K. Artkhonghan, Ph.
538417
Underground Mining and Mine Design
Suranaree University of Technology, Mar. 2018 www.wabicorp.com
Redistribution of stress in the axial direction of a pillar
Stoping (excavation) activity in an orebody causes
stress redistribution and an increase in pillar loading,
illustrated conceptually in the figure.
Post-mining pillar Post-mining abutment
Stress distribution Stress distribution
Pre-mining
stress
Failure modes of pillar
Fig. a) In relatively massive rock spalling from the pillar surfaces
Fig. b) jointed rock rock inclined shear fractures
Fig. c) Soft layers forming interfaces between the pillar internal axial splitting
Elementary analysis of pillar support
• Simple analysis, based on elementary notions of static equilibrium Vertical stress, Pz
• These are used to establish an average state of stress in the pillars
• which can then be compared with an average strength of the rock mass
A representative segment of
the mine structure
Pillar stress,p
Wo Wp
Room and pillars mine
Wo= room span
Wp= pillar span
Cross section through a flat-lying orebody, of uniform thickness
Elementary analysis of pillar support
Tributary area pillar loading concept (Obert and Duvall, 1967)
Tributary area for pillar, 𝐴𝑡
For equilibrium force
𝜎𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑧 𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑝
𝜎𝑝 = (𝐴𝑡 /𝐴𝑝 )𝑃𝑧
𝜎𝑝 = Average Pillar Stress
𝑃𝑧 = Vertical Stress at Roof level (= z)
𝐴𝑡 = Tributary area
𝐴𝑝 = Cross Section Area of Pillar
Elementary analysis of pillar support
Tributary area pillar loading concept (Obert and Duvall, 1967)
Square pillars Rectangular Pillar
Elementary analysis of pillar support
Tributary area pillar loading concept (Obert and Duvall, 1967)
Rib Pillar Irregular Pillar
Extraction ratio
• The tributary area theory has also been referred to as the extraction ratio (r, e, R).
• The extraction ratio is the ratio of the mined volumes to the total volumes
For uniform thickness
the area extraction ratio (r) defined by (area mined)/(total area of
Variation of pillar stress concentration
orebody) defined by factor with area extraction ratio.
Pillar strength determination
Pillar Strength is a function of both a size effect and a shape effect.
Size Effect :
The average strength decreases as specimen size increases.
Shape Effect
Pillar strength increases as:
1. Pillar Width increases
2. Pillar Height decreases
3. Width/Height ratio increases
The Factor of Safety (FS) is the pillar strength divided by the pillar load
Pillar Strength Formulas (Sp)
Obert-Duvall Formula
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact
Pillar Strength Formulas (Sp)
Bieniawski Formula (square pillars) Bieniawski Formula (rectangular pillars)
Uniaxial compressive Uniaxial compressive strength of intact
strength of intact
Safety Barrier Pillar Formulas
1. For barrier pillar design
2. Rules-of-Thumb
3. Mine Inspector’s Formula
a. Ashley (1930) in PA
4. British Formula
Quiz
The unit weight of overburden rock = 20 kN/m3
Mine depth = 200 m
UCS of rock sample collected from the pillar = 45 Mpa
8m 12 m
Pillar height = 6 m
5m
Tributary area for pillar, 𝐴𝑡 Calculate
10 m 1) Average pillar stress (p)
2) FS of pillar
3) Extraction ratio
𝐴𝑝
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Support and reinforcement
Definitions introduced by Windsor and Thompson (1993)
Reinforcement is a means of conserving or Support is the application of a reactive force to the
improving the overall rock mass properties from within surface of an excavation and includes techniques and
the rock mass by techniques such as rock bolts, cable devices such as timber, fill, shotcrete, mesh and steel
bolts and ground anchor or concrete sets or liners
The rock supports itself The rock does not totally support itself
Support and reinforcement
Mechanically anchored, tensioned rockbolt Resin grouted, tension threaded bar
Click
Bolt can be tensioned immediately after installation This system is very convenient and simple to use. Very high
using an impact wrench, torque wrench or hydraulic strength anchors can be formed in rock of poor quality and, by
jack, and grouted at a later stage when short term choosing appropriate setting times, a ‘one shot’ installation
movements have ceased. This system provides very produces a fully grouted tensioned rockbolt system.
reliable anchorage in good rock and high bolt loads
can be achieved.
