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 Preface

You’d think that reprinting the original Technical Brief Collection would be simple: send the pub-
lisher the original discs and call it a day. But we didn’t feel completely comfortable doing that. We
had winced f a r too often at the annoying typos that had marred the first printing, and now was our
opportunity to fix them. Besides, we reasoned, if this was to be reprinted as the first volume of a
two-volume set, the contents ought to be completely reset in the interests of graphic and typo-
graphic integrity.

From one point of view, we were asking for trouble - and we got it. We revisited the whole thing
page by page, fMng typos, replacing slashed fractions with stacked fractions, applying new style
sheets, adding trademark symbols, and touching up the original drawings and putting each one in
a captioned frame, always being careful not to force changes in the original pagination. We proof-
read our corrections not just once but three times, our first and second passes inevitably reveal-
ing yet another handful of errata. It actually sounds like less work than it was. This “simple chore”
took immeasurably more attention, effort, time, and energy than either of us anticipated or could
really afford. Yet, we learned so much along the way that it was worth it - not from the work but
from the material we were working with.

First, many of the articles in this ten-year-old publication describe techniques that are still clever,
workable, and immediately useful. These articles certainly deserve republication, and there is no
need to reinvent these particular wheels, though (embarrassingly) we’re just as likely as anyone
else to waste effort by overlooking them. A number of other articles have become springboards for
development, inspiring technician/authors to refine the original by employing different materials
or to apply it to a surprisingly different technical problem with great success. Finally, of course,
changes in economy and technology (particularly in electronics, sound, and computers) have made
some of the original articles obsolete. Yet, while the specific subject matter may no longer be time-
ly, the ideas behind them certainly endure, and thus even these articles “stand the test.” As a case
in point, Larry Schwartz‘s “Computer-Assisted Lighting Design” describes a mainframe computer
program for managing and distributing light-plot information. PCs have long since replaced main-
frames, and modern stage lighting instruments have capabilities that were unheard of in the mid-
1980s. Yet, Mr. Schwartz’s article ought to be preserved and recirculated, for it is based on an
understanding of the relationship between lighting design and database development - a rela-
tionship fundamental to today’s most useful and popular PC-based programs.

In sum, as we worked we realized that each of the original articles merits republication pretty much
as it appeared in the first printing, and we realized that Technical Briefhas achieved new value. As
a thrice-yearly publication it fulfills its early purpose as a means for sharing immediately useful
techniques in theatre production. As a loose-leaf collection of articles, it has become required read-
ing for technical production classes in programs around the world. And as a two-volume publica-
tion, it is also one of the few enduring, living archives of how this profession has changed and
grown in the last quarter-century of the twentieth century.

So, we close with thanks and a toast: here’s to the authors who gave us all Volumes I and I1 ...
and here’s to those who will give us all Volume III!

- Ben Sammler and Don Harvey

New Haven, Connecticut
January 2002
Foreword

Most of us in the technical side of theatre acquire our practical knowledge from the theatres we
work in and the people we work with. It has been my privilege to have worked with some very tal-
ented colleagues who work miracles with materials and come up with extremely imaginative solu-
tions to technical and craft problems. However, very few of the techniques, formulas, etc., are
recorded for future reference. While this lack of record sometimes results in a new discovery, more
often the attempt to reconstruct a previously achieved solution results in a great deal of lost time.
Technical theatre workers usually have an interest in sharing their ideas and work, but the prior-
ity is to get on with the next solution - not to describe the problem just solved. Even when they
do attempt a description, many technicians find it difficult to write, draw, or verbalize their ideas
so that others can understand. As a result, written technical ideas often seem overly simplified or
tembly complex.

The editors and contributors to Technical Brief have provided u s with a long-needed collection of
information on how specific technical problems have been approached and solved.

Technical Brief articles are ideal reading for my attention span. They are short (one or so pages),
contain very little editorializing (just the facts), and often I find a n idea that makes me smile and
say, “That’s a neat idea. I’ll need to remember that.”

