SURFACE WATER TREATMENT BY SAND FILTER

AND COPPER COATED GLASS BED

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

Group Members

MOHSIN RAZA 20-C-827

SAMI MUKHTAR 20-C-832

SUBTAIN SARFRAZ MALHI 20-C-833

SHAHZAD AKRAM 20-C-852

PROJECT SUPERVISOR
Engr. Hira Khalid

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

LAHORE LEADS UNIVERSITY

Session 2020-2024

i
SURFACE WATER TREATMENT BY SAND FILTER
AND COPPER COATED GLASS BED
Submitted by

Group Members

MOHSIN RAZA 20-C-827

SAMI MUKHTAR 20-C-832
SUBTAIN SARFRAZ MALHI 20-C-833
SHAHZAD AKRAM 20-C-852

B.Sc. Civil Engineering

Approved By:

Engr. Hira Khalid Engr. Bilal Aziz

(Supervisor/ Internal Examiner) (External/ Neutral Examiner)

Chair of Civil Engineering Department

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
LAHORE LEADS UNIVERSITY

ii
 Session 2020-2024
DECLARATION
We do solemnly declare that project titled “Surface water Treatment by Sand Filter and
Copper Coated Glass Bed” is our work. No portion of this project has been taken any other
award at this either institution or elsewhere. Whereas all used material has been collected from
sources, it is acknowledged.

Mohsin Raza Sami Mukhtar

20-C-827 20-C-832
Signature Signature

Subtain Sarfraz Malhi Shahzad Akram

20-C-833 20-C-852
Signature Signature

iii
 CERTIFICATE
This project under titled “Surface water Treatment by Sand Filter and Copper Coated Glass
Bed” under the supervision of Engr. Hira Khalid is approved by all member of final year project
assessment committee I fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering.

Engr. Hira Khalid

(Supervisor/ Internal Examiner)

Engr. Bilal Aziz

(External/ Neutral Examiner)

Chair of Civil Engineering Department

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With the praise of Allah, the Almighty, the most Beneficent, and the most Merciful, who gave us
courage and interest to complete our project, and without whose help and will, it was not possible
for us to finish it. We pay our sincere gratitude to our kind parents and other family members
whose love, affection, and priceless prayers helped us complete.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Engr. Hira Khalid for her invaluable guidance
and support throughout this study on surface water treatment using sand filters and copper-coated
glass beds. Her expertise and insights have been instrumental in the successful completion of this
research. Engr. Hira Khalid dedication and commitment to advancing water treatment
technologies have greatly contributed to the depth and quality of this work. Thank you for your
unwavering encouragement and mentorship.

We are greatly thankful to the technical staff of the Environmental Lab, Engr. Ahtesham Ali, for
their advice in conducting analyses of surface water samples and compiling the results. We are
also obliged and thankful to the entire technical staff and faculty members of the Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Lahore Lead University, for their help and assistance in completing our degree
program.

v
 ABSTRACT
This study explores the effectiveness of surface water treatment using a combination of slow
sand filter and copper-coated glass bed. Sand filtration is widely used which physically removes
even colloidal particles and supports biological degradation of organic contaminants. The
introduction of copper-coated glass bed offers additional antimicrobial action, leveraging
copper's bactericidal and veridical properties. By integrating these two methods, the study aims
to provide a comprehensive solution for improving water quality and significantly reduces
contaminants, displaying its potential as a reliable and efficient method for surface water
treatment.

