FIELD METHODS ➢ Methods included qualitative interviewing and

CH4: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH AND OTHER observational, visual, personal and documentary
QUALITATIVE APPROACH methods.
➢ Computers were becoming more prevalent
Quantitative Research ➢ Boundaries between the social sciences and
➢ is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and humanities had become blurred
sometimes counter-disciplinary field. ➢ Social science was borrowing models, theories
➢ involves finding out what people think, and how and methods of analysis from the
they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think ➢ humanities
and how they say they feel. ➢ Researcher acknowledged as being part of the
➢ It involves feelings and impressions, rather than research process.
numbers 4. Crisis of Representation Mid 1980’s-Current Day
➢ multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, ➢ Caused by the publication of a book called
naturalistic approach to its subject matter. Anthropology as Cultural Critique (Marcus
➢ Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, and Fischer, 1986)
hoping always to get a better fix on the subject ➢ Made research and writing more reflexive and
matter at hand. called into question the issues of gender, class
and race.
The Qualitative Researcher as Bricoleur ➢ Interpretative theories as opposed to grounded
➢ uses the tools of his methodological trade. theories were more common as writers
➢ Bricoleur is adept at performing a large number of challenge old models of truth and meaning
diverse tasks ranging from interviewing to ➢ Crisis of Representation and Legitimisation
observing, to interpreting personal and historical 5. The Fifth Moment Current Day
documents, to intensive self-reflection and ➢ Defined and shaped by the dual crisis of
introspection. representation and legitimisation
➢ understands that research is an interactive process ➢ Theories now beginning to be read in narrative
shaped by his own personal history, biography, terms as ‘tales of the field’
gender, social class, race, and ethnicity and those ➢ Concept of an aloof researcher has finally been
of the people in the setting. fully abandoned
➢ More action oriented research is on the horizon
Positivist Paradigm ➢ More Social criticism and social critique
➢ Emphasizes that human reason is supreme and ➢ The search for grand narratives is being
that there is a single objective truth that can be replaced by more local, small-scale theories
discovered by science. fitted to specific problems and specific
➢ Encourages us to stress the function of objects, situations
celebrate technology and to regard the world as a
rational, ordered place with a clearly defined past, TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
present and future.
● Basic Interpretive Qualitative Study
The Five moments of Qualitative Research - Can be used when an instructor is interested in
1. Traditional Period: 1900’s-World War II how students make meaning of a situation or
➢ Wrote objective colonizing accounts of field phenomenon.
experiences that were reflective of the positivist - It uses an inductive strategy, collecting data from
scientist paradigm interviews, observations, or document analysis.
➢ Concerned with offering valid, reliable, and - Analysis is of patterns or common themes and
objective interpretations in their writings. the outcome is a rich descriptive account that
➢ The ‘subject’ who was studied was alien, makes reference to the literature that helped
foreign, and strange. frame the study.
2. The Modernist Phase Post war-1970’s - Ex: An interview of 45 women from varying
➢ The modernist ethnographer and sociological backgrounds and a comparison of the
participant observer attempted rigorous, developmental patterns discerned with earlier
qualitative studies of important social processes, findings on male development. They found
including social control in the classroom and women’s lives evolved through periods of
society tumultuous, structure-building phases that
➢ Researchers were drawn to qualitative research alternated with stable periods.
because it allowed them to give a voice to
society’s ‘underclass’ ● Phenomenological Study
3. Blurred Genres 1970-1986 - Aims to find the essence or structure of an
➢ Researchers had a full complement of experience by explaining how complex
paradigms, methods and strategies meanings are built out of simple units of inner
➢ Applied qualitative research was gaining in experience, for example, the essence of being a
stature participant in a particular program or the
➢ Research strategies ranged from grounded essence of understanding a subject.
theory to the case study methodology - All collected data is laid out and treated as
equal, clustered into themes, examined from
 multiple perspectives, and descriptions of the analyzed and used to argue that storytelling or
phenomena (how and what) are constructed. the use of oral history was well received by
- Ex: Eight clinical psychology practicum-level students and provided richer data than more
trainees were interviewed to obtain experience traditional teaching methods.
of good supervision. Meaning units were
identified from these and a meaning structure ● Critical Qualitative Research
was identified and refined into the essence or - This writing aims to reveal and critique the
essential elements of good supervisory social, cultural, and psychological assumptions
experiences shared by a majority in this context. regarding present day contexts with the goal of
empowering individuals and enabling change.
● Grounded Theory Study - This analysis is critical for methods like
- The method involves comparing collected units participatory action research which uses such
of data against one another until categories, critique as the basis for collective action.
properties, and hypotheses that state relations - Ex: A critical examination of the consumer
between these categories and properties education texts used in adult literacy programs
emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and revealed content that was disrespectful of adult
suggestive, not tested in the study. learners and their previous experience as
- Ex: Ten school counselors were given structured consumers, promoted certain ideologies
interviews to help determine how their regarding consumerism, and defended the
professional identity is formed. This data was status quo by placing blame for economic
coded first to form concepts and then to form troubles on individual inadequacies, ignoring
connections between concepts. A core concept societal inequities.
emerged and its process and implications were
discussed. School counselors’ professional ● Postmodern Research
interactions were identified as defining - This is research that challenges the form and
experiences in their identity formation. categories of traditional qualitative analysis.
- involves questioning certainties and
● Case Studies assumptions in the world including the nature of
- A descriptive intensive analysis of an individual, truth, the ability of research and science to
unit, or phenomena selected for its typicality or discover this truth, and all generalizations and
uniqueness. typologies.
- Ex: The faculty of a small Southern Historically - Ex: This paper critiques the use of self-reflection
Black College was examined in order to by higher education teachers as a
examine concerns of a digital divide between student-centered method of continuing
predominantly White colleges and Historically professional development. The author argues
Black Colleges and Universities. The study that the widespread and unquestioned use of
reports on technology familiarity and use scores reflective self-assessment assumes that the self
of these faculties and what was done by college has a transparent nature and can be adequately
administrators in the three years following the examined by introspection and ignores the many
collection of these scores. Recommendations on post-modern and post-structuralist challenges of
how to close this divide are shared. this view. For example, if our views of the self
are themselves constructed by the society we
● Ethnographic Study live in and the language we use, is true
- Traditional in anthropology for studying human knowledge of the self, independent of these,
society and culture. It is less a method of data even possible? If our “selves” are constructed
collection and more the use of a socio- cultural then attempting to gain knowledge through
lens through which the data are interpreted. self-reflection is a mis-cognition and instead
- Ex: Native American students training to be results in the creation of a less independent and
teachers were followed through interviews over more societal-regulated self.
a five year period to chart the progress towards
a goal of facilitating the development of Native
American teachers and to better understand and
address their unique problems. Their beliefs,
views about self, and concerns were presented.

