and AO2 equally. This means that you need to demonstrate good
subject knowledge. You also need to understand second order concepts, such as causation, consequence
and change.

Timeline

September 1939 Start of World War Two

June 1941 Formation of the Grand Alliance

November 1943 Tehran Conference

February 1945 Yalta Conference

May 1945 Nazi Germany defeated

July 1945 Potsdam Conference

August 1945 Imperial Japan defeated

February 1946 Kennan’s Long Telegram

March 1946 Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech

September 1946 Novikov’s Telegram

January 1947 Communists take power in Poland

March 1947 Truman Doctrine announced

June 1947 Marshall Plan first announced

August 1947 Hungary becomes communist

February 1948 Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia

April 1948 Marshall Plan introduced

October 1948 Cominform established

June 1948-May 1949 Berlin Blockade and airlift

January 1949 Comecon established

April 1949 NATO established

August 1949 Sovet Union tests first atomic bomb

March 1953 Stalin dies. Khrushchev becomes leader.

May 1955 Warsaw Pact formed

October – November 1956 Hungarian Uprising

Key Historical people

Joseph Stalin: The brutal communist dictator of the Soviet Union. Stalin believed the West wanted to
destroy his nation.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR): USA’s longest serving President, he died in office just before the end of World
War Two. FDR wanted the capitalist West and communist East to work together peacefully.

Harry Truman: A fierce anti-communist, he became US President following Roosevelt’s death and presided
over the start of the Cold War.

Winston Churchill: Britain’s wartime prime minister. Deeply traditional, he supported the British Empire,
hated communism and distrusted Stalin.

Nikita Khrushchev: Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin. Khrushchev displayed his ruthless Cold War
credential by crushing the Hungarian uprising.

1.1 Early tension between East and West

Outcomes Box

By the end of this reading I will be able to:

 Describe the outcomes of the Yalta, Tehran and Potsdam Conferences

 Describe the ideological differences between the superpowers
 Explain the differing attitudes of Stalin, Truman and Churchill
 Explain the impact on US-Soviet relations of the atomic bomb, the Long and Novikov telegrams and
the creation of Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe.

The ideological differences between the superpowers

In a hot war, countries fight each other directly. However for almost 50 years the USA and the Soviet Union
were locked in a tense standoff known as the Cold War. They competed with each other in almost every area
of life. At the heart of this cold conflict were two very different ways of ways of looking at the world:

Communism (Soviet Union) Capitalism (USA)

Political parties Only the Communist Party is Numerous political parties compete
allowed. with each other.
Elections No democratic elections. Governments are chosen in regular
Communist rule cannot be changed. democratic elections.
Economy The state directs the running of the People can freely set up businesses
economy. All businesses and and make money. The state does not
factories are state-owned. interfere.
Employment Everybody is provided with a job. Employment varies depending on
economic performance. It is not for
the state to provide.
Equality Everyone is considered equal. Living Equality of opportunity, not outcome.
standards are broadly similar, with There are big differences in wealth.
no extremes.
Rights Obedience to the state is more Individual rights such as freedom of
important than individual rights. speech and the press are protected.
 Strict controls exist over what
people can say or write.
Do it: In just one sentence sum up the communist ideology. Do the same for capitalism.

The Grand Alliance

Before the onset of the Cold War, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States worked together as allies
to defeat Nazi Germany. The leaders met only three times; at Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam. By the last
conference, the strains on the alliance were obvious.

September 1939 Start of World War Two

June 1941 Nazi Germany invades the USSR

Formation of the Grand Alliance

December 1941 Surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour

USA enters the war following

June 1944 D-Day launched. The Allied invasion of France

May 1945 Nazi Germany defeated

July 1945 Successful test of atomic bomb by USA

August 1945 USA uses atomic bombs against Japan

Imperial Japan defeated

The Tehran Conference, 1943

The Tehran conference was the first meeting of the ‘Big Three’: Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt. The main
aim was to plan the opening of a second front in Nazi occupied Europe. Stalin desperately needed this
because his troops were carrying out the majority of the fighting and suffering huge losses. The following
agreements were made:

 USA and Britain would invade France by May 1944.

 All three countries would keep fighting until Germany surrendered unconditionally. No separate
peace deals would be signed.
 Once Germany was defeated, the USSR would join the USA and Britain in the war against Japan.
 Poland’s borders would be moved westwards. It would lose land in the east to the Soviet Union, but
gain territory from Germany.
 A new international organisation would be set up to promote peace and co-operation between
nations.