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background........................................................................................................................
1.2 Filtration.............................................................................................................................
1.3 Filtration process................................................................................................................
1.3.1 Preparation of the Filtration System...........................................................................................2
1.3.2 Selection of the Filter Medium....................................................................................................2
1.3.3 Assembly of the Filtration Apparatus..........................................................................................2
1.3.4 Loading the Sample.....................................................................................................................2
1.3.5 Initiating Filtration.......................................................................................................................2
1.3.6 Monitoring Filtration...................................................................................................................2
1.3.7 Completion of Filtration..............................................................................................................3
1.3.8 Cleaning and Disposal.................................................................................................................3
1.4 Method of Filtration...........................................................................................................
1.4.1 Gravity Filtration.........................................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Vacuum Filtration........................................................................................................................3
1.4.3 Pressure Filtration.......................................................................................................................3
1.4.4 Centrifugal Filtration...................................................................................................................3
1.4.5 Multilayer Filtration....................................................................................................................3
1.4.6 Membrane Filtration...................................................................................................................4
1.4.7 Sand Filtration.............................................................................................................................4
1.5 Advantages of Filtration.....................................................................................................
1.5.1 Removal of Impurities.................................................................................................................4
1.5.2 Pathogen Removal......................................................................................................................4
1.5.3 Chemical Removal.......................................................................................................................4
1.5.4 Improvement of Taste and Odor.................................................................................................4
1.5.5 Reduced Risk of Waterborne Diseases........................................................................................4
1.5.6 Convenience................................................................................................................................4
1.5.7 Environmental Impact.................................................................................................................5
1.6 Disadvantages of Filtration................................................................................................
1.6.1 Initial Cost...................................................................................................................................5
1.6.2 Maintenance Costs......................................................................................................................5
1.6.3 Energy Consumption...................................................................................................................5
1.6.4 Limited Capacity..........................................................................................................................5
1.6.5 Environmental Impact of Filter Disposal.....................................................................................5
1.6.6 Potential for Bacterial Growth....................................................................................................5
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 1.7 Problem statement..............................................................................................................
1.8 Objective............................................................................................................................
1.9 Scope..................................................................................................................................
Chapter 2........................................................................................................................................7
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................7
Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................9
METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................9
3.1 Samples Location...............................................................................................................
3.2 Construction of Filter.......................................................................................................10
3.2.1 Copper-Coated Glass Bed..........................................................................................................11
3.3 Laboratory Procedures for Testing Parameters................................................................14
3.3.1 PH:.............................................................................................................................................14
3.3.2 Turbidity:...................................................................................................................................15
3.3.3 Conductivity:.............................................................................................................................16
3.3.4 TDS:...........................................................................................................................................16
3.3.5 Alkalinity:..................................................................................................................................17
3.3.6 Hardness...................................................................................................................................18
3.3.7 Chlorination:..............................................................................................................................19
Chapter 4......................................................................................................................................20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................................20
4.1 pH.....................................................................................................................................20
4.2 Turbidity...........................................................................................................................21
4.3 Total Suspended Solids....................................................................................................22
4.4 Total Dissolved Solids......................................................................................................23
4.5 Arsenic..............................................................................................................................24
4.6 Total Coliforms................................................................................................................25
4.7 Removal Efficiency of Filter............................................................................................26
Chapter 5......................................................................................................................................27
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.........................................................................27
5.1 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................27
5.2 RECOMMENDATION....................................................................................................28
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................29

viii
 List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Methodology...................................................................................................................9
Figure 3.2 Location of BRB Canal and Lahore branch Canal.........................................................9
Figure 3.3 Sample Collection BRB Canal Lahore and Lahore Branch Canal...............................10
Figure 3.4 Slow Sand Filter Model................................................................................................11
Figure 3.5 Copper-Coated glass bed Model...................................................................................12
Figure 3.6 During Water Treatment...............................................................................................12
Figure 3.7 Before and after filtration sample.................................................................................13
Figure 3.8 PH Meter.......................................................................................................................14
Figure 3.9 Turbidity Apparatus......................................................................................................15
Figure 3.10 Conductivity Apparatus..............................................................................................16
Figure 3.11 TDS Apparatus...........................................................................................................17
Figure 3.12 Hardness Apparatus....................................................................................................18
Figure 4.1 Graphical Representation of pH...................................................................................20
Figure 4.2 Graphical Representation of Turbidity.........................................................................21
Figure 4.5 Graphical Representation of TSS.................................................................................22
Figure 4.6 Graphical Representation of TDS.................................................................................23
Figure 4.7 Graphical Representation of Arsenic............................................................................24
Figure 4.8 Graphical Representation of Total Coliforms...............................................................25
Figure 5.1 Removal Efficiency of slow sand filter........................................................................26

ix
 List of Table
Table 3.1 Design of slow sand filter..............................................................................................10
Table 4.1 Result comparison of pH................................................................................................20
Table 4.2 Result comparison of Turbidity.....................................................................................21
Table 4.3 Result comparison of TSS..............................................................................................22
Table 4.4 Result comparison of TDS.............................................................................................23
Table 4.5 Result comparison of Arsenic........................................................................................24
Table 4.6 Result comparison of Total Coliforms...........................................................................25

x
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Unfortunately, in Pakistan, 98% of the population does not drink clean and safe water, which
causes life-threatening diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio. Safe
drinking water is very important for good health. To improve human health, it is essential to filter
the water according to all protocols before it is used. In this project, a unique method will be
adopted: a sand filter and a copper-coated glass bed.

1.1 Background
Over the past decades, global water demand has been rising at a rate of around 1% annually. This
increase is driven by factors such as population growth, economic development, and changing
consumption patterns, among others. This upward trend in demand is expected to continue in the
near future. While domestic water demand is projected to grow more rapidly than agricultural
demand, agriculture will still be the largest water user overall. The majority of the increased
demand will occur in countries with developing or emerging economies.

