T.K. Mishr?..

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ECOSYSTEMS AND CLIMATE CHANGE

CONTRIBUTORS COPT

Editors
Dr. S.K. Baneriee
Senior Scientist & Head (Retd.)
Ecology and Rehabilitation Division
Tropical Forest Research Institute
Jabalpur 482021
Dr. T.K. Mishra
Principal
Vidyasagar College
Kolkata 700006

Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors

Jaipur 302 003, (R i.) India
r
l&

CoTTENTS

Preface V

Contributors i
1. Carbon Flux and Green India Mission 1

Mishra
-7.K. t2
Forest Health in Changing Climate Regime
Mishra
-7.K.
carbon sequestration Potential of Planted species on Mined Land 29

Baneriee
-5.K.
Sustainable Management of Non-timber Forest Species of Central India
for Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change 65

Prakasham and S.K. Baneriee

-U.
Impacts of Clirnate Change on Faunal Biodiversity : Effects and Adaptation ll4
Mukhopadhyay and Priya Baneriee
-Aniruddha
Application of Geoinformatics in Evaluating the Effect of Climate Change
on Coastal Ecosystem 139

Chaudhuri and Madhuima Bakshi

-htnarbasu
7. chhotanagpur Plateau - A Sunset Zone. Impact of Globalization and
Changing Chmate on Wild Life Habitat 156

Chaudhuri
-Kisor
Biodiversity Conservation and Enhancement of Productivity Through
Participatory Approach for Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change 177
*5.K. Baneriee and U. Prakasham
lndex 207
 CorurnrBUToRS

Bakshi, Madhurima
Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, 51/2 Hazra Road,
Kolkata 700 019
Banerjee, Priya
Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, 5l/2 Hazra Road,
Kolkata 700 019
Baneriee, S.K.
D-19 Raiul Paradise, Bilhari, Jabalpur, 482020, M.P.
Chaudhuri, Kisor
Doctor's Complex, Doodhadri fuhram, Rani Galli Bhupatwala, Haridwar 249 410,
Uttarakhand
Chaudhuri, Punarbasu
Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Sl/2 Hazra Road,
Kolkata 700 019
Mishra, T.K.
Principal, Vidyasagar College, 39 Sankar Ghosh Lane, Kolkata 700 006
Mukhopadhyay, Aniruddha
Depafiment of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, 51/2 Hazra Road,
Kolkata 700 019
Prakasham, U.
Tropical Forest Research Institute, PO. RFRC, Mandla Road, Jabalpur 482 021, M.P
 Apprrcluoru oF GroruroRMATrcs
rN
Evarueruvc THE Errrcr oF Cruuern
Crrarucn oN Coesrar EcosysrEM
PuruaRnasu Cneuonuru
AND Manuuruul Barsur

INTRODUCTION
water of the seas meets the
land in coastal areas which
They are endowed wirh are very unique in nature.
reefs, lagoons, sea grass,
a*.rrra" rlri:_of u"oryii".,
florat and faunar
sart;;, ;;".y :ourur rike mangroves, coral
etc. These ,on", are highry
uiioiversity,,tlJ *"'Li,g a"grd"d;; rich with both
preventable activities ararming rate by various
including tr,"i
offshore and nearshore interfere.o". r"otogicar features
"ir,u-an
environments * pror. in the
d-egree of damage farther to damage thereby can reduce
inr"na. ih;'"o]ruinu, of the the
torm of coasrar foresr whict, worri ar
Forests' marine scrub -"y rr"rra.. g"rr-tp;;:rr:ffi:rff:ry,J".fi;
foreso, #*ririJ.al forests, 'rirrrir"'forests_,
groundwater forests peopie ,;; ;-;r-ber swamp forests,
medicinar purpose, -etc.*f.;Irirai"g'.*i;fu;; of resour"l rro* coastar
forests for
*,
protection against most
coastar nazara-s"Jecause
*I l["rney are rhe rirst rine or
they create riction, thereby
*:ti.:."j #::H#nds
and *"'*' n#.u,ritation ;;;;;;;"menr
or coasrar rorests
mitigating

*hil;;;il;#*::?":t"il'*i3,fji1p,oj*"t.,.|""'ilrzonemanagemenrin
::"'*:";fl:fff ::*,:,"::,?3l:*rn#"ffi ;ff;?':l,i;::.Tffi ffi:#
not be aaar.sseJ ln isorarion
",
n"*'?T,Tj,[ilT,rHlli;*::H::.d:l:
:ffi'J[1#inH:Hfn*',:*:j^1i"*,*.,unr.connicrsarisewhendifferent
:hotderstavcraimsonrand*ar"r"*o;;ffi
ffi ,,'"?i",ff f,ffi I]rLtl::fl
::l%'il:,: H[,T;]il::i n?.r
dirrerentinteresrs.rhereis*oo**-,iffi
"::*:':-r. in prace to barance tradeoffs
i,Lffi1,ir1,"",[T]ff .fif""r"J;
 PuxensAsu Cp'ruouuRt mlo
Mlnsunuua BlxsHl
140

andrestorationprocessestopromotemulti-disciplinaryandinter-sectoralapproachesto and coordinated

uoi, wirire-olit" .i"t" collaboration
coastal zone manag"*.rr,. Ho**"r, to work with Govemments (local'
stakeholders from
efforts between ""**";i,yilu"t, NGOs and the private sector (FAo'
provincial,national), ffi;il;Jt""n,i"iugl;il'
2005).
to be monitored periodically for better
The coastal ecosystems are needed pr"Ja" valuable information useful in
ptans. iirJ r","*i," based ;;.;
management Forest ecosystems have
monitoring and management of coasial ecosystems' over'
assessment, pressures such as land use change'
long been subiected to';;fid*-induced species' Climate
'"i by Ji-'-"-;";;iinuoJu"tion'of exotic
hawesting, overgrazing or endanger these
change constitutes iaaition"t pr.rrui" tnai couta change Easterling et al'
ecosystems. Fourth Ar;;;;;i
n"port.ffili-tfitchlin et a' 2602on forest ecosystems'
'y:'tTk' and