Support and reinforcement
Grouted cable bolt Strap
This system is inexpensive. If properly installed, it Straps are easy to install with rock bolts. They are very
provides competent and durable reinforcement. It can effective in stratified, slabby ground.
be installed to any length in narrow areas. The system Steel straps are used to give roof control in ground where
gives very high bolt loads in various rock conditions, as rockbolts or dowels alone cannot hold intermediate and
well as high corrosion resistance in permanent relatively thin slabs of rock.
installations.
Support and reinforcement
• Mesh is very economical and quickly installed.
• It is easy to attach to roof reinforcement with extra
Mesh faceplates and nuts.
• Mesh is useful for supporting small pieces of broken
rock. Weldmesh is used traditionally as reinforcement for
shotcrete, but is rapidly being replaced by steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete
Support and reinforcement
• This system is very adaptable to the tunneling environment.
New technology has made mix design easier.
• The system has rapid support potential for loosened rock
and changing stressconditions
Support and reinforcement
Steel arches, Steel ribs
• Highly effective under heavy strata loading conditions.
Continues to provide support after substantial
deformation has occurred.
• This system used in support of long term haulages and
critical intersections especially in highly stressed ground
Concrete segment liner
Support and reinforcement
Temporary support Permanent support
• is that support or reinforcement installed to The excavation was required to remain open
ensure safe working conditions during mining for an extended period of time
• Quite often, the temporary support was partly or
wholly removed to enable the permanent
support to be installed
Two mobile roof supports in use during retreat mining coal
pillar extraction ( www.cdc.gov)
Support and reinforcement
Temporary support
Powered Roof Supports
RB Prop system for use as stope
and long wall gold mine support
to improve safety and reduce
production costs
Support and reinforcement
Permanent support
Rock reinforcement in jointed rock
Empirical guidelines Bieniawski (1989), South Africa
Rock reinforcement
in jointed rock
Empirical guidelines
Grimstad & Barton (1988),
Norwegian rock tunnels:
Chart for design of steel
fiber reinforced concrete
and systematic bolting
support
Click
Rock reinforcement in jointed rock
ESR values for different excavation categories
The Excavation Support Ratio (ESR) was determined from excavation catagories
Rock reinforcement in jointed rock
Empirical guidelines
Lang (1961), Snowy Mountains Electrical Scheme in Australia:
Maximum bolt spacing: Minimum bolt length:
At least 0.5L and 1.5B • 2 x bolt spacing
• 3 x width of wedge defined
by joint spacing (B)
• 0.5B for spans <6 m, 0.25B
for spans 18-30 m.
ความยาวสูงสุดของหมุดยึดหินจะจากัดด้วยความกว้างหรือความสูงของ
อุโมงค์ แต่หมุดยึดหินไม่ควรสั้นกว่า 3-4 เท่า ของระยะห่างปรากฏของ
รอยแตกในมวลหินที่ตาแหน่งนั้น และไม่ควรสั้นกว่า 1.5 m ระยะห่าง
ของหมุดยึดหินไม่ควรเกินความยาวของหมุดยึดหินและไม่ควรน้อยกว่า 2
m ทิศทางของหมุดยึดหินมักจะกาหนดโดยโครงสร้างทางธรณีวิทยาและ
รูปทรงเรขาคณิตของอุโมงค์
Unsupported excavation
Maximum unsupported excavation span (SPAN)
Unsupported excavation
Maximum unsupported excavation span (SPAN)
𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁 = 2 𝐸𝑆𝑅 𝑄 0.4
The Excavation Support Ratio (ESR) was determined from
excavation catagories
Rock support principle
Consider a tunnel being advanced by conventional methods, where steel sets are
installed after each drill & blast cycle.
Step 1: the heading has not reached X-X and the rock mass
on the periphery of the future tunnel profile is in
equilibrium with the internal pressure (pi) acting equal and
opposite to po.
(after Daemen, 1977)
Rock support principle
Consider a tunnel being advanced by conventional methods, where steel sets are
installed after each drill & blast cycle.
Step 2: the face has advanced beyond X-X and the support
pressure (pi) provided by the rock inside the tunnel has
been reduced to zero. As the blasted rock must be removed
Face before the steel sets (support) can be installed, deformation
of the excavation boundaries starts to occur.