● Narrative Analysis
- first person accounts of experiences. These
stories are used as data, taking the perspective
of the storyteller, as opposed to the larger ❖ The focus is on subjective experiences, or the
society, with the goal of extracting meaning from meanings that people use.
the text. ❖ The best device for collecting and analyzing
- Ex: Oral narratives were collected from three qualitative information is the human brain.
social studies teachers’ lectures, conversations ❖ Qualitative research is local, concrete.
with students, and student interactions over a 14 ❖ Exploration is very often the motive, but not
month period. These narratives were coded and always.
 ❖ Qualitative research often provides idiographic (as - It can also be used to extract quantitative data
opposed to nomothetic) causal explanations. from qualitative data.
❖ Qualitative research is typically inductive. - Codes can be based on: themes, topics, ideas,
❖ Good qualitative research is often the most concepts, terms, phrases, or keywords found in
rigorous, difficult research. the data, but they can also correspond to
passages of audio or video recordings and to parts
of images.
- NVivo and Atlas TI – used to assist in coding and
in helping to organize the resulting patterns.

Nature of Qualitative Research

- Qualitative research quickly exhausts resources
and time.
- limit the amount of data collected.
- It’s not the size that matters, it’s what you do
with the data.

In-depth Interview
- A conversation on a given topic between a
respondent and an interviewer
- Used to obtain detailed insights and personal
thoughts
- Flexible and unstructured, but usually with an
interview guide
- Purpose: to probe informants’ motivations,
feelings, beliefs
- Lasts about an hour
- Interviewer creates relaxed, open environment
- Wording of questions and order are determined by
flow of conversation
- Interview transcripts are analyzed for themes and
connections between themes.