200D have nignrigntJi-tire-poi"nu"r

i.p""tt "iclimate change biodiversity and Net
imRaSt f#;";;tftems,
tnctuling
Climate change is proiectedlo may decrease the resilience capacitv
primary productivity6l#r. Ab*piai-"iJln*gJ re.tum' over time' to its pre'
witnstand or ausoin extemJplt'zuiut"t"a
of a forest to to maintain its 'identity' in
state. The abirity of a resilieniflrest ecosystem often
disturbance
,t u"t rr., .""Lgrca functions, and process rates'
terms of taxonomic composition, on rates of
d;; c[mate changes. climate has a maior influence
can be disturbed et al'
(wooawJ rggs, Kueppers et al' 2004' Law
photosyntheri, *aiIrpiru,i"., "ii. and moisture
tttit'g th'oug! lemgerat*re' radiation'
2007), and on ou'"' fol*Ilp'o""""'.' and weather conditions also
ov.r medium-*a to.rg tim. pErioa..tU*uit
regimes as frequency of storms and
directty influence shorrer-rerm oro..rrJJt,i;;;d;h *d Holling 2oo2)' As the global
wildfires, herbivory and species *u'.3tii'f'c'ti1';;i:" phvsiological tolerances
climate changes, r"i*i".,iw**,
*itt change because species'
be altered (olesen
may be exceeded ilil;;;* of biophysiial f9r-:st-Proc.err.,'-i[ influence regional
Mahi 1 al. 2008)' Forests can also
et al. 2002, r",o-ili-"i'a. ioog, true of the Amazon forest
extent *i-rnirlt particularty
climates, depending on their .*te usefully conceived as complex'
self
(Bens et a,.2008, tfittiior'", n ft;i n *r,r
to intemal
pio"esses that respond autonomously
organizing ,yr,.*r'*i,f,*rrrupr".r*ra
and extemal drivers'
Anotherburningproblemintoday,sscenarioislleinsealevelduetoglobal
our coastal resources to an extent
that
already .nl"u"g
warming. Rising ,""-i.*r is Panel on Climate
i.,a iorr"rl The Intergovemmental
society must deal J,i Ur" impacts gtoua eustatic sea level bv the vear
Change (2007) h*;;;;Ji ?g-"iltJi" "u*ug"
2l00withinaprobablerangeof15-gS.cmgivensomeuncertainties.otherconservative will likely
by the nJr"".rE"al protecffienry inaicatethat global warming or coastar
estimates settings
sea tevet uyaii;; 42"- uv zroo. rvrLgiove forests in-basin static water
raise or coriptete forest dieback when
impoundmeno ".i'"ii"i;; Fii
*.* *ru, excessive runoff or rainfall
levelsareraisedabruptlyandsufficie,,uyuuou".,,ormallevelsthatcompromiselenticel
These
uptake.
function and oxygen "d'J;r";;
drainage ir ui*x"a or inadequate
to reduce water volume
events in catcnml-nts rlhere soil salinity enough to kill
i.rt rrio., *iii eventually raise
over a period of days. saltwater
 or GeorruroRMATICS tru EVeIUmNG THE EFFSCT
or cln',lArs"' l4l
AppuclTrotr

