Network Standards
Ensures that hardware, software, and devices from different vendors can
communicate with each other effectively over networks.
These standards define the protocols, interfaces, and formats necessary for
interoperability and consistency in data communication.
Some of the most important organizations involved in creating these standards
include:
ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Develops
international standards for a wide variety of industries, including
networking.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Defines many
LAN technologies
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): Develops and promotes
Internet standards, especially related to the Internet Protocol (IP) suite
(TCP/IP).
ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
Standardization Sector): Focuses on international telecommunication
standards.
There are two main types of network standards:
1. Open Standards
2. Proprietary Standards
Open Standards
Open Standards are publicly available and developed through collaborative
processes by international standards organizations. These standards are designed
to be universally accessible, enabling different manufacturers, developers, and
organizations to build compatible systems that can communicate with each
other.
Key Characteristics
Publicly Accessible
Vendor-Neutral
Interoperability
Innovation-Friendly
Examples of Open Standards in Networking
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP): TCP/IP is a fundamental open
standard used for internet communication. It is defined by the IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force), and it ensures that different devices
can communicate across the Internet.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Ethernet is an open standard for wired LAN
communication, defined by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers). It ensures compatibility across network devices
like switches, routers, and network interface cards.
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Wi-Fi is an open standard for wireless local area
networks (WLAN), also developed by the IEEE. It allows for wireless
communication between devices like smartphones, laptops, and routers.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language): HTML is an open standard for
web page creation and content structuring, maintained by the W3C
(World Wide Web Consortium).
DNS (Domain Name System): DNS, defined by the IETF, is an open
standard that translates domain names (e.g., google.com) into IP addresses
that computers use to identify each other on the network.
Benefits of Open Standards
Interoperability
Lower Costs
Wider Adoption
Flexibility and Innovation
Drawbacks of Open Standards
Slower Development
Less Control
Proprietary Standards
Proprietary Standards are developed, owned, and controlled by a single
organization or company. The use of these standards often requires permission
or licensing, and they are designed to work primarily with the company’s own
products and technologies.
Key Characteristics
Controlled by a Single Entity
Restricted Access
Vendor Lock-In
Closed Ecosystem
Examples of Proprietary Standards in Networking
Apple’s Lightning Connector
Microsoft's NTFS (New Technology File System)
Cisco’s EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
Oracle’s SPARC Architecture
Benefits of Proprietary Standards
Optimized Performance
Innovative Features
Tight Integration
Drawbacks of Proprietary Standards:
Vendor Lock-In
Higher Costs
Limited Interoperability
The OSI Reference Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
The OSI model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a
communication system into seven distinct layers. Each layer has specific
responsibilities and communicates with the layers directly above and below it.
This model was developed by ISO to guide product development, enhance
interoperability, and serve as a reference point for networking technologies.
Overview of the OSI Layers
1. Layer 1: Physical Layer
o Function: Defines the physical medium for data transmission,
including hardware such as cables, switches, and network interfaces.
o Key Responsibilities:
Transmission and reception of raw bitstreams over a physical
medium (e.g., fiber optics, copper wires, radio frequencies).
Deals with data rates, physical connections, voltage levels, and
signaling.
o Examples:
Ethernet cables, fiber optics, RS-232, hubs, repeaters.
2. Layer 2: Data Link Layer
o Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between two physically
connected nodes. Handles frame synchronization, error detection,
and control of data flow.
o Key Responsibilities:
Divides raw bits into frames (data packets with control
information).
Error detection and correction (e.g., CRC).
MAC (Media Access Control) addresses: Ensures data is sent
to the correct physical device.
Flow control and handling of collisions in shared media.
o Examples:
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), MAC addresses,
switches, and bridges.
3. Layer 3: Network Layer
o Function: Manages routing and forwarding of data packets between
devices on different networks.
o Key Responsibilities:
Logical addressing using IP (Internet Protocol) addresses.
Determines the best path for data to travel across networks
(routing).
Fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
o Examples:
IP (IPv4, IPv6), routers, ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol).
4. Layer 4: Transport Layer
o Function: Provides reliable data transfer between host systems.
Ensures data integrity, proper sequencing, and error recovery.
o Key Responsibilities:
Segmentation of data and reassembly at the destination.
Flow control (e.g., windowing).
Error recovery and retransmission of lost data.
End-to-end communication (connection-oriented or
connectionless).
o Examples:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
5. Layer 5: Session Layer
o Function: Manages and controls the dialog (session) between two
communicating systems. Keeps track of sessions and ensures that
data exchanges are properly coordinated.
o Key Responsibilities:
Establishment, management, and termination of sessions.
Dialog control (e.g., full-duplex or half-duplex
communication).
Synchronization and checkpointing (helpful in case of
interruptions).
o Examples:
RPC (Remote Procedure Call), NetBIOS, PPTP (Point-to-Point
Tunneling Protocol).
6. Layer 6: Presentation Layer
o Function: Translates data between the application layer and the
network format. Ensures that data is in a usable format.
o Key Responsibilities:
Data translation, encryption, and compression.
Data encoding and decoding (e.g., ASCII, EBCDIC, encryption
algorithms).
Ensures data sent from the application layer of one system is
readable by the application layer of another.
o Examples:
JPEG, MPEG, SSL/TLS, ASCII, GIF.
7. Layer 7: Application Layer
o Function: The topmost layer that provides network services directly
to end-user applications. It interfaces with software applications to
implement communication components.
o Key Responsibilities:
Network process-to-application communication.
Identifies communication partners and resource availability.
Implements services like file transfers, email, and database
access.
o Examples:
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS
(Domain Name System).
OSI Layer Communication
Each layer in the OSI model communicates directly with its corresponding
layer on another device (called peer-to-peer communication).
Encapsulation: Data at the higher layers is wrapped with protocol
information from the lower layers.
Key Concepts
1. Encapsulation: Data passes from the top layer (application) to the bottom
(physical). Each layer adds its own header or trailer information as the data
moves downward, which is essential for proper delivery to the recipient.
2. Decapsulation: When data is received, it travels from the physical layer
up to the application layer, with each layer stripping away its respective
header until the original data is revealed.
3. Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless Communication:
o Connection-Oriented (e.g., TCP): Establishes a connection before
data transfer and guarantees data delivery.
o Connectionless (e.g., UDP): Sends data without setting up a formal
connection and does not guarantee delivery.
4. Routing vs. Switching:
o Routing (Network Layer): Determines the best path for data to
travel between different networks.
o Switching (Data Link Layer): Transfers data within the same
network, focusing on forwarding frames to the correct device.
5. Addressing:
o MAC Address (Layer 2): A physical address used to identify
devices on the same network segment.
o IP Address (Layer 3): A logical address used to identify devices
across different networks.
Comparison to the TCP/IP Model
The OSI model is primarily theoretical, while the TCP/IP model is
practical and widely implemented in the real world.
The TCP/IP model has four layers:
1. Application Layer (equivalent to OSI Layers 5-7)
2. Transport Layer (same as OSI Layer 4)
3. Internet Layer (similar to OSI Layer 3)
4. Network Interface Layer (combines OSI Layers 1-2)
Why the OSI Model Matters
Standardization: The OSI model provides a universal language for
different networking protocols to interact, ensuring interoperability.
Troubleshooting: Helps network engineers systematically troubleshoot by
identifying the layer where an issue occurs.
Modular Networking: By dividing tasks into layers, the OSI model
allows for modular design, where each layer can evolve independently of
others.