To me, the most valuable use of Technical Brief is not to copy how someone solved a particular
problem, but to see the approach, materials, and techniques that were used and develop from them
an idea of how I might approach the problems I need to solve.

I wish to commend those who have contributed to Technical Briefand want to encourage all tech-
nicians and craftspersons to assist in the continuation of Technical Brief by contributing in the
future.
Technical Brief is an excellent bit of work. Congratulations!

- Robert R. Scales, Ridgefield, Connecticut

January 1992

xii
The Yale Technical Brief articles published over the last ten years chronicle two increasingly excit-
ing and sophisticated technologies: the first is, explicitly, that of technology applied to stage
production, and the second is, implicitly, that of technology applied to publishing. The rapid
development of desktop publishing has made communication more immediate, accessible, and
attractive; the message has evolved with the medium to serve an ever-increasing and technically
aware audience of students and professionals in performing arts production.

These reports - now numbering over one hundred - have become valuable “how-to”references for
concise descriptions of technical applications and techniques. Technical Brief has more than met
the original publication goal of serving as a forum for the transfer of simple technical information
so that the body of knowledge grows instead of being continually rediscovered in isolation.
Actually, the first objective was to provide short research and writing exercises for graduate stu-
dents in a technical writing and research course at the Yale School of Drama before they embarked
upon lengthy thesis projects. After several years of reading research papers that seemed to become
longer and longer with each class, I attempted to reduce the wordcount (and my time spent in read-
ing) by turning a few assignments into really concise technical writing: one-page reports.

Using the NASATech Brief as an example, I made the first assignment, which resulted in a con-
sensus complaint from the class that “Theatre doesn’t have many high-tech things to write about.”
To illustrate the point that a Technical Brief could be a low-tech discussion of a less than sophisti-
cated material, I wrote “1101 - Corrugated (Kraft) Cardboard as a Scenic Material.” (This some-
what tongue-in-cheek, but factual, example was not preceded by 1100 previous reports: rather, the
number 1101”identified “paper-based construction materials” according to a classification scheme
“

that, at the time, seemed appropriate to categorize future reports. However, intricate cataloging was
too onerous in those pre-computer days; consequently, things were just numbered serially from the
example: 1101, 1102, etc.)

Over the next few years, the results of these class assignments were shared among those in the pro-
gram at Yale, with an occasional Technical Brief article surviving to become an example for suc-
ceeding classes. In 1979, the technical faculty decided that we could pull together enough reports
to make an initial distribution to the outside world: we hoped to inspire other submissions and
reports that would allow us to create a quick, relatively informal and inexpensive publication for
the sharing of information among theatres, practitioners, and schools.

With the initial effort under way and the responses favorable, Ben Sammler took on the adminis-
tration of the technical production program and the publication of Technical BrieJ when after twen-
ty years of enduring the wet and icy winters of New Haven, I moved to Austin in 1980. Since then,
I have been more of a cheerleader than a contributor, as my activities have more and more focused
on arts management, sailing, and Austin’s developing music industry.

I eagerly await each set of Technical BrieJ and am always delighted by the simplicity and ingenuity
of techniques and applications presented. Having referred many students and technicians to the
three-ring binder that holds my copies of these reports (some of which have lost both their original
and reinforced holes). I applaud this publication of a bound volume as a way of renewing and keep-
ing these valuable reports together while making them generally accessible to future technicians.

I am proud to have been a member of the group that got this started more than ten years ago.
Congratulations and many thanks to Ben Sammler, Don Harvey, the students, and the contribu-
tors who have developed and carried this publication forward.
-John Robert Hood, Austin, Texas
January 1992
Acknowledgments

Technical Briefrepresents a contemporary history of theatre technology - a field in which develop-

ments are only rarely documented and even more rarely communicated. The ideas it contains are
those of the field’s practitioners. We congratulate those authors - those who were shanghaied into
writing as well as those who volunteered submissions - on the publication of their individual
efforts in a milestone collection. Now, for the first time perhaps, many of them will come to under-
stand what distinguished company they keep as Technical Brief authors.