all other tree species with or without increasing the

hydroperiod' Under some modeling
over the next century under climate change
assumptions, mangrove habitat will increase
opected to decrease (Ning and Abdollahi
and conversely, freshwater marsh or swamp is
1999). Such forest dieback represents * u.rt" or
chronic disturbance that compromises
tree mortality' certain species may
forest health and vigor sufficiently to cause massive
be more or less sensitive in that they die sooner
or later depending on the environmental
cause and conditions.
sensing (RS) techniques are one
Geographic Information system (GIS) and Remote
have- been extensively used for
of the best options for continuous monitoring, which
form,1 of geographically referenced
capturing, managing,-analyzing, and aispravini all
forests. It allows us to view, understand'
information includinj *oiJtJgions andcoastil
reveal relationships' pattems'
question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that
and chare. Remote sensing has enabled
and trends in tfre form of maps, globes, reports'
resources like agriculture,
,dil;;r;*&uns, monitoriirg "na -*"gement of various
forestry, geology, *#i-ot""n-"tc. If has r,ittn"t
enabled monitoring of envlronment and
thereby helping in conservation. wth the availability
of very high spatial resolution
multiplied' In India remote sensing has
satellites in the recentr;;, the applications have
been used ror various .ppii"uti"nt during the last
four decades and has contributed
satellites like Indian Remote sensing
significantlytowards a.u"topm.nt. Indiahis its own
provide required data for carrying
satellite (lRS) series - Resourcesat, cartosat etc which
proiects carle! out in the country include
out various projects. some of the important
Mission, Forecasting Agricultural
Groundwater Prospects Mapping uta.. Drinkinj Water
observations (FASAL)' Forest
output using Space, Agromlteorology ana I-ana based
Characterization, Snow & Glacier
Cover/Iype Mapping, Giassland fUapping, Biodiversity
Studies, Coral and Mangroves Studies'
Studies, Land Use/'6over mapping,- Coastat
Land use- Land cover (LULC) represents the detailed
wasteland Mapping etc. The
administrative layers i'e' state'
database in statistical and analytical form in different
include both aerial photographs and
district, taluk etc Application related to coastal study
different areas like wetlands'
satellite data which have been used to assess and monitor
procedure is visual interpretation of aerial
coral reefs , mangrove forest area etc. The main
photographs and satellite imageries at different scales
which can be applied in the
and data collection activities are
classilication of forest cover typ;s. Ground truth surveys
inventory. The results obtained
conducted to verify the interiretation including forest
can be transferred onto a base
from satellite data and aeria pnotographs interpretation
the planets most threatened ecosystems
map at different scales. coastal zones are among
spatial tools at appropriate spatial
and effective management of these systems requires
tool of data collection for assessment'
scales. In conclusioi thi, .ppu"., to be a significant cost'
monitoring, ptannint ,n*ug"ment of coastal resources of vast areas at very low
"rra to map ecosystems and to detect' monitor
Remotely sensed images can be used as a tool
within them thereby supporting the development of resource
and evaluat"
"nu"g."t and data analysis techniques are
management strate"gies Advances in sensor design
attractive for use in research and
making remote sensing systems practical and
wetlands, estuaries, and coral reefs'
management of coastal ecosystems, such as
for mapping coastal land cover'
Multispectrat and hyperspectral imagers are available
142 PuNlRsAsu CrnuouuRt axo MaouuRtlu.q BmsHt

substances in
concentrations of organic/inorganic suspended particles, and dissolved
coastal waters (Kleinas, 20li). Thermal infrared scanners can map sea surface
radiometers can
temperatures accurately and chart coastal currents, while microwave
soil moisture, and other hydrologic parameters. Radar images,
-"urrr. ocean salinity, on ocean waves, ocean winds' sea
scatterometers, and aitimeters provide information
coastal ecosystems' Using
surface height, and coastal cunents, which strongly influence
maps' even
airbome light detecting and ranging systems, one cErn produce bathymetric
high spatial complexity
in moderaiely turbid coktd waters. Since coastal ecosystems have
and temporal variability, they frequently have to be observed from both satellite and
resolutions' A
aircraft in order to obiain the required spatial, spectral, and temporal
buoys, and field instruments with a
reliable field data collection approach using ships,
valid sampling scheme is requirlhtocalibrate andvalidate the remotelysensedinformation'
and watersheds'
The different application areas are like mapping coastal wetlands
and bathymetry
monitoring wetland changes and landcover trends, shoreline topography
of ocean chlorophyll and
submerged aquatic uug";ti"" and coral reefs, remote sensing
productivity, tuservirig eutrophication and hazardous algal blooms, sea
surface
of physical offshore
iemperature & salinity, JU spitt detection and tracking' remote sensing
technologies including RS and GIS is capable of
proc"rs"*etc. The ,.,r" oig"otpatial
area at a landscape level' \[/ith the multi'
analyzing and predicting thJvasi coastal zones
of-tne remote sensing data the vulnerability assessment can be
temiora
""piUitity
canied out throughout a year with minimum field activities.
Based on remote sensing a variety of data pertaining to the
coastal zone like'
delineation of
identification of plant community, biomass estimation, shoreline changes'
coastal landforms and tidal boundary, qualitative estimation of
suspended sediment
bathymetry of shallow waters, etc' can be collected
concentration, chlorophyll mapping,
and all these datawiff nefp in etfuctive coastal ecosystem management'(Ramachandran'
nd.)
The spatial information collected from the remote sensing data can
be kept in a
for planning and
proper computer database format and integrated with GIS future
prediction purposes. The main applications of remote sensing include both aerial
coastal
pnotograptri and satellite data which have been used to assess and monitor the
and monitoring
forest area. The aerial photographs are visually interpreted for assessment
as l:15,000 or l:50,000 and satellite imageries at
of coastal forest at difierenticales such
1:250,000 or l:50,000 scales. Satellite imageries at the scale of 1:250'000 are visually
imageries at the scale of 1:50,000
interpreted for forest and non-forest area, while satellite
(charuppat and
is visually interpreted for mangrove lorest land use categories'
are applied
o.,gro-*"r,g, tggs). Aerial photographs at the scale of 1:50,000 or 1:15,000
in the classification of forest cover types. Ground truth surveys and data collection
inventory'The results
activities are conducted to verify the interpretation including forest
are transferred onto a
obtained from satellite data and aerial photographs interpretation
can be evaluated using
base map at different scales. The surface area of each stratum
planimeter' The ba1-e maR is then transformed
the dot grid method or with the use of a
Additionally, remote sensing
into a final map by cartographic reproduction techniques.
Appt tcerton or GronnoRMATIcs w Evll,umNc THE Errscr op Cluta'lrn"' 143