In-depth Interviews Technique: Laddering

Laddering
- questioning progresses from product
characteristics to user characteristics
- Advantages: Tendency to have a freer exchange,
When should I use qualitative methods? can probe potentially complex motivations and
● When variables cannot be quantified; behavior, and easier to attach a particular
● When variables are best understood in their natural response to a respondent.
settings; - Disadvantages: qualified interviews are
● When variables are studied over real time; expensive, length and expense of interview often
● When studying intimate details of roles, processes, leads to small sample, and subjectivity and
and groups; “fuzziness”
● When the paramount objective is “understanding”.
What skills do I need? Focus Groups
● Must have requisite knowledge and skills about - A loosely structured interview conducted by a
methodology, setting and nature of the issue. trained moderator among a small number of
● Must be familiar with your own biases, assumptions, informants simultaneously.
expectations, and values.
● Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and Focus Group Characteristics
interested in listening ● 8 - 12 members (usually paid)
● Must be open to embracing multiple realities. ● homogeneous in terms of demographics and
● Must be prepared to produce detailed, socioeconomic factors but heterogeneous views
comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports. ● experience related to product or issue being
discussed
Data Analysis Techniques: Coding ● 1 1/2 –2 hour session
● 1-way mirror/client may sit behind
Codes - are tags that categorize the data collected ● qualified moderator
during a study to assign meanings to them. ● conversation may be video and/or audio taped OR
Coding - makes it easier to search the data, make notes may be taken
comparisons and identify patterns that
require further investigation.
 - Attention to how meaning is derived and how
Common Applications of Focus Groups labels come to be applied and how assumptions
● Understanding Consumers are made
● Product Planning 4. Inductive
● Advertising - Theories develop from the bottom up rather than
the top down
Key Issues - The direction you will travel comes after you
● Focus groups are small numbers, not random, not have been collecting data & spent time with the
statistically valid participants
● Focus groups are a lot of work - “You are not putting together a puzzle whose
● can get insights from focus groups that can’t get in picture you already know”
other ways - Use parts of the study to learn what the
● Know their limits important questions are
● Beware of power relations 5. Meaning
- Participant perspectives are important
Advantages: - Accuracy of interpretations can be checked with
★ Richness of data the participants
★ Versatility - Interplay or dialogue between researchers and
★ Ability to study special respondents participants
★ Direct involvement of managers
★ Easily understandable CH5: TIME BASED RESEARCH DESIGNS
★ Flexibility in covering topics
★ May uncover unanticipated ideas that are important Cross-sectional Study
★ Can define constructs of importance - involves looking at data from a population at one
★ Gives “flesh” and connectedness to real specific point in time.
consumers/people - are often used in developmental psychology, but
★ Can show them designs, have them try out this method is also used in many other areas,
prototypes including social science and education.
- are observational in nature and are known as
Disadvantages descriptive research, not causal or relational,
❖ Lack of generalizability (small sample size) meaning that you can't use them to determine the
❖ High selection bias cause of something, such as a disease.
❖ Might be misused - This type of research can be used to describe
❖ Subject to interpretation characteristics that exist in a community, but not to
❖ Cost-per-respondent is high (compared to survey) determine cause-and-effect relationships
❖ May be the response in the moment- which may between different variables.
change over time
❖ Strong personalities are a hazard Key characteristics of a cross-sectional study:
❖ “Professional respondents” ● The study takes place at a single point in time
● It does not involve manipulating variables
Focus groups vs. In-depth Interview ● It allows researchers to look at numerous
characteristics at once (age, income, gender, etc.)
Focus Group ● It's often used to look at the prevailing
- Relatively lower cost per person stimulating effect characteristics in a given population
from group interaction ● It can provide information about what is happening
- Vividness to managers in a current population