- Don Harvey

From its inception in John Hood’s classroom through its development from the drawing board to
the computer to its current success as a medium for a profession that has few other opportunities
for communication, Technical Briefhas been and continues to be a n exciting and gratifying project.
Our profound thanks to all who have shared in the process.

- Ben Sammler
Lighting
Hanging Cardboards Eugene Leitermam

Hanging cardboards are easy-to-read quick-reference guides for hanging, circuiting, and focusing
a light plot. Union electricians have used cardboards in a variety of formats for many years; the
form presented here was derived from these early cardboards by Gilbert V. Hemsley, Jr. and his
associates.

After the light plot and hook-up are completed, the lighting designer or the master electrician pre-
pares the hanging cardboards. One cardboard is drafted for each lighting position. Cardboards are
usually drafted from the electrician's point of view, from upstage looking downstage. The example
in Figure 1 and the discussion below are for a lighting pipe. The basic form can be adapted for
booms, lighting bays, and other special positions.

On a piece of white posterboard, 4" wide and as long as necessary, lay out the lighting pipe in i''
scale. Add the dimmer, lamp, color numbers, and focus notes next to each instrument. You can
include the circuit numbers on the cardboards if they are known, or the electricians can fill them
in during the hang. Indicate the location of the instruments on the pipe by drawing a scale paral-
lel to the pipe, or by noting the distance of each instrument from the center line. Use colored felt
tip markers for easy reading. Standard colors are black for the dimension and focus notes, red for
the color numbers, and blue for the dimmer numbers. Instrument type and wattage can be indi-
cated by symbols or notes. Include the name of the production, the lighting position, and some
means of correctly orienting the cardboard. If the cardboard is too long to be handled easily, score
and fold it on the centerline.

Put an equipment list indicating each instrument and its color on the back of the cardboard as
shown in Figure 2. Attaching an instrument symbol key and any hardware and cable notes is also
a good idea.

Drafting time can be saved by cutting apart a copy of the light plot by position, pasting the pieces
on cardboard, and adding the necessary information.

In the shop, the cardboards can be used as references when preparing cable bundles and packing
individual positions. During the hang, the electrician assigned to a lighting position uses the card-
board for that position when collecting the necessary equipment, and hanging and circuiting the
instruments. The cardboard fits conveniently into a back pocket if the electrician needs free hands.
If the electricians select the circuit numbers, they record them on the cardboards. As positions are
hung and circuited, the master electrician collects the cardboards and records the circuit numbers.
The cardboards then serve a s handy references when troubleshooting and focusing.
Ezlgene Leitermann Hanging Cardboards

17 6x9 Lekos 750w

2 6x12 Lekos 750w
6 6" Fresnels 750w
3 Two-fers
2 Three-fers
3 6" Frames of 01
5 6 Frames of 51
3 6" Frames of 54
6 6" Frames of 60
I 6" Frames of 826
6 6" Frames of 830

KEY

0 6X9Leko
750w

a 6xlPLeko
750w

a 6"Fresnel
750w

FIGURE
1: HANGING CARDBOARD, FRONT FIGURE 2: HANGING CARDBOARD, BACK

3
A System to Facilitate Hanging Lights Jery Lzmoncelli

Rehanging an established plot can be facilitated by using the system described here. Suggested
materials are index cards and sash cord. First cut the sash cord to the lengths of each electric as
indicated by the light plot and mark the centerline of the plot on the cord. Next measure out from
the centerline and affx an index card to the sash cord to represent each instrument. Write specif-
ic information about the related instrument - its type, wattage, color, and circuit number - on
each card.

1
.

/ , 6x12

/
I
i /
1 1kw
I
\ CLR
Centerline Marker I \
C#22
Suggested Information

FIGURE 1

At load-in, tape the prepared sash cords to the battens, working from the centerline toward each
end. Figure 1 shows a batten labeled with this system. Even an inexperienced electrics crew can
quickly and accurately hang lights by referring to the cards rather than the light plot.

