TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 17 November 2022

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933497

The impact of background music

OPEN ACCESS on film audience’s attentional
processes:
EDITED BY
Graham Frederick Welch,
University College London,
United Kingdom

REVIEWED BY
Electroencephalography
alpha-rhythm and event-related
Roman Mouček,
University of West Bohemia,
Czechia
Hun Kim,
Joongbu University,
South Korea
potential analyses
*CORRESPONDENCE
Slgi (Sage) Lee
Young-Sung Kwon 1, Jonghyun Lee 2 and Slgi (Sage) Lee 3*
[email protected] 1
Department of Media and Communication, Dong-A University, Busan, South Korea, 2 Department
SPECIALTY SECTION of English Language and Literature, College of Humanities, Seoul National University, Seoul,
This article was submitted to South Korea, 3 Department of Media and Communication, Pusan National University, Busan,
Performance Science, South Korea
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology

RECEIVED 05 May 2022

Background music is an indispensable part of films and plays an important
ACCEPTED 27 October 2022 role in enhancing audiences’ attention to scenes. However, few studies have
PUBLISHED 17 November 2022
examined the cognitive effect of background music at the neurophysiological
CITATION level. Using electroencephalography (EEG), the present study examines the
Kwon Y-S, Lee J and Lee SS (2022) The
impact of background music on film
effect of background music tempo on the viewer’s attentional processes.
audience’s attentional processes: Participants’ (N=24) EEG responses were recorded while the participants
Electroencephalography alpha-rhythm and watched segments of action films in three conditions with variations on the
event-related potential analyses.
Front. Psychol. 13:933497. presence and tempo of background music (i.e., no background music vs.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933497 slow-tempo music vs. fast-tempo music). These responses were analyzed
COPYRIGHT using the alpha-rhythm suppression and event-related potential (ERP)
© 2022 Kwon, Lee and Lee. This is an P300, a brainwave indicator of attentional processes. The results suggest
open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution that participants’ attention levels increased when background music was
License (CC BY). The use, distribution or present (compared to when background music was absent), but there was
reproduction in other forums is permitted,
no difference in participants’ attention levels based on tempo. The theoretical
provided the original author(s) and the
copyright owner(s) are credited and that and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
the original publication in this journal is
cited, in accordance with accepted
KEYWORDS
academic practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does not background music, tempo, film music, attentional processes, EEG, ERP,
comply with these terms.
alpha-rhythm suppression

Introduction
Sound is an important element of entertainment media. For instance, well-designed
sound effects or background music in a film can positively influence audience engagement
in that film. In films, sound consists of background music, sound effects, and characters’
dialog. In combination with visual components (i.e., video footage), sound contributes to
forming the overall mood of a film and inducing emotional responses from the audience