In recent decades, it has become clear that the steadily growing demand for freshwater is posing
a threat to sustainable development. The World Economic Forum's latest annual risk report
identifies water crises as the most significant global risk in terms of potential impact.

The primary forces behind the increasing global water demand include the rising world
population, higher living standards, shifting consumption patterns, and the expansion of irrigated
agriculture.

Significant intra-annual variations in both the consumption and availability of blue water (fresh
surface water and groundwater) result in large variations in water scarcity throughout the year.
Wada et al. examined global water scarcity at a high spatial resolution on a monthly basis but did
not consider environmental water needs, leading to an underestimation of water scarcity.

The United Nations defines water stress as regions where water consumption exceeds 10% of
renewable freshwater resources. Other definitions set per-capita availability standards to define
scarcity. These indicators help inform decision-making and provide insights into progress on
water issues, but no single measure can fully capture the complexity of water scarcity.

1
 1.2 Filtration
Filtration is a process used to separate solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by passing the mixture
through a porous material or a medium with fine openings. The medium, known as a filter,
allows the fluid to pass through while retaining the solid particles. This separation is based on the
size of the particles, where the filter acts as a barrier, preventing larger particles from passing
through.

1.3 Filtration process

The filtration process involves several steps to separate solids from fluids using a filter medium.
Here are the general steps involved in a typical filtration process:

1.3.1 Preparation of the Filtration System

Ensure that the filtration apparatus, including the filter medium (filter paper, membrane, etc.) and
the filtration device (funnel, filter flask, etc.), is clean and free from contaminants.

1.3.2 Selection of the Filter Medium

Choose an appropriate filter medium based on the size of particles to be separated. Different
applications may require different types of filter media, such as filter paper, cloth, sand, or
membranes.
1.3.3 Assembly of the Filtration Apparatus

Set up the filtration apparatus by assembling the necessary components, including the filter
funnel, filter flask, and any additional accessories required for the specific filtration process.
1.3.4 Loading the Sample

Carefully pour or place the mixture containing the solids and fluid into the filter funnel. The fluid
(filtrate) will pass through the filter, while the solids will be retained on the filter medium.

1.3.5 Initiating Filtration

Apply a vacuum or use gravity to create a pressure difference across the filter medium. This
pressure difference drives the liquid through the filter, leaving the solid particles behind.
1.3.6 Monitoring Filtration

Keep an eye on the filtration process to ensure it progresses smoothly. Adjust the vacuum or
filtration rate if necessary to maintain optimal conditions.

2
1.3.7 Completion of Filtration

Once the filtration is complete, disconnect the filtration apparatus. The filtrate collected in the
filter flask is now separated from the solid particles.
1.3.8 Cleaning and Disposal

Properly clean, the filtration apparatus and dispose of the filter medium and any collected waste
materials according to appropriate procedures and regulations.

1.4 Method of Filtration

There are various filtration methods, and the choice of method depends on the nature of the
mixture to be separated and the desired outcome. Here are some common filtration methods:

1.4.1 Gravity Filtration

In gravity filtration, the mixture is allowed to pass through the filter medium under the influence
of gravity. This method is often used for separating larger particles from liquids. The setup
typically includes a filter funnel and a filter flask.

1.4.2 Vacuum Filtration

Vacuum filtration involves using a vacuum pump to create a pressure difference, speeding up the
filtration process. This method is particularly useful when a faster flow rate is required or when
dealing with smaller particles.

1.4.3 Pressure Filtration

Pressure filtration involves applying pressure to the mixture to force it through the filter medium.
This method is commonly used in industrial applications where high-pressure systems can be
employed to increase the filtration rate.
1.4.4 Centrifugal Filtration

Centrifugal filtration utilizes centrifugal force to separate particles from a liquid. The mixture is
spun rapidly in a centrifuge, and the heavier particles move outward, while the liquid is collected
in the center.
1.4.5 Multilayer Filtration

In multilayer filtration, multiple layers of different filter media are used to achieve a more
effective separation of particles. This method is often employed when dealing with complex
mixtures or when a high level of filtration efficiency is required.
3
1.4.6 Membrane Filtration

Membrane filtration uses membranes with specific pore sizes to separate particles from liquids or
gases. It is commonly employed in applications such as water purification and the filtration of
biological samples.
1.4.7 Sand Filtration

Sand filtration is a method where water is passed through a bed of sand to remove impurities. It
is commonly used in water treatment processes to remove suspended particles.

1.5 Advantages of Filtration

1.5.1 Removal of Impurities

Filtration effectively removes physical impurities, such as sediment, sand, and debris, from
water, enhancing its clarity and appearance.