In-depth Interviews Advantages

- More information from each respondent flexible with - Inexpensive and Fast
the use of physical stimuli - Multiple Variable
- Prompts further study
FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Naturalistic Challenges
- Context-dependent - Can’t differentiate cause and effect
- Actions are understood within settings - Cohort differences
- Circumstances are important - Report Bias
2. Descriptive Data
- Narrative form of reporting is common and Longitudinal Study
quotations are used to illustrate & Substantiate - researchers repeatedly examine the same
- Data includes interviews, fieldnotes, individuals to detect any changes that might occur
photographs, video footage, personal over a period of time.
documents, memos, etc. - type of correlational research in which researchers
3. Concern With Process observe and collect data on a number of variables
- Process is just as, or more, important than without trying to influence those variables.
outcomes or products
 - longest longitudinal studies, the Harvard Study of
Adult Development, has been collecting data on the Consideration during selection of Cohort
physical and mental health of a group of Boston ● The cohort must be free from disease under study.
men for over 80 years! ● Insofar as the knowledge permits, both the groups
should be equally susceptible to disease under
- No set amount of time is required for a longitudinal study.
study, so long as the participants are repeatedly ● Both the groups must be comparable in respect of
observed. all variable which influence the occurrence of
- are particularly useful when studying development disease
and lifespan issues. ● Diagnostic and eligibility criteria of the disease must
be defined beforehand.
Drawbacks of Longitudinal Research Types of cohort study
● Longitudinal Studies Can Be Expensive ● Prospective study
● Participants Tend to Drop Out Over Time ● Retrospective cohort study
● Ambi-directional cohort study
Types of Longitudinal Research ● Prognostic Cohort Study
● Panel study
- Involves sampling a cross-section of PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY
individuals. - watches for outcomes, such as the development of
- measure the same sample of respondents at a disease, during the study period and relates this
different points in time. to other factors such as suspected risk or protection
- can reveal information about both net change factor(s).
and gross change in the dependent Variable. - The common strategy of cohort studies is to start
● Trendy Study with a reference population (or a representative
- gather data from a particular population sample thereof), some of whom have certain
characterized by a specific variable, such as characteristics or attributes relevant to the study
education level. (exposed group), with others who do not have
- A most common type of Longitudinal Study in those characteristics (unexposed group).
mass media Research.
- are common around presidential election time. Framingham Heart Study (example of Prospective
● Cohort Study cohort study)
- derived from the Latin “cohorts” meaning an - Initiated in 1948 to study the relationship of a
enclosure, company, or crowd. variety of factors to the subsequent development of
- group of people with something in common, heart disease with 5127 samples( 30 to 59 yrs) at
usually an exposure or involvement in a Framingham.
defined population group. - Study subjects were examined every 2 yrs for 20
- type of analytical study which is undertaken to years.
obtain additional evidence to refute or support - Daily Surveillance of hospitalization at Framingham
existence of association between suspected hospital.
cause and diseases. - Study found that Hypertensive, tobacco smoking,
- Other names of cohort study are Longitudinal elevated blood cholesterol are associated to CHD
study, Incidence study and forward looking - Increased physical activity associated with
study. decreased risk of CHD

Indications for cohort study Problem of prospective study

● There is good evidence of an association between ● Study might take a long duration.
exposure and disease, from other studies. ● Sufficient amount of funding for a long period.
● Exposure is rare. ● Missing study subjects.
● Attrition of the study population can be minimized.
● Sufficient fund is available. RETROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY
- looks backwards and examines exposures to
suspected risk or protection factors in relation to
an outcome that is established at the start of the
study.
- Lane and Claypon's 1926 investigation of risk
factors for breast cancer, were retrospective
investigations.
- In this study, the investigator goes back to the
past to select a study group from existing
records of the past employment, medical and
other records and traces them forward through
time from the past date fixed on the records
usually to the present.
- is commonly known with the name of Historical
Cohort and noncurrent cohort
AMBI-DIRECTIONAL COHORT STUDY movement of individuals between exposure
- Elements of prospective and retrospective groups during the follow-up
cohorts are combined. - If no losses occur from a fixed cohort, the
- The Cohort is identified from past records and cohort satisfies the definition of a closed
assesses the date for the outcome. The same population and is often called a closed
cohort is the followed up prospectively into cohort
future for the further assessment of outcome 2. Obtaining data on exposure
- Example: • From Cohort Members : Personal interview,
- Curt- Brown and Dolls study on effects of mailed questionnaire
radiation Began in 1955 with 13,352 patients • Review of Records : Certain kinds of information
who received large dose of radiation therapy for like dose of radiation, kinds of surgery
ankylosing spondylitis between 1934 to1954. received
- Outcome evaluated was death from Leukemia or can only be obtained from medical records.
aplastic anemia between 1934 to 1954. • Medical examination/ Special tests: In some
- A prospective component was added up in 1955 cases information needs to be obtained from
and surviving subjects were followed up to Medical examination like in case of blood pressure,
identify deaths in subsequent years serum cholesterol,
- • Environmental Survey of location where cohort
lives Information should be collected in a manner
that allows classification of cohort according to
• Whether or not they have been exposed t0
suspected factor
• According to level or degree of exposure
• Demographic variables which might influence
frequency of disease under investigation