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(Holman, 2012). In particular, background music can influence The present study particularly focuses on the tempo of
viewers’ cognitive processes involved in perceiving and learning background music and examines whether various degrees of
from visual components of the content (Kämpfe et al., 2011; Du tempo (slow vs. fast) elicit different levels of attention among
et al., 2020). For instance, research suggests that people better viewers. As a basic element of music—along with tonality, range,
recall visual information they acquire while being exposed to intensity, and instrument—tempo helps form the overall mood of
background music (Proverbio et al., 2015; Nguyen and Grahn, a piece of music. Tempo is also known to influence the listener’s
2017). Background music can also help individuals immersed in behavior and affect; music with a fast tempo evokes positive-
the plot of multimedia content (Zhang and Fu, 2015) and induce valence emotions such as happiness, whereas slow music triggers
motor resonance, a neurophysiological indication that viewers are negative emotions such as sadness (Gagnon and Peretz, 2003).
immersed in the action performed by characters in films (Kwon Music tempo can also affect the tempo of the listeners’ activities
et al., 2021). that are being performed while the listeners are exposed to music
As background music is considered an important factor in (Kämpfe et al., 2011).
audience engagement, sound designing—creating and inserting Relatedly, the tempo of background music plays an important
various sound elements in media content—has become an role in setting the ambience of a scene. In film production, music
indispensable part of film production. Research in this area has with different tempos is strategically used to produce different
examined how producers use various sound elements to draw and moods. For example, for scenes depicting high-tension activities,
maintain viewers’ attention (e.g., Mitchell, 2005; Holman, 2012); such as fighting or running, fast music is inserted to convey the
however, relatively little is known about whether such use of tension of the activities, whereas slow music is often used when
sound elicits high levels of attention among the audience. producers need to create a soft and relaxing ambience. This is
Moreover, in the few studies that have examined the effects of based on the conventional notion that the audience will be more
background music on viewers, self-report data (cf. Kämpfe et al., absorbed in the scene when the rhythms of activities portrayed
2011; Zhang and Fu, 2015; Lee et al., 2020) have predominantly and the background music are harmoniously matched. However,
been used. However, self-report data are limited in terms of there is no empirical evidence, to our knowledge, to suggest that
objectively capturing subtle and subconscious changes in such a match in tempo would lead to a high level of attention
individuals’ attentional processes that occur in response to among the audience.
exposure to a series of visual and auditory stimuli (Kwon et al., Moreover, prior research offers mixed findings about how
2021). Instead, neurophysiological methodologies such as tempo can affect listeners’ cognitive activities. As noted, studies
electroencephalogram (EEG) are required to directly measure and have found that tempo can determine listeners’ emotions and the
quantify participants’ cognitive processes. Hence, the present pace of their actions. For instance, fast music can induce upbeat
study uses neurophysiological data from EEG to examine the emotions (Liu et al., 2018a,b) and fast-paced behaviors (Kämpfe
impact of background music on viewers’ attentional processes. et al., 2011). This indicates that a fast tempo can result in some
Several studies to date have used EEG to explore the effect of degree of stimulation in listeners’ cognitive activities. Other
background music on attentional processes (Iwaki et al., 1997; studies, however, suggest that fast-beat background music is more
Du et al., 2020; Ausin et al., 2021; Uhm et al., 2021). Most of detrimental than slow music to the cognitive processes involved
these studies have explored how background music affects in perceiving and evaluating visual information (Kallinen, 2002).
listeners’ attention during various activities or situations, such as Such conflicting findings on tempo make it difficult to predict how
while studying, resting, or watching an advertisement. However, background music with different tempos may affect viewers’
studies examining how background music affects the audience attentional processes toward films.
of video media, particularly film, are scant. It should also be noted Based on this set of considerations discussed, the present
that different types of background music—depending on when study explores whether (a) the presence of background music and
or where they are used—serve different functions and purposes. (b) its tempo can enhance viewers’ attention to film scenes.
For instance, background music played during studying might Specifically, we ask the following questions: (a) Does the presence
be considered as noise or “background” music, as the music is of background music lead to an increase in attentional processes
not so relevant to the foreground activity (i.e., studying). In toward film scenes?; (b) How does the tempo (fast vs. slow) of
contrast, background music in film is pre-selected and is closely background music influence the viewers’ attentional processes
tied to the video. Background music inserted in advertisements toward film scenes?
also has a specific purpose: to induce the audience to remember To measure attentional processes, the present study used
the product and eventually purchase it, which is quite different EEG. Through the use of small metal discs (electrodes) attached
from the purpose served by music used in films. Therefore, it is to an individual’s scalp, EEG measures the electrical impulses
difficult to generalize the prior findings to the context of film generated from the transmission between nerve cells when the
background music. Furthermore, measuring attentional individual is engaged in a cognitive activity. In this study, EEG
processes of film audiences using EEG can offer useful was employed rather than other neurophysiological
information and a practical guide for optimizing sound- methodologies, such as magnetoencephalography (MEG),
designing in film content production. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron

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emission tomography (PET), and computer tomography (CT), Stimulus

because EEG is superior in measuring real-time brain activities,
with relatively less obtrusion and interference in subjects’ The stimuli footage used in the experiment consisted of 45
physical activity (Mulert and Lemieux, 2009). EEG is known as action scenes (edited from 26 Korean and international action
having excellent temporal resolution—measuring an films) in which one subject strikes another. These action (striking)
instantaneous brain cognitive processing response in 0.001 s— scenes were selected for the following reasons: (1) the action
and is considered a suitable method for analyzing information scenes involve large movements in action and were therefore
processing that takes place rapidly in real time, such as image expected to induce a high level of attention, especially at the
recognition (Sanei and Chambers, 2013; Cohen, 2014). EEG is, moment of striking; (2) the clear display of the target behavior
therefore, appropriate for an experiment that requires the (striking) in these scenes creates a concrete point to which
recording and detecting of immediate changes in participants’ participants can fixate their attention. These make action scenes
cognitive processes when participants watch a stream of visual suitable for measuring alpha-rhythm inhibition and event-related
(e.g., film footage) and auditory stimuli (e.g., background music; potentials (ERP), indicators related to the attentional process. The
Kwon and Lee, 2020). action scenes also included various motions (i.e., striking with
Specifically, we used alpha-rhythm suppression and event- fists, kicking, etc.), with different numbers of characters involved
related potentials (ERP) as indices to measure the attentional in the actions (two, three, or more people), various framing shots
process. Alpha-rhythm inhibition, measured at 7–13 Hz, is (i.e., close-up, medium shot, and long shot) and shooting
known to be an indicator related to the attentional process. This techniques (i.e., time-lapse, high-speed shooting, etc.) to avoid
can be used as an indicator of how much the audience pays bias that may occur from using a particular motion or
attention to an image (Kwon and Lee, 2020). This study also used technique only.
event-related potentials (ERP) analysis, which is a commonly The sequence of these scenes was designed using a counter-
used EEG in speech-processing research in the field of cognitive balanced paradigm (Goodwin, 2009; Burns and Dobson, 2012;
science. ERP uses a type of EEG that is obtained by presenting Stangor, 2014). Within a counter-balanced paradigm, each
an auditory stimulus to a subject and measuring their brain participant is exposed to all treatment conditions where each
activity at that moment. P300, one of the ERP elements, was used condition is presented in different orders. A counter-balanced
as an index to measure participants’ attention level (Kwon and paradigm thus prevents the order effect in which the order of
Ha, 2019). image stimulation affects the dependent variable. The paradigm
can also reduce the bias that may occur due to participants’
individual differences. Counter-balanced paradigm is therefore
Materials and methods commonly used in neurophysiological studies that use two or
more experimental conditions (e.g., Goodwin, 2009).
Participants and procedure The stimuli footage used in the experiment consisted of 45
action scenes, edited from 26 films. Three different versions (no
A total of 24 right-handed participants (10 women, 14 men) background music, slow-tempo music, fast-tempo music) were
were recruited from a university in Seoul, South Korea. The made from each scene; therefore, a total of 135 scenes (45 scenes × 3
average age of the subjects was 23.04 years (SD = 2.94). The versions) were produced. Three different sets of sequences were
number of participants was determined based on the power then created by randomly ordering the 135 scenes. Each sequence
analyses (Sig. level = 0.05, power = 0.95, effect size = 0.3), using set included 45 different scenes and was assigned to either Group
previous studies that used EEG under similar conditions. The A, B, or C. Participants randomly assigned to one of the three
experiment has been approved by the Internal Review Board of groups were thus shown one of the sequences. Each scene in the
one of the authors’ affiliated universities. sequence was 8 s-long, and 5 s-long black screens were shown
The experiment was conducted in a sound-proof laboratory between each scene to measure each participant’s baseline (see
that blocks external electromagnetic waves and noise. Upon Figure 1). The sequence of the scenes shown is presented in Table 1.
participants’ arrival, they were ushered to a sound-proof To accentuate the moment where striking action occurs in the
laboratory and seated in front of a desk with a 21-inch monitor on scenes, the striking sound effect was uniformly inserted in all
which stimuli footage would be shown. Electrode gel was then scenes. Any other sound or sound effect was removed in all
applied to the participants to help the sensors stick to the conditions. The background music inserted in the slow- and fast-
participants’ scalps more easily. Ten-minute long stimulus footage tempo conditions was composed using the same drum solo sound,
was presented to each participant using PsychoPy3. Participants but it differed in its tempo (slow vs. fast tempo). The purpose of
wore EEG gear throughout the experiment while they watched the using a drum solo was to eliminate the influence of other musical
stimulus footage. At the beginning of the experimental session, all elements than tempo, such as tonality and range. The beats per
participants were instructed to pay attention to each scene and minute (BPM) for the two types of background music used in the
minimize their eye blinking and body movement while watching slow- and fast-tempo conditions were 144 BPM (fast tempo) and
the stimuli. 48 BPM (slow tempo), respectively classified as allegro (fast,