1.5.2 Pathogen Removal

Filtration systems, especially those with fine membranes, can remove bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms, contributing to the prevention of waterborne diseases.

1.5.3 Chemical Removal

Some filtration methods, like activated carbon filtration, can adsorb and remove certain chemical
contaminants, including chlorine, pesticides, and organic compounds, improving taste and odor.

1.5.4 Improvement of Taste and Odor

Filtration can enhance the taste and odor of water by eliminating unpleasant flavors and smells
associated with certain impurities.

1.5.5 Reduced Risk of Waterborne Diseases

The removal of bacteria and parasites through filtration helps reduce the risk of waterborne
diseases, promoting public health.

1.5.6 Convenience

Point-of-use water filtration systems provide a convenient and readily available source of clean
drinking water, eliminating the need for bottled water.

4
1.5.7 Environmental Impact

Using water filtration at home can reduce the reliance on single-use plastic bottles, contributing
to a decrease in plastic waste and environmental pollution.

1.6 Disadvantages of Filtration

1.6.1 Initial Cost

The installation of water filtration systems, especially more advanced or specialized ones, may
have a higher initial cost. This cost can be a barrier for some individuals or communities.
1.6.2 Maintenance Costs

Filtration systems require regular maintenance, including filter replacement. The ongoing cost of
replacement filters and maintenance should be considered.
1.6.3 Energy Consumption

Some water filtration systems, particularly those using pumps or electricity, can contribute to
increased energy consumption, affecting both the environment and operating costs.
1.6.4 Limited Capacity

Point-of-use filtration systems have a limited capacity and may not be suitable for larger water
treatment needs, such as those in industrial settings or entire communities.
1.6.5 Environmental Impact of Filter Disposal

Disposal of used filters, especially those containing certain materials, may have environmental
implications. Some filters may need special disposal methods.
1.6.6 Potential for Bacterial Growth

If not properly maintained, some filtration systems, especially those with stagnant water in the
filter media, can become a breeding ground for bacteria.

1.7 Problem statement

Pakistan is currently grappling with a severe water crisis, affecting millions of people and leaving
them without adequate access to drinking water. Over the past 25 years, the water table in the
country has experienced a significant decline of about 3.75 meters. This depletion is a critical
concern as it jeopardizes the availability of groundwater, which has traditionally been a primary
source of water for many communities.
The diminishing water table raises alarm bells about the sustainability of relying on underground
sources, necessitating a paradigm shift in the country's water sourcing strategies.
One viable solution to mitigate the water crisis is to focus on harnessing and treating surface
water for consumption. Surface water, derived from streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, oceans, and
5
springs, can serve as a robust alternative to drinking water when appropriately treated. Unlike
groundwater, surface water is more directly accessible and is distributed across various
geographic regions in Pakistan.
Emphasizing the treatment of surface water could alleviate the stress on the depleting
groundwater resources and provide a sustainable solution to meet the escalating demand for clean
drinking water.
To address the water crisis effectively, there is an urgent need to shift the primary water source
from underground to surface. This transition requires a comprehensive approach that includes the
identification, treatment, and utilization of surface water sources. Streams, rivers, lakes, and other
surface water bodies hold immense potential to meet the drinking water needs of communities.
Implementing robust water treatment processes will be crucial to ensure that the surface water is
safe and meets quality standards for consumption. By strategically transitioning to surface water
as a prominent source, Pakistan can work towards securing a more reliable and sustainable water
supply for its population.

1.8 Objective
 In Lahore, the water table has been declining by 3.75 meters over the past 25 years. To
address this issue, we are treating surface water to make it drinkable and mitigate the
impact of the water table depletion.
 To develop a cost-effective and efficient surface water treatment system using filter bed
and copper-coated glass bed technology.
 To assess the feasibility and performance of this system in removing contaminants from
surface water.
 To compare the effectiveness of copper-coated glass filter bed filter with traditional
surface water treatment methods.

1.9 Scope
Using a combination of filtration and copper-coated glass beds for surface water treatment could
significantly help improve water quality in Pakistan. This approach addresses issues like
waterborne diseases and contamination in surface water sources. Filtration removes impurities,
while copper-coated glass beds help kill bacteria and viruses. With Pakistan facing water-related
health concerns, adopting this technology may lead to better public health, increased access to
clean water, and a more robust water supply infrastructure. The method is adaptable to various
settings, making it a practical solution for both rural and urban areas in the country.