assessing and-relieving natural

techniques have proven useful in monitoring, contolling,
(lmhoff et al' 1986, Luscombe and
disasters in different coastal zones and coastal forests.
Hassan 1993, Iglseder et al. 1995, Fope et al. 1997),
for inst'ance during floods in
(Leanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOM)
Bangladesh, monitorei using National
(AVHRR) data (lslam and sado 2000) and
Advanced very High-Resolution Radiometer
Cnirru (Zhang Lt a.ZOOZ). Combined with data
on, for example, elevation height' remote
way of surveying and evaluating the risks
sensing has proven un uc"urut and eflicient
as well.
;i-;;d; disasters (tstam and sado 2000, Zhang et al. 2002)
wise case studies
changes in coastal forests and climate issues: country
INDIA
Indiawithmorethang000kmofcoastlineiscomprisedofwideforestzonehighly
forestry plays a very significant role'
rich in biological div;6ity among which mangrove
(1987), there was a loss of 40 per cent of
According to Govemment of India report
(Kumar, 2000)' The National Remote sensing
mangrove forests during the last century
of mangrove between 1972'1975 and 1980'
Agency (NR5A) ,""orJui a Jecnne or 59i 8 na
1982 (Anonymous, 1983). Growing awareness
about ihe protective productive and social
to conserve and manage them
role of mangrove ."oryra*t nal nignngnted the need
sustainably (FAO, lg-g;i. The detaitea information
on the extent and distribution of
The ecological importance of
mangroves is vital for the management and conservation'
cyclones, strong wave action' floods'
mangrove comes from protecting the coast from
effects and coastal erosion' The network
see level rise, solar Uv-Iirargiatioi, gr".n house of the
system of mangrove ,oot t th-e sediments, thus contributes to the stability
"p, habitat provides the breeding and
shore and acts like a nutrient and metal sinks. The
(crustaceans, molluscs, lin fishes' etc') and
nursery grounds ro, In*v of the marine
organic matter' it forms
i;;;";fii animats (birds, Lees, and other wildlife). Being rich in
the energy transfer in the near shore
an important ,o*"" oirooa and plays vital role in
and estuarine water.
Remote sensing techniques were used to study
the effect of mangroves and other
against the 2004lndian ocean Tsunami
woody coastal vegeta:tion as a protective measure
of the pre- and post-Tsunami images of large
igki; et al. 200d. fnu "o-p*utive analysis showed the ability of mangrove-forests
areas in the Pichawaram *"ngroru, Tamilnadu,
affected by the Tsunami' Remote
to protect coastal communitiei in a number of areas
sensing has been extensively used as a lool
to study and map mangroves (Baltzera et al'
Flores-Verdugo
2004, Bird a. ZOOi,iio*ui'a et al. 2004, Kovacs et al' 2004, Kovacs and
l^andsat satellite images obtained from
2005). In this rt"dy;;d il;ng 200G200a, ETM
"t
assist in the site selection process' The
Global Land Cover Facifity (GLIF) were used to
showed that
analysis of pre- *i p"ri-rr;# QuickBird and lkonos satellite images
woodyvegetationalongthecoastprovidedsomedegreeofprotectiontotheareas
of the damaged areas showed clearly that
behind. visual i.,t"rprliu:ti"" and identification protect the
the Pichavaram -*g-* forest in the northem part of the study area did
with the impact angle of the Tsunami
hamlets behind it an"anaysis of transects aligned presence of
of transects' the
quantified trrese results and showed that for a number methods
Remote sensing images and
woody vegetation did protect the area behind.
144 PuNaRgAsu CneunuuRt aruo MapHuRItrla Blrssl