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FIGURE 1
Video composition for individual stimuli.

BPM = 120 ~ 168) and largo (slow, BPM = 40 ~ 60) in prior studies Along with the alpha-rhythm suppression, an ERP element
(Palit and Aysia, 2015; Fernández-Sotos et al., 2016; Liu et al., named P300 was used to evaluate participants’ attention function.
2018a,b). P300 appears in the process of changing the cognitive model, which
was established for the subject to successfully respond to a specific
task (Polich, 2007). What is important is that the brain becomes
Electroencephalogram analysis involved in attention-related cognitive function in this process
(Polich, 2003; Sur and Sinha, 2009). Thus, whether the subject paid
Electroencephalography recordings attention to the corresponding experimental stimulus can
Electroencephalogram was recorded from 32 Ag/AgCl be detected by measuring P300, and how much the subject
electrodes mounted in an ActiCap (Brain Products GmbH, concentrated on the stimulus can be explored through the amplitude
Germany), arranged following the 10/20 system, using of ERP. P300 occurs in a positive electrode of 200 ~ 400 ms after the
BrainVision Recorder (BrainProducts GmbH). The activities stimulus is presented (Hillyard and Kutas, 1983; Picton, 1992), and
of the alpha rhythms have traditionally been linked to the it is actively observed at the Fz and Cz electrodes located in the
attentional process of the brain (Klimesch, 2012), and overall frontal and central lobe (Polich, 2003, 2007; Polich and Criado,
suppression in alpha power has been linked to an increase in 2006). The present analysis therefore focused on Fz and Cz in the
attention in general (Klimesch et al., 1997; Sauseng and time windows between 200 and 400 ms to measure P300.
Klimesch, 2008). Alpha-rhythm suppression originally Additional electrodes (vertical electrooculogram and
appears in the occipital lobe, frequency distribution of horizontal electrooculogram) were attached next to and below the
8–13 Hz, and it is actively observed at the O1 and O2 eyes to detect noises caused by eye activities, such as blinking. All
electrodes (Berger, 1929; Fu et al., 2001; Perry et al., 2011). electrode impedances were maintained below 10 kΩ. Extracted
Among the electrode sites, O1 and O2 located in the occipital signals were amplified through actiCHamp (BrainProducts
lobe were used in the present analysis as the alpha rhythm GmbH) and digitized at a sampling rate of 500 Hz.
measurement range. The EEG data of each participant was
segmented separately among the three conditions followed by Pre-processing and statistical analysis
a baseline correction and average calculation for each BrainVision Analyzer 2.0 (BrainProducts GmbH) was used for
condition. By subtracting the baseline from each condition, pre-processing. EEG data was off-line re-referenced to average
three difference waves and the grand average values were mastoids and filtered with a bandpass filter (a low cutoff of 0.5 Hz
obtained for each participant’s data. and a high cutoff of 40 Hz). Eye blinks and horizontal saccades were

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TABLE 1 The sequence of the counter-balanced stimulus presentation.

Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Group A N-M (1) S-M (16) F-M (31) F-M (32) N-M (2) S-M (17) F-M (33) F-M (34) F-M (35) S-M (18) S-M (19) N-M (3) F-M (36) F-M (37) S-M (20) N-M (4)

Group B F-M (1) N-M (16) S-M (31) S-M (32) F-M (2) N-M (17) S-M (33) F-M (3) S-M (34) S-M (35) N-M (18) F-M (4) F-M (5) S-M (36) N-M (19) F-M (6)

Group C S-M (1) F-M (16) N-M (31) S-M (2) F-M (17) F-M (18) N-M (32) S-M (3) S-M (4) N-M (33) F-M (19) S-M (5) S-M (6) N-M (34) F-M (20) S-M (7)

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
S-M (21) S-M (22) N-M (5) F-M (38) S-M (23) F-M (39) N-M (6) F-M (40) N-M (7) S-M (24) F-M (41) F-M (42) S-M (25) N-M (8) S-M (26) F-M (43)

N-M (20) S-M (37) F-M (7) F-M (8) N-M (21) S-M (38) F-M (9) S-M (39) F-M (10) N-M (22) S-M (40) F-M (11) F-M (12) N-M (23) S-M (41) F-M (13)

F-M (21) N-M (35) F-M (22) S-M (8) F-M (23) N-M (36) F-M (24) S-M (9) F-M (25) F-M (26) N-M (37) S-M (10) F-M (27) F-M (28) N-M (38) S-M (11)

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
N-M (9) S-M (27) S-M (28) N-M (10) S-M (29) N-M (11) F-M (45) N-M (12) N-M (13) F-M (44) N-M (14) S-M (30) N-M (15)

S-M (43) N-M (30) N-M (25) F-M (15) F-M (14) N-M (26) N-M (27) S-M (44) N-M (28) N-M (24) S-M (45) N-M (29) S-M (42)

N-M (39) S-M (12) N-M (40) S-M (13) N-M (41) F-M (29) N-M (42) F-M (30) N-M (43) S-M (14) N-M (44) S-M (15) N-M (45)

The number in parentheses = selected stimulus number. N-M = No Music, F-M = Fast tempo music, S-M = Slow tempo music.

corrected semi-automatically using the Independent Component music) leads to different levels of attentional process among the
Analysis (ICA) procedure with infomax algorithm implemented in audience and whether the tempo (slow vs. fast) of background
the BrainVision Analyzer. The data were segmented in the range of music is associated with different levels of attention. First, a
0 to 1,000 ms from the point at which a punch or kick touches the one-way repeated ANOVA was conducted on the degree of alpha-
opponent. The baseline was corrected in the range of –200 to 0 ms. rhythm inhibition associated with the three conditions (no
To extract ERPs, segments were averaged independently in each background music (N-M), fast-tempo background music (F-M),
participant for each condition and then grand-averaged. slow-tempo background music (S-M)). The statistical analysis
For the alpha-rhythm analysis, time-frequency analysis via suggests that there is a significant difference among the conditions
Morlet wavelet transformation in the frequency range of 5–30 Hz [F (2, 40) = 5.745, p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.223].
was conducted. In doing so, Brain Vision Analyzer 2.0 (Brain- Bonferroni post-hoc analysis suggests that there is a significant
Products GmbH) was used to extract the alpha rhythm from the difference (p < 0.05) between no background music
EEG signal. Wavelet transformation is one of the frequency (M = −0.037 μV2, SD = 0.022) and fast-tempo background music
analysis methods that can concurrently visualize time, power, and conditions (M = −0.171 μV2, SD = 0.042). In the fast-tempo
frequency, and this method is suitable for measuring long-lasting background music condition, the alpha rhythm was suppressed to
cognitive processes such as watching a video (Muthukumaraswamy a greater degree compared to the no background music conditions,
et al., 2004; Perry and Bentin, 2010; German-Sallo and Ciufudean, suggesting that the attentional process of the participants was
2012; Kwon and Lee, 2020). Through wavelet transformation, the activated to a greater degree in the fast background music
square of the energy value and amplitude corresponding to the condition. However, no statistically significant difference was
alpha rhythm were calculated across the groups and conditions. found between the no background music and slow-tempo music
Then, one-way repeated measure ANOVA using the SPSS conditions (M = −0.072 μV2, SD = 0.021; p = 0.11). There was also
(Statistical Package for Social Science) was conducted to examine no significant difference between the fast- and slow-tempo
whether there are statistically significant differences among the background music conditions (p = 0.16).
conditions (slow-tempo background music, fast-tempo To examine whether the presence of background music leads
background music, and no background music). to different levels of alpha-rhythm suppression, we combined the
In the ERP analysis, the same time range used in the alpha slow- and fast-tempo conditions (SF-M; M = −0.121 μV2,
rhythm analysis was used to measure P300; from the point in SD = 0.024) and compared this with the no background music
which a punch or kick occurs up to 300 ms after that hit or kick. condition. A one-way repeated ANOVA suggests that there is a
The energy value corresponding to the applicable P300 value, significant difference between the average value of slow and fast
amplitude (μV), was calculated and the calculated value was background music conditions and the value of no background
compared and analyzed for energy values according to each music condition [F (2, 40) = 5.745, p = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.223]. This
frequency between experimental conditions through one-way indicates that the conditions with background music altogether
repeated ANOVA using SPSS. were associated with a greater degree of alpha-rhythm suppression
thus a greater degree of attentional process, compared to the no
background music condition. The alpha-rhythm suppression
Results value for each condition is illustrated in Figure 2.
Second, another one-way repeated ANOVA was
This study examined whether the presence of background performed on P300 to conduct ERP analysis. The ANOVA
music (absence of background music vs. presence of background revealed that there is a statistical difference among the P300