Investing additional preparation time in the shop can save time during load-in.
Jack D. Szdton Another System to Facilitate Hanging Lights

This article describes another way to facilitate the hanging of lights. The system is particularly use-
ful during a quick turnaround such as a summer stock changeover. Materials needed include rolls
of adding machine paper, black and red markers, a tape measure, and masking tape.

Possible Data - \
I
I
I
/
/
2

First, cut the adding machine paper to the lengths of the electrics. Second, find and mark the cen-
terline. Third, measure out from the centerline in each direction and mark the hanging position of
each instrument as indicated on the light plot. In a red-marker circle at each location, write the
information illustrated in Figure 1: instrument type and size, lamp wattage, circuit number, dim-
mer number, color, and focus direction. To further facilitate the load-in, indicate the batten trim
and weight on each strip, at the end closest to the rail.

At the beginning of load-in, after instruments have been struck from the battens from any previous
production, tape the rolls of paper to each electric, aligning the centerline marks with the center of
each electric. Starting at the center of each electric, you will be able to quickly and easily hang an
entire show. After the lights have been hung and the cable has been run, the adding machine paper
can be ripped down.

This system works particularly well on stripped battens.

5
Computer -Assisted Lighting Design Ldrr3/ Schwa&?

Computer-Assisted Lighting Design (C.A.L.D.) is a computer program developed at the Yale School
of Drama by Joseph Barna. C.A.L.D. provides a means of storing lighting design data in one for-
mat and then retrieving it in the many formats used in stage lighting. Thus, it is especially useful
in recording design changes. For example, making several changes - adding two 6x9 ellipsoidals
to the system controlled by dimmer 3, reassigning the system controlled by dimmer 6 to dimmer 4,
and adding two more systems of instruments to the design - normally means having to record
those changes on several documents. By doing most of the paperwork, C.A.L.D. cuts the time
involved by two-thirds. C.A.L.D. offers a variety of options too numerous to detail here, but this
article describes the system’s basic use and output.

INPUT

After drawing a light plot and making a list of instruments in any order, the designer enters the data
into the program, working either by instrument or by position.

OUTPUT

Reports of the design’s requirements are printed on a high-speed printer in several formats. Please
note that the reports are not reproduced in scale here.

ELECTRICIAN’S REPORTS

Several reports give the electrician the data needed to hang the show. Each is described below.
Hang: This report prints each position (e.g., “Box Boom L”) on a separate page,
which can be used a s an electrician’s cardboard.

Instrument Instrument Crt Number Focus Color Notes Done Initials

Number Size Type Watts Date

1 6x22 1000 SL Cool Wash 60

2 6x22 1000 SL Warm Wash NC

3 6x22 1000 S L Cool Wash 60

Equip: This report prints the equipment list.

Instrument Description Watts Quantity

Size Type
- PX 64 1000 7

I I - 6” Fresnel I 500 I 11

- 6x22 1000 6
 Computer -Assisted Lighting Design

Work: These reports are worksheets for keeping track of work to be done. Work may
be dated and initialed as completed.

Position Inst. Instrument Description Work Notes Done By / Date

No. Size Type Watts

Color: These are color-cut reports, which provide a total list of gels needed and a
list of gel distribution by position.

Frame Size or Instrument

L I 23 I

REHEARSAL REPORTS

These reports provide information for the lighting designer’s use during rehearsals.
Schedule: This list of instruments is arranged by position.

Instrument Description
Computer -Assisted Lighting Design Larry Scbwartx

Circuit: This list of instruments is arranged by circuit number.

Hookup: This list of instruments is arranged by dimmer number.