The Yalta Conference, 1945

In February 1945 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met again, this time at Yalta in the Soviet Union. With an
Allied victory looking certain, the aim of the conference was to decide on final military strategy and settle
the post-war future of Europe. The meeting was reasonable friendly and many agreements were made.

 Germany would be divided into four zones: Soviet, American, British and French.
 Like Germany, Berlin would be split into four zones.
 Nazi war criminals would be hunted down and placed on trial.
  All countries freed from Nazi control would be able to hold free, democratic elections to choose
their new governments.
 Eastern Europe would be in the Soviet Union’s ‘sphere of influence’ .
 The Soviet Union would join the war against Japan following Germany’s defeat.
 A new United Nations organisation would be set up.

Although Yalta appeared successful, behind the scenes tension was growing, particularly about reparations
and Poland. On their return home, Churchill and Roosevelt were criticised for giving away too much to the
Soviets.

Stretch it: In order to understand why Stalin felt justified in claiming the eastern part of Poland, research the
1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union.

Disagreements at Yalta

 Stalin wanted Germany to pay huge reparations, but Roosevelt and Churchill worried about the
effect of crippling the German economy.
 Stalin wanted the Polish/German border to be much further west than either Roosevelt or Churchill.
 Stalin wanted Poland’s new provisional government to be mainly loyal Communists, known as the
‘Lublin Poles’. In contrast Britain wanted it to contain many Polish leaders who had spent much of
the war in Britain, known as the ‘London Poles’.

Stretch it: To help understand why Stalin wanted Germany to pay large reparations, carry out further
research into the terrible losses suffered by the Soviet Union during World War Two.

The Potsdam Conference, 1945

The final meeting of the Big Three took place just outside Berlin at Potsdam. The aim to was to finalise the
post-war settlement and put into action all of the things agreed at Yalta. Part way through, Churchill was
replaced by Clement Attlee as British prime minister, but Attlee made little impact on proceedings. Three
factors meant the conference was not successful:

1. A new US President

Roosevelt had died and America’s new President, Truman, hated Communism. Whereas FDR wanted to co-
operate with the Soviet Union, Truman did not see this as important. He took this new ‘get tough’ stance
into the conference, saying ‘I’m tired of babying the Soviets’.

2. The Atomic Bomb

Just before the conference the USA successfully tested an atomic bomb. Truman personally informed Stalin,
who was furious for not being told about its existence earlier (although he actually knew about it from his
spies). He now felt threatened by America.

3. Eastern Europe

The West were angry that Stalin was not keeping to his Yalta promise to allow free elections in Eastern
Europe. They also worried that the huge number of Red Army troops in Eastern Europe would become an
army of occupation.

Define it: Red Army. The army of the Soviet Union

Stretch it: To find out how bad relations were between the allied powers by the war’s end, research
Operation Unthinkable, Britain’s plan for a total war against the Soviet Union.
Agreements at Potsdam Disagreements at Potsdam
 Germany and Berlin would be divided  Truman opposed the massive reparation
into four zones of occupation bill demanded by Stalin.
 Germany would be de-Nazified; the  Truman wanted free elections to take
Party would be banned, leading Nazis place in Eastern Europe. Stalin refused to
tried for war crimes and democracy re- agree.
established.  The West were not happy with the
 Germany would pay reparations in the composition of Poland’s provisional
form of industrial equipment and government as it was dominated by
materials. Most would go to the Soviet communists.
Union.
 Poland’s borders would be moved
westwards into Germany, to the rivers
Oder and Neisse.
 The United Nations would be set up with
the ‘Big Three’ all playing a full role.
Do it: Write a catchy newspaper headline to sum up each of the three wartime Conferences.

Do it: Create a revision poster showing how and why relations between the ‘Big Three’ changed over the
Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.

The attitudes of Stalin, Truman and Churchill

As Stalin, Truman and Churchill all played a role in developing the Cold War, it is important to understand
how they viewed events at the time.