6
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In drinking water treatment, filtration is crucial for removing pathogens as part of a multi-barrier
approach. Suspended solids and other particles in water can make microbes more resistant to
disinfection. Therefore, effective particle removal through granular filtration can improve
disinfection efficiency. Although sand is a common filter medium, alternative media, such as
glass, have been developed and used in recent years. These alternatives offer high filtration
performance, minimal modifications to existing systems, and slower head loss development. [1]

Traditional slow sand filters (SSFs) have four layers: a coarse gravel underdrain, a finer gravel
layer, a larger sand layer, and supernatant water. The underdrain supports the finer gravel and
sand layers, ensuring uniform downward water flow before it is treated. The finer gravel layer
prevents sand from entering the coarse gravel layer.

Various materials have been used as SSF media, with sand being the most common. The
performance of the filter depends on the effective size (D10), uniformity coefficient (Cu),
composition, and cleanliness of the medium. The effective size typically ranges from 0.15 mm to
0.4 mm. D10 is defined, as the particle size where 90% of the particles are larger by total mass
and 10% are finer. [2]

Water quality safety cannot be guaranteed without an effective construction, operation, and
management system. Slow sand filters are low-maintenance systems that do not require special
equipment. To improve the performance of SSFs in removing bacteria and solid particles,
researchers have studied the microorganisms attached to the surface of a single grain of filtering
material under a scanning electron microscope.

Improvements to conventional SSFs, such as bio-slow sand filtration, have effectively helped
remove bacteria, microbiological contaminants, heavy metals, ammonia, nitrogen, organic
material, and turbidity from harvested rainwater. Bio-slow sand filtration can remove
approximately 20-30% of particulate organic carbon and over 95% of ammonia-nitrogen. [3]

Oxide-coated sand filtration is an alternative to current costly water treatment methods. Sand
coated with iron, aluminum, and manganese oxides can remove heavy metals and other
impurities from water. Oxide-coated sand can remove both anions and cations, as well as natural
organic matter, microorganisms, sulfates, and manganese from surface or groundwater. This
7
review covers the use of oxide-coated sand in water treatment through adsorption and filtration .
[4]

Slow sand filtration is a well-established technique for drinking water treatment. However, filter
clogging requires extensive maintenance. High flow rates in slow sand filters can lead to
clogging. This clogging is often caused by extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) produced by
microbial biomass, which reduce pore space. The most severe clogging occurs in the top 5–10
cm of the filters, where bacterial abundance and activity are highest, but deeper layers can also
clog.[5]

8
 Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY

Figure 3.1 Methodology

3.1 Samples Location

Two sources are selected to collect the water sample for testing purpose. The sourness are BRB
Canal Lahore & Lahore Branch Canal.

Figure 3.2 Location of BRB Canal and Lahore branch Canal

9
 Figure 3.3 Sample Collection BRB Canal Lahore and Lahore Branch Canal

3.2 Construction of Filter

Working Principle:

Physical Filtration: Sand filters use physical filtration to remove impurities from water.

Sand Bed: Water passes through a bed of sand, which acts as a barrier to trap contaminants.

Contaminant Removal: Particles and impurities are captured within the sand bed.

Clean Water Exit: Filtered water exits the filter, while trapped contaminants remain in the sand.

Maintenance: Inspect and Clean the Filter Media, Inspect for leaks

Table 3.1 Design of slow sand filter

Layers No Material size Layer Height

0.75’’ -1.5” 3’’

1 Gravel 0.5’’ – 0.75’’ 3’’
0.25’’ – 0.5’’ 3’’

2 Lawrencepur Sand Retain sieve #16 6’’

3 Chenab Sand Retain sieve #40 6’’

4 Ravi Sand Retain Sieve #60 6’’

As suggest by J.tmothy seelaus (1984)

10
 Figure 3.4 Slow Sand Filter Model

3.2.1 Copper-Coated Glass Bed

In surface water, the metals that are commonly present and that copper can absorb include:

1. Lead (Pb) - Lead may be present in surface water due to lead pipes or other lead-
containing materials.
2. Iron (Fe) - Iron can also be naturally present in surface water, and copper can absorb a
small amount of it.
3. Zinc (Zn) - Zinc can come from industrial pollution or natural sources in surface water,
and copper can absorb zinc as well.
4. Arsenic (As) - Copper also absorb arsenic, which is a common contaminant in some
groundwater sources. These metals typically enter surface water from natural and

11
anthropogenic sources.