Dimmer Dimmer Name Position Instrument Instrument Watts Crt Focus Col
Number
1 Box Boom Left 2 6x16 Ellipsoidal 750 18 DSRC NC
2 Box Boom Left 7 6x9 Ellipsoidal 750 10 SL Rail 52
Balcony Rail 1 8x1 1 Ellipsoidal 1000 241 SL 52
3 Balcony Rail 2 8x1 1 Ellipsoidal 1000 246 CL 52

Dimmer Top-of-Show Replug After Cue

Circuit

I 21 I 87 I
In the future, C.A.L.D. will offer a graphics function that will print lighting symbols and light plots.
The next step in the program’s development will be to rewrite C.A.L.D. for use with personal com-
puters, which could handle the data more efficiently. Presently, C.A.L.D. runs on an IBM 370 main-
frame computer using the PL- 1 language.

8
Jaylene Graham2 Acid-Cut Gobos

Commercial-quality gobos can be made anywhere with some easily found materials and equipment.
Disregarding the initial setup costs, making gobos is less expensive than buying them. The time it
takes to make a batch depends on the complexity of the design, but three hours from tracing the
design to fitting the finished product into holders is average.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Muriatic Acid Plastic or Bamboo Tongs
Krylons Crystal Clear Spray Tea Strainer or Window Screening
Carbon Paper Rubber Gloves and Apron
Water Splash-Proof Goggles
Acetone Respirator with Organic Filter
Printers’ Tin Scrub Brush (acetone-resistant)
Photo-Developer Pans (at least 2) Stylus or Scriber
X-acto@Knife Plastic Jars with Screw-On Lids

Muriatic acid is available in gallons from swimming pool stores, and used sheets of printers’ tin can be
obtained free from most offset printers. Thus, the initial cost of setting up is reasonably low.

SAFETY NOTES

Acetone is highly flammable and its use creates the potential for explosion. Acetone is also a rec-
ognized health hazard. Always take appropriate precautions while using it.

1. Work with plenty of ventilation and wear a respirator when using KrylonB, acid, or acetone.
2. Protect the table top with plastic and absorbent paper.
3. Keep plenty of water handy while cutting.

PREPARING THE METAL BLANKS

1. Determine what size gob0 will fit into your gob0 holders.
2. Cut the printers’ tin to size with a paper cutter. These are your blanks.
3. Spray all sides (including the edges) of the blanks with Krylons. Apply at least three coats,
allowing 15 minutes’ drying time after the first coat and a n hour after each subsequent coat.
To save time later, lacquer a batch and keep them around.
4. Position the blank in a gob0 holder with the pattern to be traced on top of the blank and cen-
tered under the opening in the holder. The nature of the pattern has a direct bearing on the
overall success of your efforts. When copying a n already-cut gobo, the pattern will automati-
cally be correct for etching. If the pattern is a designer’s sketch or something else, however,
make sure that the lines to be scribed on the blank will produce the desired effect when the
acid cuts the scribed parts out. It is easy to make a mistake and have most or all of the gob0
fall out because no metal is left to connect the center of the pattern to the edge of the gob0
opening. If possible, make the pattern heavier in the middle to withstand the heat.
5. Insert carbon paper between the pattern and the blank, and trace the pattern with a pencil.
6. Remove the blank from the holder and scribe the outline of the design. The acid will cut
through the metal at each scribed line. Don’t scribe the holder opening!
Acid-Cut Gobos Jqlene Graham

CUTTING THE PATTERN

In this crucial step, the weaker the acid mixture, the slower the cut and the smoother the result-
ing edge will be. A good starting strength is one part acid to one part water. To strengthen the
mixture in the pans after you start cutting, add a mixture of two parts acid to one part water. To
weaken the pan mixture, add water. Watch the bubbles that form on the scribed lines of the blank.
Bubbles should form slowly and not fizz to the surface of the acid bath. Fizzing will boil the lac-
quer away, ruining the gobo. Here are the steps:
1. Wearing goggles and a respirator, mix the 1:1 and 2: 1 acid solutions in the plastic jars.
2. Set out as many pans as necessary to lay the blanks flat in a single layer. Stacking the blanks
will hinder even cutting. Keep one pan unused for the acetone bath later.
3. Pour just enough 1:1 acid solution into the pans to cover a layer of blanks.
4. With the tongs, lay one blank in the solution scribed side up, and watch to see how fast the
cutting happens. If bubbles form quickly, or if the solution boils, add water immediately! If
nothing happens after a few minutes, add some of the 2:l acid solution. Once the cutting
speed is right, immerse all the blanks.
5. Stir the mixture gently and brush the bubbles away occasionally to keep the cutting even.
6. Remove the blanks before the lines are completely cut through so that the unwanted scraps
come out of the bath along with the nearly cut design.

