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Buddhism and Spread of Religion through the Inner Nuances of Caves -A case
study of Western India

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 Buddhism and Spread of Religion through the Inner Nuances of
Caves - A case study of Western India

Dr Preeti Oza
St. Andrew’s College
University of Mumbai

Abstract:

Caves in India not only show extraordinary examples of architectural skill and a fascinating
cultural heritage from that era, but they are also significant to our knowledge since they
include some important historical facts and legends. Caves have served several important
purposes in various cultures across the world, from being a place of shelter to being a place of
solitude or burial. Buddhists in Asia adopted these high, often distant burrows into temples,
converting them into temples in remote locations. There are several amazing caves in India,
each with a unique storey to tell about how it came to be. Every cave has exquisite sculptures
and/or paintings that may be found inside. For generations, craftsmen had chiselled into the
rock and used the black walls as their canvas, transforming these previously ugly spaces into
beautiful places for contemplation, devotion, and group spiritual gatherings. Many Buddhist
cave systems are located throughout Asia, especially in India, China, Myanmar, and other
areas. Religious importance and historical significance add to the draw of these caverns.
Some caves in India are popular for their mystical experiences because of their religious
links. There is also magnificent rock-cut cave art and architecture associated with the
religion's enduring affection for caverns. Over the span of 800 years, these caves were
developed incrementally by local kings. Creative residential buildings and chapels were
created by carpenters by digging them into the hillside. It was chiselled out of the rock to
make the intricately carved pillars, statues, and reliefs. In archaeological surveys, ancient
ruins, and historical memoirs, caves are used for shelter, meditation, art, graves, and religion.
Buddhism's perennial fixation on caves is seen in India, among all religions, in the impressive
rock-cut cave art and architecture. Caves gave monks from the Buddhist faith with excellent
solitude for meditation, strict abstinence, and inexpensive life. Vast numbers of Buddhist
caves can be found in the western ghats. The basalt rocks and rough terrain provided the right
conditions for cave building. During the 2nd century BCE through the 4th century CE, the
Hinayana Buddhist caves found in India began to appear. They include the caves of Kanheri,
Karla, Bhaja, and Bedse. One of India's most famous Buddhist cave complexes, Ajanta, is
situated in the western state of Maharashtra. This is estimated to be around 2,000 years ago,
with the Waghora River carving the first caves at Ajanta along a rock face. Scholars think the
buildings were in use for centuries until the collapse of Buddhism in India led to their
abandonment. Their rediscovery took place in the nineteenth century, and to this day, the
ruins of these ancient monuments play a significant role in unravelling the cultural history of
India's Buddhists. This paper deliberates on the spread of Buddhism in India with specific
reference to the caves as the intangible dissemination point.

Introduction:

Buddhism has a 2,500-year history, and its arts have been practised for almost as long,
travelling across the Asian continent and across oceans with monks and pilgrims to spread
their message. It has become entwined with the arts and practises of indigenous civilizations.
It is difficult to comprehend the doctrines and images associated with this global religion,
which is why understanding Buddhist iconography and symbolism may appear to many
students of Buddhism and its arts to be the first step in understanding how religion spreads
through natural and man-made structures.1

In addition to being an essential aspect of Indian rock-cut architecture, the Buddhist

caves of India also happen to be among the most numerous instances of rock-cut architecture
anywhere in the world. Around 1,500 rock carvings have been unearthed in India, with
around 1000 being created by Buddhists (mostly between 200 BCE and 600 CE), 300 being
created by Hindus (primarily between 600 CE and 1200 CE), and 200 being created by Jains
(mostly between 600 CE and 1200 CE) (from 800 CE to 1200 CE). In addition, several of the
later Mahayana caves have been ornately carved in stone, making them worldwide notable
pieces of art and cultural heritage. These ancient and mediaeval constructions are major feats
of structural engineering and handiwork, and they ought to be celebrated.

Caves in India have long been revered as spiritual sanctuaries by the local population.
Naturally occurring caves were considered to be of the same purity as caverns that had been

1
McArthur, Meher, and Joseph Thometz. Reading Buddhist art. Thames & Hudson, 2004
expanded or constructed by humans. In reality, the sanctuary retains the same cave-like sense
of sacredness that can be found in many Indian religious structures, including free-standing
ones that are small and dark due to the lack of natural light. Caves have been utilised for a
variety of purposes, including meditation, shelter, art, burial, and religious ceremonies,
according to ancient ruins and historical records. Cave art and architecture are some of the
most remarkable examples of Buddhism's continued obsession with caves, which can be
found in India's rock-cut cave art and architecture. Buddhist monks used the caves for
meditation, asceticism, and frugality, among other activities.