proved to be a useful and efficient technique for assessing the differences in impacts of
the Tsunami.
An increase in the mangrove vegetation in the important estuaries in Goa has been
found during 1994 and 2001 using remote sensing and GIS data (Singh et al. 2004). This
study was taken up to assess the extent and distribution of Goa mangroves at two points
of time i.e.,1994 and 2001. During this period, the mangrove forest increased by 44.90 per
cent as a result of increased protection and consequent regeneration. Plantation of
mangrove species has been raised in 876 ha (1985 to 1997) by the State Forest Department.
Data sets were co-registered using WGS-84 datum and UTM projection. The digital IRS'
lB LISS-il (1994) and IRS-ID LISS-lll (2001) data were on-screen visually itrterpreted using
ERDAS IMAGINE software, Ancillary data like Survey of India toposheets and forest
management maps were also used as reference data'
Inspite of the various causes of depletion of mangrove forest cover, it has been
found oui that there is an overall increase in mangroves from 9.02 km2 (1994) to 14.61
km2 (2001). fur estimate of spatial extent of various land use/land cover classes have been
worked out. In case of agriculture land use, there is change, uiz. forest (23 km2),
mangrove (4 km2), mudflats (4 km2) and river/ waterbody (0. 13 km). Also, forest-land use
has changed to agriculture (29 km2). Mangrove bearing areas have also changed to
agriculture (0.68 km2). Mudflats have changed to agriculture (1.34 km2) and mangroves
1d.SZ has changed to agriculture (0.08 km2), mangroves (1.18 km2)
tm'). River/waterbody
and mudflats (2.26km2). The net gain in mangroves could be attributed to new plantations
by the State Forest Department; agriculture to mangroves; mudflat to mangroves and
river/ waterbody to mangroves. Positive change in mangroves in all the estuaries indicates
effective protection and development by Goa State Forest Department. It is expected that
the results of this study will provide much needed input for different development
schemes. It may also be significantly useful in preparing the eco-friendly tourism
development schemes in Goa. Principles of sustainable development, concept of joint
forest management and plantation of rare and endangered species of mangroves can be
helpful in conservation of such mangrove ecosystems.
In Tamil Nadu coastal zone, well-developed mangroves occur mainly in two places,
one in Pichavaram and the other in Muthupet in the Cauvery delta. The mapping of
weflands in the Cauvery delta using remote sensing data,showed that about 4070 of the
mangrove area has been degraded i.e. 32 sq. km. In 1976 has been reduced to 19 sq. km.
in 1989 (lRS, 1991). But the estimates using 1994 data showed that the area of mangroves
is only 260 ha. and nearly 63%o has become barren between 1897 and 1994 (Krishnamoorthy
and Ramachandran, 2000).
The biological richness in Sunderban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) which is a world
heritage site, was assessed using a three-pronged approach i.e. satellite image (lRS lD
LISS-il1). The satellite imagery was georeferenced using Landsat ETM+ ortho-rectified
images of 2001 with UTM projection and WGS 84 datum. The uniqueness of the
vegetation types was determined based on field data, species composition, extent of the
area, contiguity, importance in landscape and critical habitat value of the type and the
weights were assigned accordingly. The study showed that four mangrove categories, viz.,
Arprrcluon or GeoNroRMATIcs tN EvlluenNc rHE Errrcr or CuMlrg... 145

Auicennia, Phoenix, mixed mangroves and mangrove scrub, cover 23.2V0 of the total
geographical area of SBR. The largest area is occupied by mixed mangroves ( I 8.3 Yo) . The
1

oveiall accuracy of the vegetatiory'land use map worked out to be 91.67 7o (Nandy and
Kushwaha 2010)
A study was taken place on the geomorphic processes that control river migration
in the Thengapatnam coastal tract bordering the Arabian Sea in the Kanyakumari District,
Tamil Nadu, southern India. (Bhaskar and Kumar 201l). Satellite image data were used
to identiff the geomorphic units. An attempt was made to interpret geological evidence
indicative of migration of the Kuzhithura river channel. In addition, study was made of
the geological evidence from the field indicative of entrenching of the channel, possibly
as a result of relative uplift of the land or lowering of themean sea level. Satellite images
and information gathered from the field reveal that the river has migrated 1.5 km towards
the south-east. Satellite images and Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) provide more
information about the landforms that were missed out during the field survey. The
geomorphic features of the study area are a result of the interaction between mountainous
upland, coastal plains and coastal processes. The satellite image has clearly brought out
various geomorphic units and their disposition. Various geomorphic features like Flood
plain, Cr:astal lagoon, Sand dunes, Fluvial terraces, Beach, Meander scars and palaeo
channels were also elucidated.
THAILAND
Remote Sensing was extensively used to assess tsunami-induced impacts on
coastal forest ecosystems at the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand (Roemer 2010). Two
change detection algorithms, chairge vector analysis (CVA) and direct multi-date
classification (DMC), are applied and compared regarding their applicability to assess
tsunami impacts .Since damage patterns vary in space and are determined by different
influencing factors, such as distance to shoreline and rivers, elevation or coast inclination,
detailed spatial damage information was derived for the whole coastal area. Results from
DMC show that mangroves were the worst damaged arnong the five forests, with a 55Yo
of directly damaged forest in the study area, followed by casuarina forest and coconut
plantation.
Another comprehensive study was undertaken using geo-spatial techniques (change
detection) in the Coastal fueas of Samut Prakarn Province, focussing on Bang R: Nature
Reserve (Siddiqui 2011), to investigate the environmental changes that have occurred due
to pollution from shrimp farms, urban pollution and local industries. The magnitude of
environmental impacts can be predicted through conventional Environmental Impact
Assessments (EtAs) such as site visits, field surveys, mathematical modelling and sampling.
However, these conventional methods reveal the pollutant concentration data only at a
particular location and at a particular time. Such data fails to provide any information
about the spatial extent of pollution and its dispersion pattem. The detection of water
pollution sources is further exaggerated, if non-point sources are a significant contributor
and time required for its accumulation, which leads to a spread of the pollutant over
larger areas of water body (Clark 1993). The geospatial EIA process in pMicular satellite
remote sensing data, is a better tool to serve these purposes. The process essentially
146 PuNensAsu Cnauonuru aNn MADHuRItr,n Blxsul