Truman and Churchill versus Stalin

Truman disliked Stalin and hated communism. Stalin had little faith in the West. In his view the
Stalin, he believed, wanted to aggressively United States and Britain;
spread communism around the world, starting in  hated communism
Eastern Europe.  deliberately delayed launching the
Truman believed tough talk was the best way to second front so Nazi Germany could
negotiate with Stalin and felt that America’s cause maximum damage
nuclear monopoly gave him an advantage.  would invade the Soviet Union at some
point in the future.
Churchill opposed communism and viewed Stalin In addition, the Soviet Union lost 20 million
as a monstrous dictator. He worried about people in the war.
Stalin’s plan for Poland. This is because Britain Stalin’s priority was therefore security. He
had gone to war on behalf of Polish wanted to gain control over Eastern Europe so it
independence in 1939. would act as a ‘buffer zone’ against any future
However, by the wars end Britain was bankrupt attacks.
and exhausted. Churchill realised that his ability
to influence events in Eastern Europe was
limited – what Stalin wanted, he could take.
Define it: Nuclear monopoly. From 1945-1949, the USA were the only country to possess nuclear weapons.
The Creation of Soviet Satellite States

Between 1945-1948 Stalin took over Eastern Europe, creating satellite states under the control of the Soviet
Union. Stalin’s motivation was security. He wanted a buffer zone to protect his country from invasion. In the
West, Stalin’s actions were greeted with anger and contributed to the onset of the Cold War.

Define it: People’s democracies. The communist countries of eastern Europe. As Stalin warned the West, the
Soviet version of democracy was very different to their version.

Define it: Satellite states. Countries that are under the control of another country.

Define it: Iron Curtain. A phrase coined by Winston Churchill in 1947, it referred to the division of Europe
between the democratic West and communist East.

Define it: Non aligned. After the war Yugoslavia became a communist state but it refused to accept orders
from Stalin. It therefore become non-aligned in the Cold War.

The process of communist takeover 1. The communists joined in a coalition government 2. They took the
key jobs such as running the police and army 3. Opponents were gradually removed 4. An election would be
held when hardly any opponents were left 5. The communists would win and set up a ‘people’s democracy’.

Define it: Coalition government. A government made up of two or more political parties working together.

Poland (1947) A coalition government was formed in 1945, but the Soviet Union used its large military
presence in the country to arrest many non-communist leaders, mainly on false charges of collaborating with
the Germans in the war. 16 leading non-communist politicians were even placed on trial in Moscow and
imprisoned. In 1947 the Comunist Party won a majority in rigged elections.

Hungary (1947) In the 1945 election the Communist Party, led by Rakosi, gained only 17% of the vote.
Pressure from the Soviet Union meant they were invited into a coalition government and given key roles,
including control of the security police. This gave Rakosi the means to start arresting political opponents. The
communists won the 1947 election after a campaign of intimidation. All other political parties were then
banned.

Czechoslovakia (1948) The Communist Party had genuine support, winning 38% of the vote in the 1946
election. Lacking a majority however, they entered into coalition government. In 1948, in a move approved
by Stalin, the communists seized total power. Opposition politicians were arrested or murdered. Foreign
minister Jan Masaryk for-example was thrown from his office window. The communists claimed it was
suicide but as many said; ‘Jan Masaryk was a very tidy man. He was such a tidy man that when he jumped he
shut the window after himself’.
Do it: Compile a factsheet about Hungary and Czechoslovakia in the Cold War and keep adding to it as you
work through this revision guide. Include sections on 1) how the communisis gained power 2) attempted
uprising 3) independence.

Stretch it: Rakosi said he took control of Hungary using ‘salami tactics’ – removing opposition slice by slice.

Stretch it: Find out more about the Polish anti-Communist insurrection fought between 1944 and 1946 and in
particular the role of the so called ‘cursed soldiers’.

Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech

Although no longer prime minister after losing the July 1945 election, Winston Churchill remained a giant on
the world stage. In 1946 he delivered a major speech at Fulton in the USA, stating:
 The Soviet Union was a threat to freedom and world peace.
 It was determined to spread communism around the world.
 Eastern Europe was falling under the control of the Soviets, creating an ‘Iron Curtain’ between the
Capitalist West and Communist East.
 Britain and the USA should form a ‘special relationship’ to stop further Soviet expansion.
Why this speech mattered – it intensified the growing distrust between East and West. Stalin saw the
speech as provocative, calling it a 'declaration of war' and accusing Churchill of ‘war mongering’.

Stretch it: Why not listen to Churchill making his Iron Curtain speech. Recordings are easy to find on the
internet.