The First Wave of Rock Cut Caves:

The Buddhist faith has a great affinity with rock-cut architecture, which has a long history
(man-made structures carved out of living rock). More than 7,000 years ago, the process was
developed in the Levant and evolved into a separate art form that reached its zenith in the
Buddhist cave temples of West India. Buddhist rock-cut architecture has developed and
spread throughout Asia over the last two thousand years, and this study examines the
development and spread of Buddhist rock-cut architecture throughout Asia over the last two
thousand years. It focuses on the chronological and geographic distribution of rock-cut caves
around the Mediterranean.2

The discovery of rock-cut caves in the western Deccan Plateau, which spans much of
southern India, around the third century B.C.E. was a watershed moment in human history.
The Bhaja, Karle, and Ajanta Caves are among the earliest rock-cut monastic complexes still
standing. A successful collaboration between monks and affluent traders was discovered in
the caves, according to the findings. The Bhaja caves were strategically positioned along an
important commerce route that connected northern and southern India during the time of their
construction. The construction of pillars, arches, reliefs, and cave façades was regularly aided
by traders from the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia, who provided financial assistance.
The dharma was spread throughout India, Nepal, and Tibet by Buddhist missionaries who
accompanied traders on their journeys.

Caves with the earliest rock cuts are called karst caves

2
Heirman, Ann, and Stephan Peter Bumbacher, eds. The spread of Buddhism. Vol.
16. Brill, 2007
It is possible to visit the Barabar caves in Bihar to observe the world's earliest rock-cut
building. It is reported that Emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha dedicated two of
these tunnels, Karan Chaupar and possibly Lomas Rishi, to Buddhists during their reigns. The
majority of Buddhist shrines and monasteries in the western Deccan date from 100 BCE to
170 CE, except for a few that are more recent. According to reports, they were accompanied
by wooden constructions that deteriorated over time. Historically, rock-cut temples were
embellished with textures, grains, and structures that resembled those of wood. The caverns
of Ajanta and Bhaja are among the world's most ancient structures. It has been established
through the recovery of relics from these caves that Buddhist missionaries often accompanied
businessmen on bustling international commerce routes across India. During the Roman-
Asian maritime commercial boom, wealthy businessmen commissioned enormous cave
temples with pillars, arches, and elaborate façade.

Even though free-standing structural temples like the Bairat Temple (3rd century
BCE) and other apsidal temples in Sanchi, Taxila, and Ter were already in place, rock-cut
cave temples were still being constructed alongside them. The Ajanta Caves were constructed
during the second and final phase of the Buddhist cave-building era. The construction of
Buddhist caves began in the late sixth century.

Buddhist Caves -Bihar

The natural caves of the Rajgir Hills were chosen by Buddha as a place of meditation,
marking the beginning of a millennium-long practice. According to Buddhism, Indrasala
Cave, where Buddha lived and preached, is described in several sources. It was at the
Saptaparni caves, tucked away in the hills, that Buddha's followers convened for the first
Buddhist council after his death (divine death). The sacred Tripitaka (early Buddhist
teachings) was codified in the Pali language, which is still in use today. In the following three
centuries, Emperor Ashoka sponsored Buddhism, and in the Himalayan highlands, artificial
rock-cut caves, stupas, and Ashoka edicts were built in his honour. Gaya is about 24
kilometres away from Barabar's caves (322-185 BCE) and the Nagarjuni hills, which are
located in the Jehanabad district.

Among the earliest caves used by civilization were natural caverns that were exploited
by locals for temples and homes. According to archaeological studies, the caves were first
occupied and marginally altered during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods up to 6000
BC, when they were first occupied and barely altered. Carved patterns on the overhanging
rock were among the earliest examples of this. The Buddha lived either 563/480 or 483/400
BCE, and Buddhist monks took advantage of natural caverns such as the Saptaparni Cave,
located southwest of Rajgir, Bihar. Many believe that it was here that Buddha spent time
before his death and that it was here that the first Buddhist council met after his death
(paranirvana).

The Saru Maru caverns in Madhya Pradesh (also known as Pangoraria or Budhani
caves) have been in use for a long time and have been visited by people from all over the
country. In the Pangaroria region, there are approximately 45 rock shelters, as well as several
stupas and homes, can be found. According to an inscription in one of the two natural caves,
Ashoka travelled here as a young prince when he was governor of the northwest, stationed in
Vidisha, during his time as governor. Saru Maru received his Minor Rock Edict in the second
cave he discovered.