involves sampling and analysis followed by fitting mathematical models for the spectral
reflectance data obtained from satellite imagery (Siddiqui 2005, Fatil etal.2W2, Mahmoudi
et a1.2010). Once the mathematical models are ready, these can be applied to detect the
extent of pollution across much larger areas of coastal zones, coastal forests; and can
be used number of times for other satellite images of same study area. The advantage
of remote sensing technique is that it provides an augmented view of spatial and
temporal variability of water quality and land cover status, which cannot be obtained by
conventional measuring techniques. It was established through the analyzed numerous
parameters (dissolved and suspended solids, nutrients, microalgae etc) comprising both
organic and inorganic pollutants and there comparison with the National Environmental
Board, 1994 and other guidelines that the area should be classified as mesotrophic in dry
season and oligotrophic in rainy season. Nevertheless results still showed the coastal
ecosystem appears to be in a healthy state. \lAter pollution enhanced maps showed
signihcant increases in levels of total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, ammonium
niirogen and pOr-P in 2004 compared to 1994. These empirical relationships can be
utilized to trace extent of surface pollution in future using new satellite data.
VIETNAM
The successes of remote sensing GIS tools in land use management in recentyears,
especially in study field of mangrove forest, entrusted a study to analyze mangrove forest
aiitriUution by analyzing approaches of remotely sensing and GIS in Ngoc Hien district-
Ca Mau province, Vietnam. (Thu 2006)
Based on the topographical map 1965 (Scale map: l:50.000, UTM: Indian 1960,
Zone 48 in Southern), and the results of remote sensing analysis of SPOT (Satellite Pourl'
Observation de la Tene) images in western Ngoc Hien in 1995 and 2001 , mangrove status
and changes of Ngoc Hien District were identified. In the period of 1965-1995, miu:Igroves
decreased gradually, while in the period of 1995 - 2001, they had a significant reduction.
The study iignificantly showed that after 36 years, the total area of mangrove forests
decreased by more than 50 9o. During this period, mangrove area has been reduced
approximately 52,043 ha or 57.60 Yo when they were compared with mangrove forest in
1b65 Moreover, many areas of mangroves were not forests; they were only mangrove
trees.
The rate of annual decrease in Ca Mau was 2.36Y0. These annual rates in westem
pafi part were 2.30Vo and2.39Vo, respectively, in the 1965 - 2001 period. In
-two and eastern
periods, mangrove areas were decreased butin last period theywere Iost fasterthan
in pievious one. ihe annual decrease rate of 1965 - 1995 and 1995 - 2001 periods are
1.4'3Yo and 6.55 Yo, respectively. The factors which degraded mangrove forest in a very
fast
rate during the period of 1995-2001, include climate change as a major issue (Minh et al.
19gg). Rdltionally, shrimp culture activities, transformation, industry, urbanization,
degradation of environment and sedimentation also impacted mangrove changes. The
reJuction of mangrove forest in Ca Mau was predicted due to its conversion to shrimp
farms (Phuong and Hai 1998) Further, changes of mangrove forest were come from not
only deforestation but also from replanting in some areas. From above analysis, although
some areas of mangrove were replanted, mangrove forest in study areas have been
decreasing quite fast both in quantity and quality'
 AppLrc^a,rror'r oF GsolNFoRMATrcs lru EvelueuNc THE Err.Ecr oE cuMars... l4T
BRAZIL
A study took place in the coastal mangrove ecosystem at Braganc 'a State of para,
in North BraZil in inner humid tropics, at south of the mouth of the Amazon River (belongs
to the second largest contiguous mangrove ecosystem of the world), represlnts the
integration of remote sensing data, aerial photographs, as well as point dataprovided
by
?eldwork for an assessment of temporal-spatial changes of the mangrove peninsula,
the
type of mangrove structure, and the adjacent rural socioeconomic impaci area, as
well
as a land-use cover pattern (Krause et. al. 2004). Various innovative proclssing
techniques
and different scale-resolution levels were used which includes combination of regular
spectral measurements, imaging, and other information sources, to produce u u.rifor-
view over time, particularly for the interpretation of landscape structure and evolution
studies. By the combination of satellite imagery aerial photography and ?eld data three
types of application were presented which are land- use classi?cation, forest plotting
and
the assessment of the spatial distribution and pattems of tree species and structure of
the mangrove area.
The recognition of spatial detail was also significant for the detection of temporal
changes (e.g., of coastal erosion, mangrove tree succession), as this information highllights
components of the internal dynamics of this ecosystem. They show that the muigror",
of this region do not expose a strong pattem, but are arranged in discrete mosaic-like
"weak" patterns. It could be shown here that in mangrove ecosystems, the determinants
of mangrove distribution are varied and complex and act over a range of spatial and
temporal scales. Thus, in order to identiff and monitor the distribution oJmangioves and
changes over time, this approach proved to be very acceptable.
The Intemational Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, through its Brazil Chapter
(ISME-BR) togetherwith the Institute of Marine Sciences of the
Fedeial Universityof Ceard
(LABOMAR/UFC) and with support from the National Research
Council of Brazil, through
its Institute of the Millennium Program and the Brazilian fusociation of Shrimp producers
(ABCC), triggered an effort to map the overall impact of regional
environmental changes
on mangrove extension along the NE Brazilian coast (Maia 2006) Mangrove area from
5l
estuaries was mapped from the Parnaiba River, Piaui State (Lat. 03" l5;S; Long.41"45,W)
to the Una River Estuaryin Pernambuco State (Lat. 08"45'S; Long. 35" 15,iV)
using satellite
sources like LANDSAT 7 ETM+, Quikbird and IKONOS andArcGlsioftware.The
coriparative
analysis for the period 1978-2003, was done on the basis of the 1978 MDAR images.
The study showed, mangrove area expanded steadily from 1978 to 2003 with an
overall expansion rate of 370/0. Largest expansion occurred in Pernambuco state (+6ZVo)
and the smallest in Rio Grande do Norte (+19.970). The fastest mangrove expansion
occurred between 1978 and 1990. From the early 1900's to 2003 rrrung.orr expansion
reached about * 177o. During this period mangrove extension occurred mostly as a result
of saline intrusion and changes in sediment deposition along river margins, as can easily
be seen by the different generations of mangrove growth along many estuaries along
the
mapped area.
The aquaculture boom in 2001, riverdamming and waterwithdrawing, accelerated
development of tourism were greatly responsible for the changes-in estuary,s
148 PunlnsAsu CHlupsuRr lr.tp Mlosunrul Blxssl