Figure 3.5 Copper-Coated glass bed Model

12
Figure 3.6 During Water Treatment

13
 Figure 3.7 During Water Treatment

Figure 3.8 Before and after filtration sample

14
 3.3 Laboratory Procedures for Testing Parameters
Collected samples were brought in Environmental Lab of the campus and following tests were
conducted:
1) pH
2) Turbidity
3) Conductivity
4) TDS
5) Alkalinity
6) Hardness
7) Chlorination
Procedures adopted for the all-samples test is described below:
3.3.1 PH:

All samples were measured by hydrogen electrode and following procedure was adopted:

 First, rinse the beaker with distilled water and dip the hydrogen electrode in the buffer of
known pH to check the accuracy of instrument. If the instrument gives same value of pH as
its actual value, then the working of electrode is correct. Otherwise, the electrode is
contaminated and need cleaning.
 Rinse it with distilled water as long as it gives you the same result as actual.
 Temperature of all given sample solution must be mentioned on the tubes. Put the electrode
in the given sample and calculate its pH at a given temperature on the instrument.
 To measure the pH of another unknown sample, again rinse the electrode with distilled water
properly and put the electrode in the buffer of known pH to bring it to the standard.

Figure 3.9 PH Meter

15
FIGURE: 3.2 PH meter, electric device used to measure hydrogen-ion activity (acidity or
alkalinity) in solution. Fundamentally, a pH meter consists of a voltmeter attached to a pH-
responsive electrode and a reference (unvarying) electrode.
3.3.2 Turbidity:

 Add the buffer solution in turbidity meter cell and place it in turbidity meter.
 Calibrate the instrument.
 Thoroughly shake the sample. Wait until air bubbles disappear before pouring sample into
turbidity meter. Wipe outside of tube to remove fingerprints, dust, dirt, and water droplets.
Place tube in turbidity meter.
 Read value of turbidity from the instrument directly.

Figure 3.10 Turbidity Apparatus

A turbidity probe works by sending a light beam into the water to be tested. This light will
then be scattered by any suspended particles. A light detector is placed at (usually) a 90-degree
angle to the light source, and detects the amount of light that is reflected back at it.

16
3.3.3 Conductivity:

 Calibrate it once only.

 Push the switch on.
 Adjust the parameter to be monitored (EC, SAL, or TDS).
 By pushing the mode key adjust it to the parameter of interest.
 The reading will appear on the screen.
 Record the reading.

Figure 3.11 Conductivity Apparatus

The conductivity apparatus consists of an electric lamp in series with open electrodes. The electrodes
will fit inside a 50 ml beaker containing the liquid to be tested. The electrodes are to be rinsed
thoroughly with distilled water between testing the different samples.
3.3.4 TDS:

 Weigh the China dish using the electronic balance. Let its weight be “A’’ milligrams.
 Place the filter paper on the filtration assembly and turn on the vacuum pump.
 Pour 50 ml of water sample over the filter paper using a measuring cylinder and wait for it to
pass down into the flask.
 Take the filtrate and transfer it to the already weighed China dish.
 Place the China dish containing the filtrate in an oven at a temperature of 105°C for roughly 24
hours and allow it to dry.
 After drying, allow the China dish to cool to room temperature in desiccators.
 Weigh the China dish with the residue again. Let its weight be “B” milligrams.

17
 Calculate the Total Dissolved Solids:
 Total Dissolved Solids = (B-A) x 1000 / volume of sample in ml.

Figure 3.7 TDS Apparatus

Weigh the China dish using the electronic balance. Let its weight be “A’’ milligrams. Place the filter
paper on the filtration assembly and turn on the vacuum pump. Pour 50 ml of water sample over the
filter paper using a measuring cylinder and wait for it to pass down into the flask.
3.3.5 Alkalinity:

A.Phenolphthalein alkalinity
 Take 50ml sample.

 Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein in a titration flask if pink color persists.

 Titrate over a white surface with 0.02 N H2SO4, to a colorless end.

B.Methyl orange alkalinity (total alkalinity)

 In the same flask add, 2-3ml of methyl orange indicator.

 Titrate with 0.02 N H2SO4 until the color change (the color changes to PH 4.6 to orange and
4.0 to pink).
 Take at least three concordant readings for A and B and calculate.

Phenolphthalein alkalinity =mg/l as CaCO3 = A×N×50,000/ml Sample.

Methyl orange alkalinity (total alkalinity) = mg/l as CaCO3 = A×N×50,000/ml sample.

18
Where A= Volume of the titration used in ml, N= Normality
Equivalent weight of CaCO3, = 50 the unit for alkalinity is mg/L as per as CaCO3
3.3.6 Hardness

 Take 50 ml of water sample.

 Add 1 to 2 ml buffer solution.
 Add a small quantity of Ferrochrome Black T for a wine red color.
 Titrate with standard EDTA for a blue color change.
 In the absence of a sharp end point color. Add an inhibitor (or that the indicator has deteriorated)

Figure 3.13 Hardness Apparatus

FIGURE: 3.6 Hardness Apparatus. Take 50 ml of water sample. Add 1 to 2 ml buffer solution. Add
a small quantity of Ferrochrome Black T for a wine red color. Titrate with standard EDTA for a blue
color change.