The Long and Novikov Telegrams

As international tensions started to rise following the end of the war, the US and Soviet Union both wanted
to know what the other was up to. Senior diplomats were asked to provide insights. Their reports, however,
only increased mistrust.

Define it: Diplomats. An official whose job is to represent one country in another, and who usually works in
an embassy.
The Long Telegram The Novikov Telegram
In 1946 George Kennan was a senior official in the US Seven months after the Long Telegram, Novikov, the
Embassy in Moscow. His 8000 word assessment of Soviet Ambassador to the USA, completed his
the Soviet Union, known as the ‘Long Telegram’, assessment of US foreign policy. His telegram, which
made the following points: remained secret until 1990, reached the
following conclusions:
 Peaceful co-existence between the USSR and
the USA was not possible  The USA was bent on world dominance.
 The Soviet Union believed the West wanted  It was investing heavily in its military and
to destroy communism. setting up strategic bases around the world.
 In order to protect itself, the Soviet Union  It was not interested in co-operating with
wanted to spread communism and the USSR.
destroy capitalism.  It wanted to remove Soviet influence from
 Only strong resistance would deter Soviet Eastern Europe and set up American backed
aggression. Peaceful negotiation was governments which would be hostile to the
pointless. Soviet Union.
 The USA was more powerful than the Soviet  Eventually the US planed on going to war
 Union and should lead the West in standing with the Soviet Union in order to destroy it.
up to the Soviet Union.
Why this telegram mattered - it convinced Stalin
Why this telegram mattered - it influenced that he needed to protect the Soviet Union from the
President Truman to develop a policy of US by creating a buffer zone in Eastern Europe.
containment.

Define it: Embassy. The official residence of a foreign government in another country.

Do it: Although writing from different sides, Kennan and Novikov shared similar outlooks on the Cold War.
Note down three similarities between their telegrams.

Check it:

1. List 5 features of a communist state and 5 features of a capitalist state.

2. Explain why the Grand Alliance was formed.
3. What major agreements on military strategy were made at the Tehran Conference?
4. What major agreements were made about Germany at the Yalta Conference?
5. Outline 3 reasons the Grand Alliance started to fall apart at the Potsdam Conference.
6. Describe how the Soviet Union gained control of one country in Eastern Europe?
7. Describe how the USSR was portrayed in the Kennan telegram?
8. Describe how the USA was portrayed in the Novikov telegram?

1.2 The development of the Cold War

Outcomes Box

By the end of my revision I will be able to:

 Explain the impact on US-Soviet relations of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, 1947.
 Explain the significance of Cominform (1947) and Comecon (1949) and the formation of NATO
(1949).
 Describe the division of Berlin into zones.
 Describe the Berlin Crisis (blockade and airlift) and explain its impact including the permanent
division of Germany.

The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, 1947

In the two years following World War Two, the US took little active role in European affairs. For them, it was
mission complete; Nazi Germany had been defeated. In 1947, however, President Truman fundamentally
changed US foreign policy and increased Cold War tensions with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.

Truman’s worries

Truman might well of thought the following: ‘We fought World War Two to bring freedom and democracy to
Europe. But:

 Stalin is in the process of taking over Eastern Europe.

 In Greece and Turkey, non-communist forces, backed by Britain, are fighting Communist rebels.
 Britain has told me that it can no longer afford to support Greece and Turkey.
 Western Europe is in economic ruin, especially France and Italy.
  Poverty encourages support of communist parties because they promise everyone a decent
standard of living.
 The Italian and French communist parties are growing in support.
 I believe that Stalin wants to spread communism around the world.’

The Truman Doctrine

On 12 March 1947 Truman delivered a speech to the US Congress. He announced an economic aid package
to Greece and Turkey of $400 million. However Truman also went much further.

 He contrasted the terror and oppression found under communist rule with the freedom found under
capitalism.
 He argued that it was the duty of the US to prevent the expansion of communism.
 The US would therefore provide economic and military assistance to any country threatened with
communist take-over.

Define it: Congress. The branch of the US government responsible for passing laws.

Stretch It: Full versions of Truman’s 1947 speech to Congress are easy to find on the internet. If you have
time, read the speech as it gives vivid insight into the USA’s hostile attitude to the Soviet Union.