morphodynamics and the reduction in the mangrove expansion rate where at least 600
to 800 ha of mangrove forests were converted to shrimp ponds between 2001 and 2004.
Direct anthropogenic interference, impacts of global climate changes have also resulted
in mangrove area decrease. Dry condition was increasing the dune displacement
particularly during the El Nirio events (Maia 2005), which in tum covered the mangroves.
USA RIVER BASIN
GlS-based data sets can be used to analyze the structure of the forest line at the
landscape level like in the lowlands of the USA River Basin, in northeast European Russia.
(Virtane et al 2004). During the past couple of decades it has been recognized that
organisms and ecological processes respond to spatial heterogeneity of the environment
at different scales (Levin 1992, Fortin et al. 2000, Wu and Qi 2000, Fagan et al. 2003),
therefore, analyzing and modeling the structure and function of spatially diverse
phenomena often requires multiscale and multivariate approaches (Wu and Qi 2000). A
regional climate model was developed for the study region by the Danish Meteorological
Institute. The climate data was generated by the degree-day sums, i.e. th.e sum of the daily
mean temperatures over the threshold temperature, has been used to explain forest line
and biome locations (Tchebakova et al. 1994, Tuhkanen 1999). Downscaling was made
by calculating multiple regression models for climatic variables explained by latitude,
longitude, and altitude. Parameters like soil and permafrost data, digital elevation model
and topographic wetness index, vegetation data, landscape structure, topographic and
climatic gradients behind the forestline location; statistical modeling can also be deduced
as a tool for understanding the nature of the forest line.
Another significant field of application of remote sensing and GIS is climate
modelling to estimate daily forest evapotranspiration (Crist'obal et al., 20ll).
Evapotranspiration monitoring allows us to assess the environmental stress on forest and
agricultural ecosystems. Nowadays, Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems
(GIS) are the main techniques used for calculating evapotranspiration at catchment and
regional scales. The methodology is primarily based on the energy balance equation (B-
method), that combines remote sensing imagery with GlS-based climate modelling to
estimate daily evapotranspiration for several dates.
ENGLAND
Aerial photography along with Geographic l:-rformation Systems (GIS) was applied
to map the cumulative anthropogenic footprint of an industry in a spatially defined
ecologically important region of the British Columbian coast. Such information was then
effectively applied to visualize and assess the potential impact of an industrial development
of the foreshore on bird distribution within the spatially identified region. The degree of
overlap between the anthropogenic footprint and small estuaries within the region was
also successfully assessed. For ecologically important regions such as Marine Protected
Areas, and other such designated sensitive coastal regions, detailed mapping through
aerial photography and GIS can aid in first identiffing the true extent of an anthropogenic
activity and then secondly used to link to possible ecological consequences. This in tum
greatly enhances our ability to best manage the region of interest such that conservation
priorities can be met.
Applrc.ruol or GsorNroRMATICs nr Evlr,uanNc THE Erprcr or Cuulrn... 149

FINLAND
Identification of the coastal zone of the central and eastem Gulf of Finland by
numerical modeling, measurements, and remote sensing of chlorophyll a was done
(Lessin 2009). Coastal zone was identified by the spatial distribution of biotic parameters,
spatial variations and gradients of chlorophyll a (chl-a) concentrations were analyzed. The
results showed that chl-concentrations vary in a wide range over the biologically active
period. During heavy blooms, the coastal zone may appear occasionally and depend on
the spatial distribution of the bloom. On average, clear limits of the coastal zone could
be defined for the central and eastem Gulf of Finland. In the central Gulf of Finland, water
and material exchange are rather intensive, and the coastal zone is nalrower than in the
eastem Gulf.
AUSTRALIA
The coastal zone between Guilderton and Kalbani, north of Perth, WesternAustralia,
is a highly dynamic area of high landscape and conservation values under increasing
development pressures. Intensification of terrestrial and coastal impacts has highlighted
the need to develop a geo-referenced data base for land management. Here, the Coastal
fusessment and Restoration project aimed to document the natural resources and
coastal developments to the region and to identiff & assess threats to the coastal strip
through the creation of GIS datasets. (Stevens and Collins 2011). GIS datasets provide a
key source of reference information which can be accessed by a number of stakeholders
for future coastal planning and management and provide a basis for developing a risk
management assessment of the coastal zone and a strategy for coastal managers in our
climate change future. Regional GIS datasets covering 500 km of coast and extending up
to 10 km inland were compiled to document available land information into an electronic
database to provide a management tool which is georeferenced, can be updated, is
responsive to change, has ana$sis capabilities and can be expanded through additional
data layers. It should be emphasized that the GIS datasets being very dynamic, delivered
a coastal planning and management product and metadata package which is a practical
instrument that has been adopted by coastal managers and incorporated into coastal
management strategies in the region.
Another regional terrain assessment method known as "Substrate capacity" has
been developed with management concems in mind. Substrate characteristics are
defined in terms of the interconnectivity of rock/sediment type, constituents, consolidation,
vegetation cover and runoff potential. The overall capacity of a land unit to withstand
change based upon those variables is defined as'substrate capacity' (Blackwell 2002).
The substrate capacity component of the CAR (Coastal fusessment and Restoration)
provides coastal managers with the capability to distinguish spatial variations in capacity
to withstand natural and anthropogenic impacts.
NORTH AFRICA
In Africa, remote sensing has made major contributions to monitor a variety of
wetland systems (Fuller et a1.1998, Munyati 2000, De Roeck et al., 2008). Satellite imagery
has been used for identi$ing key environmental characteristics within three North African
150 PuNangAsu CrnuouuRt lNn MannuRtun Barsul