Hardness mg/L CaCA3= A× B × 1000/ml of sample

Calcium hardness is mg/L = A× B × 1000/ml of sample

Total = Calcium Hardness+ Magnesium Hardness units used to express the value of hardness are
mg/L as CaCO³.

19
3.3.7 Chlorination:

 Take 200 ml of the sample.

 Place 5ml acetic acid to reduce pH 3-4 in a flask.
 Add 1 g Kl estimated on a spatula.
 Pour required volume of sample and mix with the stirring rod.
 Titrate away from direct sunlight. Add Na2S2O3 from a burette until the yellow color of the
liberated iodine almost is discharged.
 Add 1 ml starch solution and titrate by determining blank contributed by Oxidizing or reducing
reagent impurities. The color turns into violent.
 The blank also compensates for the concentration of iodine bound to starch at the end.
 Titrate with 0.025 N Na2S2O3 to disappearance of blue color.

20
 Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 pH
pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, indicating its acidity or alkalinity on a
scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, values below 7 indicate acidity, and values above 7 indicate
alkalinity. pH affects various chemical processes and the solubility of substances in water.

Table 4.2 Result comparison of pH

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 7.70 7.40 7.09 6.5-8.5

2 BRB 7.60 7.20 7 6.5-8.5

pH
7.7

7.5

7.3

7.1

6.9

6.7

1 2 3
LBC 7.7 7.35 7.09
BRB 7.6 7.2 7

Figure 4.8 Graphical Representation of pH

The figure 4.1 shows the changes in pH for both LBC and BRB through different filtration stages.
For LBC, the initial pH of 7.7 decreases to 7.40 after interim filtration and further drops to 7.09 after
C.C. filtration. Similarly, BRB starts with a pH of 7.6, which falls to 7.20 during interim filtration
and decreases further to 7.0 following C.C. filtration. This trend indicates that both filtration

21
processes lead to a reduction in pH, with LBC experiencing a more significant drop compared to
BRB.

4.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles,
which can be suspended or dissolved. It affects the clarity of water and can indicate the presence of
pollutants or sediments. High turbidity can impair light penetration and affect aquatic life and water
treatment processes.

Table 4.3 Result comparison of Turbidity

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 125 70 3
<5
2 BRB 98 42 5

Turbidity (NTU)
130

110

90

70

50

30

10

1 2 3
BRB 98 42 3
LBC 125 70 4

Figure 4.9 Graphical Representation of Turbidity

The figure 4.2 illustrates turbidity changes during filtration. For the LBC sample, turbidity drops
from 125 NTU initially to 70 NTU after interim filtration and to 3 NTU after C.C. filtration. For the
22
BRB sample, turbidity decreases from 98 NTU to 42 NTU during interim filtration and to 4 NTU
after C.C. filtration. This reduction indicates that the filtration process effectively improves water
clarity.

4.3 Total Suspended Solids

TSS refers to particles suspended in water that can be trapped by a filter. These particles include
organic matter, sediment, and pollutants. High TSS levels can affect water quality, clarity, and the
health of aquatic ecosystems, as well as affect water treatment processes.

Table 4.3 Result comparison of TSS

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 525 325 125

<500
2 BRB 418 220 56

TSS (mg/l)

550

450

350

250

150

50

Figure 4.3 Graphical Representation of TSS

The figure 4.3 reveals TSS during filtration. For the LBC sample, initial TSS is 535 mg/L, which
decreases to 325 mg/L after interim filtration and further drops to 125 mg/L after C.C. filtration. For
the BRB sample, initial TSS is 418 mg/L, reducing to 220 mg/L during interim filtration and to 56

23
mg/L after C.C. filtration. This reduction in TSS indicates that the filtration process effectively
removes suspended solids, enhancing water quality.

4.4 Total Dissolved Solids

TDS represents the total concentration of dissolved substances, such as salts, minerals, and organic
matter, in water. It affects water taste, hardness, and quality. High TDS levels can influence the
efficiency of water treatment and the usability of water for various purposes.

Table 4.4 Result comparison of TDS

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 1629 1516 880

<1000
2 BRB 1210 970 453

TDS (mg/l)
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
1 2 3
LBC 1629 1516 880
BRB 1210 970 453

Figure 4.4 Graphical Representation of TDS

The figure 4.4 displays changes in TDS during filtration. For the LBC sample, initial TDS is 1629
mg/L, which decreases to 1516 mg/L after interim filtration and further drops to 880 mg/L after C.C.
filtration. For the BRB sample, initial TDS is 1210 mg/L, reducing to 970 mg/L during interim
24
filtration and to 453 mg/L after C.C. filtration. This reduction in TDS shows that the filtration
process effectively removes dissolved solids, improving water quality. These reduced TDS values
are well within the acceptable range, indicating that both samples now comply with the standard
TDS limits.