According to Gupta, the Saru Maru caves have been changed by humans, with rock-
cut staircases and benches for monks among their features. As a possible precursor to
Ashoka's building of full-fledged artificial caves, akin to Barabar's, this could have served as
a prototype. Approximately 250 BCE, the Saru-Maru caves could have acted as a transitional
stage between natural Buddhist caves in eastern India and the highly advanced rock-cut
caverns of Barabar, which were both discovered in the same area.

Ajivikas, an ascetic sect, were granted sanctuary in the Barabar caves in Bihar by
Ashoka sometime around 250 BCE. The Ajivikas' true identity, as well as whether or not they
were Buddhists or Jains, are unclear at this time, as is their religion. The incredibly durable
granite rock used to create these artificial tunnels was cut into geometric shapes and polished
to a mirror-like gloss before being used to construct them. The Barabar caverns are identical
in terms of structure and polishing quality, but there is no inscription on the walls. The
Sitamarhi Cave is located approximately 20 kilometres from Rajgir and 10 kilometres from
Hisua in the Himalayas. It is slightly smaller than the Barabar caverns, measuring
4.91x3.43m with a 2.01m ceiling. The trapezoidal opening of the Barabar caverns is a unique
feature.

Given that the Lomas Rishi gate design had an impact on the development of the
Chaitya arch in Buddhist cave buildings for millennia, although it did not affect the
architecture of the Hindu or Jains caves, it is reasonable to infer that the latter two caves are
Buddhist in character. In addition, this would imply that Lomas Rishi's elaborate gate was a
Buddhist construct, one that was copied and replicated for decades across the Buddhist
building industry.

It is believed that the first rock-cut Buddhist monasteries were built in India's Western
Ghats during the first century BCE. Western India made great efforts to create sacred caves
up until the 6th century. The polishing of cave walls, on the other hand, was no longer carried
out. Caves that have not been polished can also be seen in the Karla Caves (which date back
to the first century CE) and the Ajanta Caves (5th century CE). It was during the Mauryan
period that the caverns were committed and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government,
allowing for the expenditure of vast sums of money and effort, whereas the following caves
were mostly contributed by commoners who could not afford such extravagant expenditures
at the time.

Thousands more Buddhists fled to the Deccan under the protection of the Andhra
dynasty after the Mauryan Empire fell in the 2nd century BCE, carrying the cave-building
project to western India, where it culminated in the Karla or Pandavleni Caves, which are
located in present-day India. The viharas featured a rectangle layout with encircling cells, but
the chaityas had an apsidal layout with a stupa at the back. The viharas were built on a
rectangular foundation. As a result of their religious convictions in discipline and the
monastic life, Buddhist missionaries were naturally drawn to caves as temples and abodes for
their temples and abodes. In many ways, the geology of the Western Ghats, with its flat-
topped basalt hills, deep ravines, and cliffs, resembled the geography of the Himalayas.

The Nasik Caves

have an inscription by King Krishna of the Satavahanas, which dates from 100-70 BCE and
commemorates his reign.

Simple viharas, such as the one in Nasik Cave 19, began to develop in the rock about
the time of the Buddha's death. A Chaitya-arch decoration is placed on top of each cell, and a
frieze of "rail pattern," which is wavy in certain places, is placed below each cell on each
side. There are two lattice windows in the front wall, and the porch is supported by two long,
slender square pillars with an octagonal shaft in the middle. The cave's simple shape and
remarkable rectangularity are a perfect match for a Vihara from the first or second century
BCE, according to archaeological evidence. Its strong resemblance to Ajanta Cave No.12, as
well as other caves in Bhaja and Kondane, suggests that it was constructed around the same
time as the other caves in the area. According to legend, the Kanheri Caves were found in the
first and second centuries BCE, whereas Buddhist monks dwelt in the Ajanta Caves between
200 BCE and 650 AD. Because Buddhism fosters trade, monasteries were frequently used as
resting places and lodging for inland traders during their journey.