coastal lagoons which.are Merja Zerga, Morocco; Ghar El Melh, Tunisia and Lake Manzala,
Egypt, and for detecting the major environmental changes within these environments.
Here, some of the principal attributes of remote sensing, including spatial coverage,
availability of archives of historic imagery and relative cost effectiveness compared to field
programmes, make it an attractive option for mapping and monitoring (Ahmed et al
2009).
CONCLUSION
Coastal areas, especially the coastal forests which are more biologically diverse and
productive in nature compared to upland systems, are of immense value to mankind
both in the present and future scenario. To achieve a proper coastal ecosystem
management plan for the sustainable use, development and protection of the coastal and
marine areas and resources, more advanced spatial and modelling techniques a"re
required. This involves shifting of emphasis from basic geographic data handling to
manipulation, analysis and modelling in order to solve real world problems. The remote
sensing and GIS database which are extensively used to assess, monitor and manage the
coastal areas, primarily aims towards the approach of conservation of coastal resources.
The basic goals are the retrieval of particular information about any specific site,
classification of coastal zones according to the management plan and prediction of
environmental models to determine projections of coastal changes, impacts of individual
schemes, and natural calamities. Remote sensing can well be applied for identification of
deforestation areas, mapping the regeneration or re-growth of forest area and tracing
major changes in land cover.
Changes in a variety of surface over a period of time can be detected by determining
and evaluating differences through a comparative analysis. These relative databases offer
a clear way for implementing the conservation strategy and thus solving the problems of
both the stake-holders and policy makers. Data revealed by geoinfomatics also include
community participation in developmental issues to a certain level by addressing specific
issues and features of the local setting and climate variability, developing a seasonal
calendar of observations, particularly relating to localised mangrove or coral reef
interactions, changes over the local history for as far back as the memory of the
community serves.
Based on remote sensing a variety of data pertaining to the coastal zone like,
identification of plant community, biomass estimation, shoreline changes, delineation of
coastal landforms and tidal boundary qualitative estimation of suspended sediment
concentration, chlorophyll mapping, bathymetry of shallow waters, etc. can be collected
and all these data will help in effective coastal ecosystem management. Satellite remote
sensing has been found to be a very valuable application tool in forest management
including m€ulgroves, not only in monitoring, but also carrying out relevant observations,
which cin bring out the impact of deforesiation on global climate change.
Coastal forests specially mangroves usually dwell at the land-ocean interface and
are thus encroached upon by competing land use at the coastal zone. They are also
subject to impacts from catchments developments. fu a result, mangroves worldwide are
having their extension changed (Spalding et al, 1997). Worldwide it is well accepted that
Appucanom op GEornroRMATrcs lr'r EvlluauNc THE Ern'ecr op CLlrr{ars... l5l
mangrove extension is decreasing mostly due to conversion to other uses, in particular
aquaculture, urbanization and tourism development (ITIO, 2002).ln many coastal sites,
however, regional environmental changes have resulted in an expansion of mangrove
area. Erosion of upland soils has increased sedimentation in coastal areas of Thailand,
Bangladesh, Mozambique, Venezuela and New Zealand, resulting in augmenting of
mangrove area (Perez et al. 2002, Aizpuru et al. 2000, Schwarz 2003). In other areas, global
climate change mayresultin rising sea level with increasing saline intrusion and mangrove
expansion inland. The rapid response of mangroves to regional and global environmental
changes and their huge ecological importance for coastal ecology and for the millions
of people dwelling along tropical coasts, makes the continuous mapping of this vegetation
a fundamental tool for coastal management plans and the sustainability of coastal areas.
Overall it can be said that potential climate change impacts to coastal forest
resources will command both challenges and opportunities for public and policymaker
response to address coping strategies and research needs. Education of potential climate
change impacts of natural calamities and sea-level rise represents the first line of action
that can be applied to engage stakeholder and government responsibility. RS and GIS are
the tools to predict the vulnerability of coastal zone which can be used to formulate
adaptation strategies that will vary with coastal type and threat and will also involve
decisions to remedy, reduce, or retreat in preparation of coastal change. Further research
is needed to refine our understanding and predictive capabilities to identiff the links of
offshore and onshore factors that may exaccerbate coastal impacts at local and regional
scales and the optional measures for abating them with a final goal of sustainable use,
development, and protection of the coastal and marine areas and resources.
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