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FIGURE 2
Alpha-rhythm suppression level by condition (*denotes a statistically significant difference).

FIGURE 3
Event-related potential (ERP) inhibition level by condition (*, **denote statistically significant differences).

levels of the three conditions [F (2,40) = 11.500, p = 0.000, background music condition. The test suggests the P300 level
ηp2 = 0.365]. Bonferroni post-hoc analysis indicated that there was significantly greater in the background music conditions
was a significant difference between the no background music (slow + fast tempo; M = 0.955 μV2, SD = 0.027) compared to
condition (M = 0.730 μV2, SD = 0.044), and fast tempo the no background music condition, indicating viewers were
condition (M = 1.015 μV2, SD = 0.041, p < 0.001). Additionally, more attentive when background music was present than
a difference was observed between the no background music when background music was absent. The P300 value for each
and slow tempo condition (M = 0.895 μV2, SD = 0.039; condition is illustrated in Figure 3.
p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference
between the slow- and the fast-tempo background music
conditions (p = 0.189). Discussion
To examine whether P300 levels differ based on the
presence of background music, another repeated ANOVA was The present study examined the impact of background music
conducted on the average P300 value between the slow- and on the attentional process of a film audience. Particularly, the
fast-background music conditions and the value of no current study examined whether the presence and tempo of