The Significance of the Truman Doctrine

 The Greek and Turkish governments were given aid by the USA, which enabled them to defeat the
communist rebels.
 The rivalry between the USA and the Soviet Union increased. In his speech Truman had publicly
identified the Soviet Union as the number one threat to the US.
 The USA put itself forward as the leader of the fight against communism.
 The USA became far more involved in European affairs.
 The USA decided to provide economic aid to Europe, known as the Marshall Plan.

The Marshall Plan

The Truman Doctrine stated the US would use its economic power to help protect countries from communist
takeover. What this meant in reality was explained by the US Secretary of State, General George Marshall a
few months later.

He said the USA would spend huge amounts of money in order to help the devastated countries of Europe
recover from the war. This, he argued, would make people less likely to turn to communism by removing the
conditions communism tended to thrived; economic ruin, unemployment and poverty.

Define it: US Secretary of State. A senior government official who is primarily concerned with foreign policy.

At first many in the American government were unwilling to support an expensive aid programme for
Europe. Attitudes changed in February 1948 when the communists overthrew the government of
Czechoslovakia. Soon after, the Marshall Plan, officially the European Recovery Program, became law.

Do it: Look back and remind yourself how Czechoslovakia was taken over by the communists.

 Over the next four years over £13 billion of Marshall Aid flowed into western Europe, promoting
economic recovery.
 The Aid came in the form of food, fuel, industrial and agricultural machinery, technical advice and
investment.
  The aid was distributed by the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC).
 A total of 16 west European countries received aid, including Britain, France and West Germany.
 The Marshall Plan greatly increased tensions between the Soviet Union and the USA.
 The Soviets attacked the whole scheme as ‘dollar imperialism’. They claimed the plan was no more
than an American ploy to take over the economies of western Europe.
 It forbade the East European satellite states from taking part in the scheme.
 In response to the Marshall Plan, Stalin established the Cominform and Comintern.

Stretch it: Use the internet to find examples of Soviet propaganda cartoons attacking the Marshall Plan.
Consider how the Soviet’s portray the Americans in these cartoons and the motives of Marshall Aid.

Do it: Do you think Marshall Aid should be seen as a generous gift to Europe from the USA?

Cominform Comecon
The Communist Information Bureau Council of Mutual Economic Assistance
Established 1947 1949
Membership USSR, all the satellite states ( Bulgaria, USSR & all the satellite states.
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania,
Yugoslavia) & French and Italian
communist parties.
What it did It was used by Stalin to: It was Stalin’s version of the Marshall Plan.
 Ensure that no Eastern European Comecon did not have large amounts of aid
satellite state accepted Marshall to hand out like the Marshall Plan. Instead it
Aid. aimed to promote economic development
 Encourage protests and strikes in by organising trade agreements between
France and Italy against the members.
Marshall Plan.
 Ensure that the satellite states It was also used by the Soviet Union to gain
followed the same foreign and greater control over the economies of
economic policies as the Soviet Eastern Europe.
Union.  It allowed the Soviet Union to
 Spread propaganda attacking the secure access to cheap goods and
West. Comparing them to the raw materials.
Nazis was a favourite theme.  It discouraged satellite states from
 Remove anyone suspected of not trading with the West.
being loyal to Stalin. As well as  Over time Comecom was used to
removing many individuals, in 1948 impose the Soviet Union’s
Yugoslavia was expelled from the economic model on the satellite
Cominform for being too states including the state ownership
independent. of factories and farms.

Do it: Jot down one similarity and one difference between the Cominform and Comecon.

Do it: Create a flow diagram explaining how the Cold War become colder following the introduction of the
Truman Doctrine. Use the diagram to show how this led to the Marshall Plan, which in turn led to the
Cominform and Comecon.
The Berlin Crisis

In 1945 Germany was divided into four zones and so was Berlin. The city was 100 miles inside the Russian
zone of Germany and linked to the west by road, rail and air routes. In June 1948 Stalin started the first
major confrontation of the Cold War by cutting off all land access to Berlin from the west.

Nail it: Students frequently mix up the Berlin Crisis and the building of the Berlin Wall. Make sure you read
the exam question carefully and write about the correct event.

Causes of the Berlin Crisis

1.Conflicting policies on Germany

This crisis came about because the Soviet Union and the West had very different views about what should
happen to post-war Germany. They were so different that conflict was inevitable.