3. Comparison Group
Internal Comparison Group : Single Cohort enters
the study and its members on the basis of
PROGNOSTIC COHORT STUDIES information obtained , can be classified into several
- are a special type of cohort study used to comparison according to degree of exposure
identify factors that might influence the
prognosis after a diagnosis or treatment. External Comparison Group: when information on
degree of exposure is not available. If all workers at
the factory had some degree of exposure, we would
need to select a comparison
group from another population, possibly another
type of factory

Comparison with general population can also be

used as comparison group

4. Follow Up
- The length of follow-up that is needed for some
studies to reach a satisfactory endpoint, when a
STEPS OF COHORT STUDY large enough proportion of the participants have
1. Selection of study subjects reached an outcome, may be many years or
Cohort can be: even decades.
• community cohort of specific age and sex;
• exposure cohort e.g. radiologists, smokers, Procedure may be:
users of oral contraceptives; • Periodic medical examination of each member of
• birth cohort e.g. school entrants; cohort
• occupational cohort e.g. miners, military • Reviewing physician and hospital records
personnel; • Routine surveillance of death records
• marriage cohort; • Mailed questionnaire, telephone calls and periodic
• diagnosed or treated cohort, e.g. cases treated home visits
with radiotherapy, surgery, hormonal Treatment.
5. Analysis
Open population or dynamic population Data analyzed in terms of
- describe a population in which the • Incidence rate of outcome among exposed and
person-time experience can accrue from a non-exposed
changing roster of individuals. • Estimation of risk
Fixed Cohort
- When the exposure groups in a cohort study
are defined at the start of follow-up, with no
INCIDENCE RATE ● On July 26, 1972, The New York Times described
● Cumulative incidence: In cohort studies on the study as “the longest non therapeutic
acute diseases with short induction periods and experiment on human beings in medical
a short time of follow-up, like outbreaks, the risk history.” The disclosure of this study by the press
of disease can be estimated directly using the was a major scandal in the United States.
cumulative incidence, given a fixed cohort with ● Led to The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and
fixed period of follow-up and a low fraction of Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects in
drop-outs. Research
● Incidence Density: In cohort studies on chronic ● These problems can be encountered in cohort
diseases with their long follow-up periods, studies designed to study the natural history of
however, the use of the cumulative incidence is disease.
not appropriate because usually disease-free ● Should we communicate the research findings to
follow-up periods differ strongly among cohort individuals are controversial issues.
members. In such cases incidence density is
apposite measure. Biases in Cohort Study
● Differential Loss of Follow up
Relative Risk (RR) ● Contamination
- Estimates the magnitude of an association ● Selection Bias
between exposure and disease - also called case-mix bias
- Indicates the likelihood of developing the ● Information Bias
disease in the exposed group relative to those ● Misclassification Bias
who are not exposed - Differential misclassification - Errors in
- Ratio of risk of disease in exposed to the risk of measurement are one way only.
disease in non exposed. - Non differential misclassification - errors in
assignment of groups happen in more than
one direction.

When Is a Cohort Study Warranted?

➔ When the (alleged) exposure is known
➔ When exposure is rare and incidence of disease
among exposed is high (even if the exposure is
rare, determined investigators will identify exposed
individuals)
➔ When the time between exposure and disease is
Advantage of Cohort Studies relatively short
● Temporality can be established ➔ When adequate funding is available
● Incidence can be calculated. ➔ When the investigator has a long life expectancy
● Several possible outcomes related to exposure can
be studied simultaneously. CROSS-SECTIONAL VS. LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
● Provide a direct estimate of risk.
● Since comparison groups are formed before Cross-sectional studies are designed to look
disease develops certain forms of bias can be at a variable at a particular point in time.
minimized like misclassification bias.
● Allows the conclusion of cause effect relationship Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple
measures over an extended period.tend to require more
Disadvantage of Cohort Studies resources and are often more expensive than
● Large population is needed cross-sectional resources.
● Not suitable for rare diseases. They are also more likely to be influenced by
● It is time consuming and expensive what is known as selective attrition, which means that
● Certain administrative problems like loss of staff, some individuals are simply more likely to drop out of a
loss of funding and extensive record keeping are study than others. This can influence the validity of the
common. study.
● Problem of attrition of initial cohort is common
● Study itself may alter people’s behavior

Ethics in Cohort Study

● Classic example issues on research ethics is
Tuskegee study on natural history of syphilis in
which US Public health service recruited 399 poor J.A.J
black sharecroppers in Macon County as cohort. Goodluck!!!
● Study lasted from 1932 to 1972.
● They were denied treatment of syphilis although
effective treatment was available. Government
deceived by saying that they were being treated.