4.5 Arsenic
Arsenic is a toxic element that can be found in groundwater and drinking water due to natural
mineral deposits or industrial activities. Long-term exposure to arsenic can lead to serious health
issues, including cancer and skin lesions. Regular monitoring is essential to ensure water safety.

Table 4.5 Result comparison of Arsenic

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 68 55 1.98
50 Ppb
2 BRB 0 0 0

Arsenic (Ppb)
65
55
45
35
25
15
5
1 2 3
LBC 68 55 1.98
BRB 1.75 1.2 0

Figure 4.5 Arsenic

The figure 4.5 illustrates changes in arsenic levels during filtration. For the LBC sample, initial
arsenic is 68 ppb, which decreases to 55 ppb after interim filtration and further drops to 1.98 ppb
after C.C. filtration. For the BRB sample, arsenic levels are consistently at 0 ppb throughout the
25
filtration process. This significant reduction for LBC and consistent removal for BRB indicate that
the filtration process is effective in removing arsenic from the water.

4.6 Total Coliforms

Total coliforms are a group of bacteria found in the environment, including soil, water, and feces.
Their presence in water indicates potential contamination by harmful pathogens. Total coliforms are
used as an indicator of water quality and the effectiveness of water treatment processes.

Table 4.6 Result comparison of Total Coliforms

Sample Initial Interim C.C

Sr.No Standard
Name Value Filtration Filtration

1 LBC 38 29 3
0 cfu/
100ml
2 BRB 1.75 1.2 0

Total Coliform (cfu/100ml)

35

25

15

1 2 3
LBC 38 29 3
BRB 0 0 0

Figure 4.6 Graphical Representation of Total Coliforms

The figure 4.6 depicts changes in total coliforms during filtration. For the LBC sample, initial
coliforms are 38 CFU/100 mL, reducing to 29 CFU/100 mL after interim filtration and further to 3
CFU/100 mL after C.C. filtration. For the BRB sample, initial coliforms are 1.75 CFU/100 mL,

26
decreasing to 1.2 CFU/100 mL during interim filtration and reaching 0 CFU/100 mL after C.C.
filtration. This reduction indicates that the filtration process is effective in significantly lowering
coliform levels, improving water quality.

4.7 Removal Efficiency of Filter

Efficiency Chart
98% 100%
100%
92%

80% 76%

60%
46%
40%

20%

0%
Turbidity TSS TDS Arsenic Total Coliforms

Figure 4.7 Efficiency for LBC Sample

Efficiency Chart
100%
100% 96%
87%

80%

63% 65%
60%

40%

20%

0%
Turbidity TSS TDS Arsenic Total Coliforms

Figure 4.8 Efficiency for BRB Sample

27
 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
 The filter is effective at improving water clarity and reducing physical and chemical
parameters such as pH, turbidity, TSS, and TDS.
 It is ineffective in reducing harmful bacteria such as total coliforms and fecal coliforms for
the LBC sample.
 The BRB sample meets the acceptable limits for biological contaminants.
 The filter demonstrates clear benefits for physical and chemical water quality, but biological
treatment needs enhancement for the LBC sample.

28
 5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Surface water sources, such as canals often face significant contamination issues that compromise
their safety for human consumption. High levels of total coliforms and fecal coliforms in these water
sources can pose serious health risks. Effective treatment methods are essential to ensure water
quality and safety. Our project focused on the use of a slow sand filter and copper-coated glass bed
to address these challenges. This approach aims to improve water quality by reducing contaminants
and making surface water suitable for drinking.

 By changing the source of our LBC sample to one without biological contamination, we can
avoid the presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms in our sample.

 Enhance the filtration process to membrane filtration to reduce coliform contamination.

 Refine the design and operation of the slow sand filter to enhance its efficiency.

 Choose water sources that are less likely to be contaminated by human activities.

 Construct collection ponds or reservoirs to capture rainwater. Ensure the catchment area is
free from contaminants and adequately maintained to preserve water quality.

 For heavily contaminated surface water, consider a multi-barrier approach. Combine slow
sand filtration with additional treatment technologies such as chemical dosing, sedimentation,
and disinfection to ensure water quality meets safety standards.

 The BRB sample is within acceptable limits for physical, chemical, and biological
parameters, indicating its overall suitability for use after treatment.

29
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35