The West’s plan for Germany The Soviet plan for Germany:

 Democratic  Communist
 Capitalist  Economically weak
 Economically successful  Paying large reparation to the Soviet Union

Advantage to the USA: Germany would no longer Advantage to the Soviet Union: Germany would
need large amount of aid. It could become a valuable never threaten the Soviet Union again - security was
trading partner. Germany could become Europe’s Stalin’s central concern. Reparations would help
first line of defence against the USSR rebuild the Soviet Union.

2.The Actions of the West

Stalin knew that the economic resources of the West outmatched his own. His great fear was that the West
would end up uniting their zones and creating a powerful west Germany, which would eventually take over
the Communist eastern zone. These fears came to a head in 1948 because:

 January 1947: Britain and the USA joined their zones together to create Bizonia.
 April 1948: The USA decided the western part of Germany would receive Marshall Aid in order to
rebuild its economy.
 June 1948: The West introduced a new, stable currency to their zones called the Deutschmark.

The Berlin Blockade

Stalin decided to hit back at the West’s weakest point in Germany- Berlin. On 24 June 1948 he cut all road,
rail and canal routes into the city from the West. The blockade of Berlin had started. Stalin was aiming to
drive the West out and unite the city under Communist rule

Truman’s choices

 Use force to re-open the land route to Berlin. This would risk all-out war with the Soviet Union

 Keep Berlin supplied from the air. But Berlin needed 5000 tons of food and supplies per day.
  Do nothing. This would hand Stalin a huge victory and damage the reputation of the West.

The Berlin Airlift

Truman did not want to fight a war with the Soviet Union, nor could he back down. As a result he decided to
keep West Berlin supplied by air. The Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Vittles by the Americans, lasted for
eleven months until Stalin admitted defeat and lifted the blockade in May 1949.

Do it: Do you think Truman made the right choice in settling on an airlift?

 At the height of the operation, an allied aircraft landed in Berlin every minute
 The Soviets made life difficult for the Allied pilots by flying across the air corridors and placing
weather balloons in awkward positions.

 Stalin was not prepared to shoot any Allied planes down because he did not want to risk war.

 The airlift cost the USA $350 million and Britain £17 million.

Stretch it: Use the internet to find accounts of daily life in Berlin during the Blockade.

Stretch it: The Berlin Blockade and airlift was extensively reported at the time. Use the internet to watch
some of the British Pathe news reports.

The impact on international relations

The start of the Cold War Permanent division of Germany Formation of NATO
The Berlin Crisis was the first serious In order to protect themselves
clash between the former members In May 1949 the western Allies against the Soviet Union, 12
of the Grand Alliance. It marked the brought their zones together to western nations around the
onset of the Cold War. form the Federal Republic of North Atlantic signed a treaty
Germany (West Germany). setting up the North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation in April
In October 1949 the eastern zone 1949. They agreed that if one
became the German Democratic member was attacked, others
Republic (East Germany). would come to its aid.

The consequences of the formation of NATO

 Cold War tensions increased.

 The USA was now committed to playing a big role in the defence of Western Europe, which angered
the Soviets.

 The USSR condemned NATO. It said it was an offensive alliance aimed at the Soviet Union and
showed the West were preparing for war.

 In response to the formation of NATO, the Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955.

Do it: Have a go at summarising the Berlin Crisis. Jot down 3 of its causes, 3 events and 3 impacts.

Check it:

1. What was the Truman Doctrine?

 2. What promoted Truman to announce this doctrine? List three reasons.
3. Explain why General George Marshall thought that giving money to Europe would prevent the spread
of Communism.
4. How did the Cominform attempt to undermine the Marshall Plan?
5. Describe Comecon, Stalin’s answer to the Marshall Plan
6. Name three policies carried out in the western zones of Germany which angered Stalin.
7. Why did President Truman decide on an airlift to help West Berlin when it was blockaded?
8. Outline two important consequences of the Berlin Crisis.

1.3 The Cold War intensifies

Outcomes Box

By the end of my revision I will be able to:

 Explain the significance of the formation of the Warsaw Pact

 Explain the significance of the arms race.
 Explain the events which led to the Hungarian Uprising and Khrushchev’s response.
 Describe the international reaction to the Soviet invasion of Hungary.

The Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 in response to the formation of NATO in 1949. The Soviet Union
saw this as an aggressive military alliance, which would one day invade the Soviet Union. This fear increased
in 1955 because West Germany became a NATO member, and started to rebuild its army.