Cave temples have survived because they are less apparent than wood and brick
temples and, as a result, are less susceptible to decay. A total of roughly 1200 cave temples
remain, with the majority of these being Buddhist temples. In Buddhism, monks' dwellings
were referred to as Viharas, and cave shrines were referred to as Chaityas. It is a complex of
23 caves in Nasik, India, that were carved between the first and third centuries CE, with
additional sculptures added until the sixth century CE, portraying Buddhist devotional
practises. The caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Hindu and Buddhist sculptures
have been a significant group in Hinayana rock-cut architecture since the beginning of the
period. Except Cave 18, which is a chaitya dating back to the first century BCE. The
elaborate pillars or columns in caverns 3 and 10 demonstrate how the cave's shape evolved
through time. The caverns are roughly 8 kilometres south of Nashik (or Nasik), Maharashtra,
India, and are accessible by road. The Nasik Caves have been given the name "Pandavleni,"
which has nothing to do with the Pandavas from the Mahabharata. Karla, Bhaja, Patan, and
Bedse caves are also nearby, as are the caves of Karla and Bhaja.

Lonavala and Karla caves

To facilitate the excavation of these twenty-four Hinayana Buddhist caves, the local Jain
kings provided financial assistance. Although Cave No. 10 has a similar design to Cave No.
3, it is older and more ornate in construction. It's almost as old as Lonavala's Karla Cave,
which is also a World Heritage Site. The Karla Caves are thought to be a chaitya temple,
according to legend. It boasts an ornate facade that has been meticulously built. Bodhisattva
icons Veer Manibhadraji and Ambikadevi are well-known. The interiors of the caverns were
popular meeting places for believers who came to hear sermons in a relaxed atmosphere.
Water tanks have been carved out of the solid rock to use as storage facilities.

In Maharashtra, these tunnels are among the most ancient structures on the planet.
Originally, these rock-cut tunnels served as monasteries, where monks could congregate and
listen to sermons on the go. They have some stunning sculptures. According to legend, one of
the vihara caves is older than Lonavala's Karla Cave, and it contains more exquisite
sculptural art. A chaitya (also known as cave 18) is a type of cave (type of cave used for
chanting and meditation). In addition to having a gorgeous exterior, it is also significantly
older than several of the Karla Caves. The Indo- Greek architecture is adorned with Buddhas,
Bodhisattvas, Kings, Farmers, and Merchants, as well as a plethora of iconography. Nasik's
Cave No.3 is the most significant and largest of the Pandavleni caverns complex's three
caves. The temple was built and consecrated to the Samgha in the 2nd century CE by Queen
Gotami Balasiri, the mother of deceased Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni, who died
in the same year.

The Second Wave of Cave Construction Resulted from Human Ingenuity (5th-6th
century CE)

Buddhism cannot be regarded as a coherent doctrinal system in any area of the world,
regardless of where it is practised. It is made up of a wide range of thoughts, activities, and
behaviours that are all distinct from one another. Geographical, social, political, economic,
philosophical, theological, and linguistic issues all played a role in its inception and
dissemination, albeit the extent to which they played a role differed from location to region
and time3.

A development in Mahayana Buddhism and its attendant architectural and artistic

creation in Gandhara and Amaravati, as well as an increase in cave construction after the 2nd
century CE, caused cave construction to become less popular. The spectacular works of art at
Ajanta and Ellora were only around for a brief time, as Hinduism superseded Buddhism in
the Indian subcontinent and stand-alone temples became increasingly common.

There are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples in Maharashtra's Ajanta Caves, which
are located beside a waterfall-fed spring in the Sahyadri highlands and are accessible by boat.
This Buddhist cave, which dates back to the 2nd or 1st century B.C., is located near important
trade routes. Between the years 460 and 478, the Vakataka king Harisena built a palace on
this site. There is a plethora of ornate sculptures, intricately carved columns and reliefs, as
well as cornices and pilasters, on display. Aesthetic architectural elements were cut into

3
Heirman, Ann, and Stephan Peter Bumbacher, eds. The spread of Buddhism. Vol. 16. Brill,
2007
living rock to resemble timbered wood (for example, lintels) in both construction and grain,
yet these architectural features were purely decorative and did not have a functional purpose.

Buddhist Caves-Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

The limestone Belum caves in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh are the most well-
known in the state. The cave contains relics and utensils that date back to 4500 BCE,
indicating that Buddhist monks lived and meditated there. Following the fall of the Mauryan
dynasty, several monks escaped to Andhra, where they were welcomed by the Satavahanas.
Buddhist rock-cut caves can be found in the vicinity of Vishakhapatnam, India. The presence
of Buddhist monks is documented by caves and sculptures in the area, and there is also
evidence of Jain and Hindu activity in the area. In the Dhanamkoda hill near Vijayawada, a
Buddhist cave has just been discovered.