Initial boundary
Deformation
(after Daemen, 1977)
Rock support principle
Ground response curves (load formation curve)
Ground response curve is a graph of the support pressure required to
maintain equilibrium of the boundary at a given displacement value
Rock support principle
Step 3: the heading has been mucked out and steel sets have
been installed close to the face. At this stage the sets carry no
load, but from this point on, any deformation of the tunnel roof or
walls will result in loading of the steel sets.
Required
support line for
tunnel roof
Required support
line for tunnel load formation curve
side wall
Rock support principle
Step 4: the heading is advanced one and a half tunnel If steel sets had not been installed, the radial displacements at
diameters beyond X-X by another blast. The restraint X-X would continue increasing along the dashed lines EG and
offered by the proximity of the face is now negligible and FH. In this case, the side walls would reach equilibrium at point
further convergence of the tunnel boundaries occurs. G. However, the roof would continue deforming until it failed.
Rock support principle
With steel sets installed, • The tunnel convergence will begin to load the support
• This load path is known as the support reaction line (or available support line).
• The curve representing the behaviour of the rock mass is known as the ground
response curve (or support required curve).
load formation curve
Rock support principle
With steel sets installed,
load formation curve
• Equilibrium between the rock and steel sets is
reached where the lines intersect.
• It is important to note that most of the
redistributed stress arising from the
excavation is carried by the rock and not by
the steel sets
Support Reaction Curves
The stiffness and the time of installation of the support element have an important
influence on this displacement control
The ground
characteristic or
required support line is
given by ABCDE
Support 1 is installed at F and reaches equilibrium
with the rock mass at point B:
• This support is too stiff for the purpose
• and attracts an excessive share of the redistributed load.
• As a consequence, the support elements may fail causing
catastrophic failure of the rock surrounding the
excavation.
Support Reaction Curves
The stiffness and the time of installation of the support element have an important
influence on this displacement control
The ground
characteristic or
required support line is
given by ABCDE
Support 2 having a lower stiffness, is installed
at F and reaches equilibrium with the rock
mass at point C:
• Provided the corresponding convergence of the
excavation is acceptable operationally,
• This system provides a good solution.
• The rock mass carries a major portion of the
redistributed load,
• and the support elements are not stressed
excessively.
Support Reaction Curves
The stiffness and the time of installation of the support element have an important
influence on this displacement control
The ground
characteristic or
required support line is Support 3 having a much lower stiffness than
given by ABCDE support 2, is also installed at F but reaches
equilibrium with the rock mass at point D where
the rock mass has started to loosen:
• Although this may provide an acceptable
temporary solution,
• the situation is a dangerous one because any
extra load imposed,
• For example by a redistribution of stress
associated with the excavation of a nearby
opening,
• will have to be carried by the support elements.
• In general, support 3 is too compliant for this
particular application.
Support Reaction Curves
The stiffness and the time of installation of the support element have an important
influence on this displacement control
The ground Support 4 of the same stiffness as support 2, is not
characteristic or installed until a radial displacement of the rock
required support line is mass of OG has occurred:
given by ABCDE
• In this case, the support is installed late,
• excessive convergence of the excavation will
occur,
• and the support elements will probably become
overstressed before equilibrium is reached.
Rock support interaction
Worked Example: Case of simple linearly elastic
A circular tunnel of radius 1.85 m is excavated in rock subjected to an initial hydrostatic stress field of 20 MPa
and provided with a concrete lining of internal radius 1.70 m. Assuming elastic behavior of the rock/lining,
calculate/plot the radial pressure and the radial displacement at the rock lining interface if the lining is
installed after a radial displacement of 1 mm has occurred at the tunnel boundary.
given where
• ground radial displacement p = hydrostatic stress
𝑝𝑎 a = tunnel radius
𝑢𝑟 = − G = shear modulus (assume 2 GPa)
2𝐺
pr = radial support pressure
• radial support pressure
k = lining stiffness
𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝑜 uo = rock displacement when support
𝑝𝑟 = 𝑘
𝑎 installed
tc = concrete lining thickness
• lining stiffness
Ec = lining elastic modulus (assume 30 GPa)
𝐸𝑐 𝑎2 − (𝑎 − 𝑡𝑐 )2 c = lining Poisson ratio (assume 0.25)
𝑘=
1 + 𝑣𝑐 1 − 2𝑣𝑐 𝑎2 + 𝑎 − 𝑡𝑐 2
Rock support interaction
Design concept
Rock support interaction
Worked Example: Case of simple linearly elastic
1) find the ground response curve
To find the ground response curve we need to identify the two end points of the line: one
is the in situ condition of zero displacement at a radial stress of 20 MPa, the other is the
maximum elastic displacement induced when the radial stress is zero.