In order to protect itself, the Soviet Union formed a defensive military alliance with eight other communist
countries; East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. They agreed that
if any one of them was attacked, the others would all help. A joint command structure was set up which
placed the armies of each member under a Soviet Supreme Commander.

Significance of the Warsaw Pact

 Cold War tensions increased because Europe was now divided into two armed camps.
 Both side made military plans for action against each other, including the use of nuclear and
conventional weapons.
 The arms race greatly increased.
 The Soviet Union was in overall command of the Warsaw Pact armies, greatly increasing its own
strength and its control over Eastern Europe.

Stretch It: Carry out research into ‘Seven Days to the River Rhine’ - a top-secret military simulation exercise
carried out by the Warsaw Pact in 1979.
The Arms Race

The nuclear arms race was one of the most alarming features of the Cold War superpower competition.
During the 1950s both sides rapidly expanded their nuclear stockpile.

The USA The USSR

July 1945 The US tested its first nuclear weapon,
code-named “Trinity”, in New Mexico.
August 1945 The US dropped atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1949 The Soviet Union detonated its first atomic
weapon, codenamed First Lightning.
1952: The USA tested the next generation of nuclear
weapons - the Hydrogen bomb. The explosion was
seven hundred times the force of the Hiroshima
bomb.
1953: The USSR tested its own Hydrogen bomb.

1957: The USSR successfully tested the world’s first

ICBM (Intercontinental ballistic missile) called R-7. It
flew for 3700 miles.
1958 The USA successfully tested the Atlas missile -
its own ICBM.
The Space Race In 1957 the Soviet rocket launched Sputnik, a satellite which could orbit the earth in 1.5
hours. The USA saw this as a real threat because it suggested they were falling behind Soviet technology. In
response they increased spending on their own space and weapon programmes.

Do it: Using 20 words maximum, record the key stages of the arms race between the USA and USSR.

Stretch it: The Soviet Union made rapid progress in the nuclear arms race because they had spies stealing
top-secret US atomic research. Research the role played by some of their leading spies including Klaus Fuchs,
Lona Cohen, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Rudolf Abel.

Stretch it: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union had a number of top secret cities which were involved in
nuclear research. Find out more about ‘closed cities’ in the Soviet Union.

Significance of the Arms Race

 The arms race further increased rivalry and tension between the superpowers. Each side felt
threated and, built more weapons and felt even more threatened.
 Ironically, it made war between the super-powers less likely. Under the theory of MAD (Mutually
Assured Destruction) both sides realised a war would probably lead to the complete destruction of
humanity. They were not prepared to risk this.
 Churchill described this situation as a ‘balance of terror’. However, it didn’t help to calm relations.
Nor could either side afford to fall behind in the arms race.
 For the USSR especially, the cost of the Arms Race was a huge burden. This would create problems
later in the Cold War.
The Hungarian Revolution

In 1956 the Hungarian people made a heroic attempt to gain their freedom from communist rule. The Soviet
response was swift and brutal.

Timeline

1945 Only 17% of Hungarians vote for the Communist Party in a general election

1947 Hungary becomes a one party Communist state led by Matyas Rakosi

June 1956 Rakosi removed from power by the Soviet Union

October 1956 Mass demonstrations in Budapest

24 October 1956 Imry Nagy, a communist reformer, appointed leader of Hungary

1 November 1956 Nagy announces Hungary will withdraw from the Warsaw Pact

4 November 1956 Soviet Union invades Hungary

22 November 1956 Nagy arrested

Causes of the uprising

1. Hatred of communist rule

Hungary had been under communist rule since 1948. This was deeply unpopular for a number of reasons:

1. The Hungarian communist leader, Matyas Rakosi, used terror and violence to keep control.
2. The Hungarian secret police(AVH) were particularly feared by ordinary people.
3. Many Hungarians were Roman Catholic. They hated the way their religion was attacked. Priests,
monks and nuns were persecuted and many arrested.
4. Cardinal Mindszenty, the leader of the Hungarian Catholic church, was imprisoned for life in 1949.
5. The Soviet Union controlled the Hungarian economy through Comecon. They took food and
industrial products from Hungary without paying a fair price.
6. Living standards gradually declined. In 1956 things worsened with poor harvests, bread and fuel
shortages.
2. De-Stalinisation

In 1953 Stalin died and after a power struggle Nikita Khrushchev emerged as leader. In February 1956 he
made a major speech condemning Stalin for his use of terror. The Soviet Union, he said, needed a period of
de-Stalinisation. Some Hungarians took Khrushchev speech to mean that now was the time to push for the
removal of their own hated leaders, many of whom had been put in place by Stalin.