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background music can lead to different levels of attention. Two as pitch range and tonality, may play a more important role in
EEG analyses (alpha-rhythm suppression and ERP) that inducing attention. Alternatively, the tempo may not have a
respectively use two different indicators of the attentional process decisive effect by itself but may only work through interaction
were used. with other elements. For instance, the tempo may influence the
The analyses suggest that the presence of background music attentional process only in particular conditions in which a fast
had a positive effect on the audience’s attentional process. The two tempo meets a high range or when the rhythm of the video and
analyses uniformly showed that greater levels of attentional the speed of the tempo harmoniously match one another. Future
processes were involved in the conditions with background music studies should consider these possibilities when further examining
(compared to the condition without any background music). This the influence of tempo.
implies that the audience can pay more attention to the visual Additionally, the tempo of background music used in our
image of the footage when background music is available. Previous study might not have been perceived as fast or slow enough for
studies examining the relationship between background music the participants. The tempo used in the slow and fast background
and attention have shown inconsistent results. That is, background music conditions were allegro and largo, respectively, which are
music enhanced attention in some cases (Allan, 2006; Lavack clearly distinguishable from one another and considered
et al., 2008) but not in others (Wakshlag et al., 1982; Chou, 2010; relatively slow and fast according to music theory. However,
Shih et al., 2012). some participants may not have sufficiently perceived the
From the perspective of limited capacity theory (Kahneman, difference in the tempo, as such judgments can vary across
1973), attention is a limited cognitive resource. Therefore, individuals. Future studies therefore may need to consider
background music during a cognitive activity (e.g., reading) can participants’ individual differences in perceiving different tempos
consume one’s cognitive resources and ultimately reduce one’s and use a more diverse set of tempos when examining the effect
attention on the task. Our findings, however, indicate that in a of tempo.
situation in which cognitively demanding tasks are not required, To examine the effect of background music, the present study
background music can increase attention level, rather than used two analyses that, respectively, use alpha-rhythm suppression
depleting the restricted attentional resources. and P300. Most of the findings from the two analyses were
We think that this finding may be related to the elevation of identical and offered more robust evidence regarding the impact
the audience’s arousal level. As noted earlier, background music of background music on the attentional process. One difference
can induce emotional responses from the audience by generating however was found among these analyses: while ERP analysis
the overall mood of a film (Holman, 2012). A prior study found revealed a statistically significant difference in the no-music and
that the state of being affectively aroused can influence cognitive slow-tempo music conditions, alpha-rhythm suppression analysis
processes, whereby attention to visual stimuli is enhanced did not. Such a difference in the findings may be due to the
(McConnell and Shore, 2011). From the perspective of affective different capabilities each analysis is known to offer. Namely, both
arousal, the mood changes that resulted from our background ERP and alpha-rhythm suppression analyses allow the measuring
music may have heightened the affective arousal levels of the of a real-time cognitive response to a stimulus, yet ERP is
participants and ultimately encouraged their attention on the considered a more sensitive tool, as the response is measured
stimuli scenes. particularly at the peak (in 1/1,000 s unit time after the stimulus is
Our findings also indicate that the tempo did not influence the presented), as opposed to the alpha-rhythm suppression approach,
level of attention. There was no statistically significant difference in which the measurement lasts for 1 s and is then averaged over
between the slow- and fast-tempo background music conditions that whole 1 s. Perhaps the difference in neuro response elicited in
either in the degrees of alpha-rhythm inhibition or P300. This null the no-background music and slow music conditions may have
finding somewhat contradicts our prediction and findings from been extremely small, and the ERP that captured responses at a
previous studies that different tempos would be associated with particular point of time was sensitive enough (more than alpha-
engendering different levels of attention. The null findings rhythm suppression) to detect the difference in these
however should be considered with caution, as our findings are two conditions.
based on a laboratory setting in which the entire viewing Despite the growing importance of sound in visual media, few
environment was artificially manipulated and all musical variables neurophysiological studies to date have examined the effect of
were controlled for. In the real world, the attentional process of an sound on the audience. This study presents empirical data from
audience is not just influenced by audio-visual stimulations of a an EEG experiment and offers theoretical foundations for the
few seconds long but by various factors that form the overall effect of background music on the audience. More research that
viewing experience, such as dramaturgy and storytelling. takes other factors into consideration is needed to provide a more
Therefore, various possibilities should carefully be considered in accurate and richer discussion on this topic. However, we hope
addressing the effect of tempo. that the findings of the present study serve as one of the initial data
As suggested by our findings, the tempo of background music to offer a theoretical base for the effect of background music and
may be an insignificant factor in the audience’s attentional process. further contribute to the production of audience-oriented
Musical factors other than the tempo of background music, such media content.

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Kwon et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933497

Data availability statement Funding

The data that support the findings of this study are available This work was supported by the National Research Foundation
from the corresponding author, SL, upon reasonable request. of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT;
No. NRF-2020R1G1A1101384).

Ethics statement
Conflict of interest
The studies involving human participants were reviewed
and approved by Young-Min Choi, Dong-A University. The The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
participants provided their written informed consent to participate absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
in this study. be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Author contributions Publisher’s note

Y-SK has conceived and designed the analysis, collected the data, All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
performed the analysis, and written the paper. JL has conducted the and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
experiment and written the paper. SL has conceived and designed or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
the analysis, written, reviewed, and edited the paper. All authors that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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