• ground radial displacement
𝑝𝑎 25
𝑢𝑟 = −
Support pressure (MPa)
2𝐺 20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15
Radial displacement (mm)
Rock support interaction
Worked Example: Case of simple linearly elastic
1) find the support reaction line
To find the support reaction line, we assume the lining behaves as a
thick-walled cylinder subject to radial loading. The equation for the
lining characteristics in this case is:
• radial support pressure • lining stiffness
𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝑜 𝐸𝑐 𝑎2 − (𝑎 − 𝑡𝑐 )2
𝑝𝑟 = 𝑘 𝑘= 25
𝑎 1 + 𝑣𝑐 1 − 2𝑣𝑐 𝑎2 + 𝑎 − 𝑡𝑐 2
Support pressure (MPa)
20
15
10
Equilibrium point
5
0
0 5 10 15
Radial displacement (mm)
Rock support interaction
Worked Example: Case of simple linearly elastic • This shows how, by delaying the installation
of the lining,
25
Support pressure (MPa)
• we can reduce the pressure it is required to
withstand
Operating point
20
ur= 5.5 mm • but at the expense of increasing the final
p = 8.2 Mpa radial displacement.
15
It should never be attempted to achieve zero
10 displacement by introducing as stiff a support
Operating point system as possible.
ur= 5.9 mm * this is never possible, and will also induce
5 p = 7.3 Mpa
unnecessarily high support pressures.
0
0 5 10 15 In general, it is better to allow the rock to
Radial displacement (mm) displace to some extent and then ensure
1 mm displacement of equilibrium is achieved before any deleterious
tunnel boundary before displacement of the rock occurs.
lining is installed
Guidelines for Excavation and Support in Rock Tunnels
Design to suspend a roof beam in laminated rock
Simple static limiting equilibrium analyses This design method is conservative in that it does
not allow for the shear or flexural strength of the
• As illustrated in the figure, rockbolts may be used to suspend a strata above the abutments.
potentially unstable roof beam in laminated rock.
• The anchorage must be located outside the potentially unstable
zone (zone D).
• It assumed that the weight of the rock in the unstable zone is
supported entirely by the force developed in the rockbolts
The force (in tension) in rockbolt:
𝑇 = 𝛾𝐷𝑠 2
where
𝑇 = working load per rock bolt,
𝛾 = unit weight of the rock,
𝐷 = height of the unstable zone,
𝑠 = rockbolt spacing in both the longitudinal and transverse
directions.
Guidelines for Excavation and Support in Rock Tunnels
Design to suspend a roof beam in laminated rock for example,
Simple static limiting equilibrium analyses 𝛾 = 25 kN/m3 T = 10 tonne = 100 kN,
D = 4 m,
s = 1.0 m.
If the separation occurs in or above the bolt anchor • If bolt capacity (strength) < 100 kN, fail, FS<1.0
zone, roof fall can occur. Tension cracks can also
develop in the entry center. • If bolt capacity (strength) > 100 kN, stable, FS>1.0
To prevent this deflection and reinforce the roof beam,
• it may be necessary to install a stiffer primary
support.
• Stiffness can be increased by using a larger
diameter bolt with full column resin grouting.
• Stiffness can also be increased by adding
additional bolts to the pattern and increasing the
density of the support by reducing the row
spacing.
Guidelines for Excavation and Support in Rock Tunnels
Design to suspend a roof beam in laminated rock Lang and Bischoff (1982)
where
T = rockbolt tension,
A = area of roof carrying one bolt (= s2 for a s × s
bolt spacing)
𝑘 = 𝜎ℎ /𝜎𝑣 R = shear radius of the reinforced rock unit, = A/P
𝜇 = tan 𝜙 where P is the shear perimeter (= 4s for a s × s
bolt spacing),
• incorporate the shear strength = a factor depending on the time of installation
developed by the rock mass on the of the rockbolts
vertical boundaries of the rock unit = 0.5 for active reinforcement
reinforced by a single rockbolt. (Tensioned rock bolts or cables)
• variable vertical stresses and = 1.0 for passive reinforcement
horizontal stresses are assumed to (untensioned grouted rock bolts)
be induced within the de-stressed L = bolt length
zone.
Guidelines for Excavation and Support in Rock Tunnels
Rock bolt length and spacing (Empirical Rules)