Define it: De-Stalinisation. Ending the harsh and repressive policies associated with Stalin.

Key events

 In July 1956 the Hungarian people took to the streets to demand an end to Rakosi’s rule.
 Khrushchev wanted to keep law and order in Hungary, so he replaced Rakosi with Erni Gero. The
problem was Gero was also unpopular and so demonstrations continued.
  On 23 October 1956 mass demonstration took place in Budapest. A crowd pulled down a huge
statue of Stalin and dragged it through the streets on a rubbish cart. When the AVH began to fire on
protestors, they were killed by the crowd.
 On 24 October the Soviets agreed to appoint a more moderate, popular leader - Imry Nagy
(pronounced Nodj). Nagy quickly announced sweeping reforms.

Nagy’s Reforms

 Freedom of speech was introduced

 Political parties could be formed
 Democratic elections would be held
 The AVH were disbanded
 Cardinal Mindszent was released from prison
 All Soviet troops would have to leave Hungary
 Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact
 It would become neutral in the Cold War

Khrushchev’s Reaction

Nagy’s decision to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact was too much for Khrushchev. His priority was
maintaining the Soviet Union’s security and he could not allow a key Warsaw Pact member to simply leave.
He also feared that other Pact member would follow Hungary’s example. On 4 November Soviet tanks
moved into Budapest and after bitter fighting, the uprising was crushed

Stretch it: The renowned photojournalist Michael Rougier covered the Hungarian Uprising for Life magazine.
Use the internet to find examples of the many striking photographs he took during his time in Budapest.

The impact of the Soviet invasion on Hungary

 Over 2500 Hungarians were killed. 200,000 fled the country.

 Nagy was arrested on 22 November 1956 and executed in June 1958 after a secret trial. His body
was dumped in an unmarked grave outside Budapest.
 Cardinal Mindszenty spent the next 15 years hiding in the US embassy before he was allowed to
leave Hungary.
 Hungary remained in the Warsaw pact and under the control of the Soviet Union.
 The Soviets appointed a loyal Communist as Hungary’s new leader - Janos Kadar, although he did try
to make some moderate reforms.
 It would be another 35 years before Hungary could break free from Soviet control and became an
independent country with a democratically elected government.

Stretch it: Soon after the uprising, the Hungarian and Soviet water polo teams played each other at the 1956
Melbourne Olympics. Hungary defeated the USSR 4 -0. Find out why it became known as the ‘blood in the
water’ match.

The international reaction to the Soviet invasion

 The United Nations commended the Soviet response but took no further action.
 The Americans were angry at the brutal Soviet response and condemned Khrushchev. The brief thaw
in relations which followed him becoming leader came to an end. However the USA did not provide
Hungary with military aid because:
 -It was too busy trying to sort out the Suez Crisis – the British and French invasion of Egypt.

-There was no easy way to get military aid to Hungary.

-In an age of nuclear weapons, it was too dangerous to intervene.

 The USA’s decision not to aid the rebels damaged its own international reputation. It had initially
encouraged the Hungarians to stand up to the Soviet Union. By not providing military support, many
felt the US had let the Hungarian people down.

Khrushchev therefore got away with it! He retained control of Hungary. He also sent a clear warning to the
satellite states about the dangers of trying to break free from Soviet control. It would take another 12 years
before Soviet rule was seriously challenged again – this time in Czechoslovakia.

Do it: Pick a way of displaying the results of the Hungarian uprising in a different form. It could be a table,
bullet point notes or even an annotated picture.

Do it: Do you think the USA made the right choice in not intervening in the Hungarian uprising?

Check it:

1. Why did the Soviet Union decide to create a defensive alliance called the Warsaw Pact?
2. Explain two ways in which the Warsaw Pact increased cold war tensions.
3. Describe how the nuclear arms race developed between the USA and Soviet Union from 1945 until
the end of the 1950s.
4. Explain why the theory of MAD made war less likely between the superpowers.
5. List four things the Hungarian people were unhappy about in 1956.
6. Outline the reforms Imry Nagy wanted to make to Hungary when he gained power in October 1956.
7. What prompted the Soviet Union to invade Hungary and why?
8. Why did the USA do so little to stop the Soviet invasion of Hungary?