Buddhist Caves-Gujarat

Following the legend, Buddhism reached Gujarat via Maharashtra, which explains
why the vast majority of the state's early caves can be located along its coastline and in the
city of Junagadh. Khapra Kodiya is considered to be one of the oldest. The caves are
accessible only through the dusty passageways of old Junagadh. It was also used for a horror
film shoot, albeit it isn't particularly frightful in its own right. The caverns are located along a
ridge that runs east-west. There are no graphics or sculptures on display in the architecture.
There's also a tank and an L-shaped monk dwelling on the property. The Buddhist kingdoms
of Gujarat's Western Kshatrapas and Maitrakas were the most powerful in the state. There are
various details regarding Jainism in Gujarat, but none on Buddhism from the first to the ninth
centuries, according to the available information. Lauten Tsang discovered 200 caverns in
Saurashtra and Anandpura during his explorations (Vadnagar). Khapra-Kodiya and Baba
Pyara are two of Saurashtra's earliest Buddhist caves, and both are located in the state of
Maharashtra. A large number of caverns may be found in the vicinity of Junagadh. The Sana
(Amreli) and Talaja (near Bhavnagar) caverns are among India's oldest, and they are among
the most beautiful. The Siyot caverns of Lakhpat and the Khambalida caves (near Gondal),
both of which include carvings of Bodhisattvas, are both located in Kutch.

Buddhist Caves-Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

Western India is less familiar with the Buddhist caves in the laterite hills of the
eastern Jhalawar district, which are surrounded by forts and Havelis and are home to a
diverse range of wildlife. Everything can be found in the Kolvi 50 cave complex, including
life-size Buddha carvings, stupas, and chaitya. In some of the caverns that have survived,
intricate engravings can be observed.

Historical researchers are confused whether or not these caves were previously a part
of the Buddhist settlement of Dhamnar, which was located nearby (in Madhya Pradesh). For
example, the Saru-Maru caverns in the Sehore district feature rock-cut stairs and chairs for
monks, among other features. These caves are decorated with the Buddhist symbols kalasa,
triratna, and swastika, which are engraved into the rock walls. Visiting the caves requires a
long, strenuous hike through Satpura's beautiful green forest, which is a joy for both nature
enthusiasts and birdwatchers both.

Conclusion:

Religion is based on the creation and transmission of religious messages and morality among
its adherents. Archetypes, arts, artworks, events, connections with natural phenomena, and
other factors all play a role in the effective building and transmission of religion. All of these
are referred to as symbols. Texts, rituals, and works of art are used to understand religion as
symbols. Symbols and their construction aid in the creation of myths and the expression of
religious society's moral values. It aids in the transmission of religious doctrines and creates a
bond of worship among believers or followers. Buddhism is the religion of Gautama
Buddha's followers (Sakyamuni). It is a branch of Hinduism with a wide range of beliefs and
rituals4 It is generally known that the western Deccan is home to spectacular rock-cut
Buddhist architecture as well as massive Buddhist monastery complexes. When the
Satavahana period, Western India's first large-scale state system, came to an end, many of
these constructions were demolished as a result. First and foremost, to understand how
Buddhist monastic institutions were integrated into the period's sociopolitical and economic
organisation, it is necessary to consider how agricultural products were produced and

4
Oza, Preeti. "Buddhist Iconography and Religious Symbolism in different Buddhist
Statues." Available at SSRN 3842904 (2021).
 distributed, as well as how Buddhist monastic institutions and political authorities were
involved in these patterns of production and distribution. Kathleen Morrison5

Bibliogrphy:

 Brancaccio, Pia. The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and

Religion. Vol. 34. Brill, 2010.
 Heirman, Ann, and Stephan Peter Bumbacher, eds. The spread of Buddhism. Vol. 16.
Brill, 2007
 McArthur, Meher, and Joseph Thometz. Reading Buddhist art. Thames & Hudson,
2004
 Morrison, Kathleen D. "Trade, urbanism, and agricultural expansion: Buddhist
monastic institutions and the state in the early historic western Deccan." World
Archaeology 27.2 (1995): 203-221.
 Oza, Preeti. "Buddhist Iconography and Religious Symbolism in different Buddhist
Statues." Available at SSRN 3842904 (2021).

5
Morrison, Kathleen D. "Trade, urbanism, and agricultural expansion: Buddhist monastic
institutions and the state in the early historic western Deccan." World Archaeology 27.2
(1995): 203-221.)

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