FINISHING

1. Drop the cut gobos into a bucket of clean water or rinse them under running water.
2. Wearing the rubber gloves, pour about f ”of acetone into the unused pan.
3. Immerse the gobos, a few at a time, in the acetone and gently rub them with the brush. For
delicate designs, use a cloth instead of a brush. The acetone neutralizes the acid: so immerse
the gobos, don’t just wipe them.
4. Repeat the acetone bath with clean acetone until no white lacquer residue remains on the
gobo. Lacquer will burn in an instrument, leaving deposits on the lamp and lens, and creat-
ing fumes.
5. Trim any unwanted metal with the X-actom knife.

CLEANUP

1. Screen any metal scraps out of the acid and dispose of the used chemicals properly.
2. Store unused acid solution in the plastic jars. Mark them clearly with the solution strength
and the words “muriatic acid.”
3. Wash the pans, tongs, brush, gloves, etc. with soap and water.
Jon Ldgerqzlist A n Improved Boom-Base Sandbag

Old auto or truck inner tubes can easily be made into casings for a type of boom-base weight that
offers all of the advantages of conventional sandbags while eliminating two disadvantages. Like
conventional sandbags, inner-tube sandbags conform readily to the shape of jacks and tapered
boom bases and give when kicked. Thus, both models are ideal for use in high-traffic areas.

Unlike conventional sandbags, however, inner-tube sandbags are rot-resistant and much less like-
ly to rip open. Furthermore, they can be made much more quickly than canvas sandbags, and
making them costs less than buying commercial canvas sandbags.

CONSTRUCTION

1. Cut a section of inner tube 3" longer than the desired finished length of the weight.
2. Cut four pieces of 1x2 long enough to span the width of the inner tube when it is folded back
on itself.
3. Fold one end of the inner tube back on itself l+",sandwich the folded part between one pair
of the 1x2s, and tack the completed sandwich together.
4. Carefully drill three or four t''holes (depending on the width of the inner tube) through the
sandwich.
5. Securely bolt the sandwiched pieces together.
6. Perform steps three and four on the second end of the inner tube section.
7. Remove the tacks from the second end, fill the tube with sand, and bolt the second end shut.

CAUTIONS

Never use inner tube sandbags overhead or as counterweights in rigging systems.

Easily Concealed Low-Profile Lighting Fixtures Jon Carlson

The lighting designer's work is often hampered by the tightness of onstage lighting positions. Any
set design - even a traditional box set with a ceiling - can be troublesome for the lighting design-
er when solid scenery completely masks critical onstage lighting positions.

Perhaps the best-known solution to this problem is to mount a three-inch Fresnel - an inky -
behind a beam on the set or inside a piece of furniture. But lighting designers should be aware of
three other solutions as well: the Lumiline@family of incandescent lamps, conventional showcase
lamps, and compact fudures like the Great American Stik-Up@. Any of these products can illumi-
nate some dim corners and help balance your lighting. Moreover, they all run off standard 120V
service and are completely dimmable. These features make them very useful in light boxes and
other set pieces that require self-contained lighting.

LUMILINESB AND SHOWCASE LAMPS: SIMILARITIES

Lumilineso and showcase lamps have several features in common: both are powered by 120 volts
AC, and are incandescent, dimmable, and tubular. Wired in parallel, several of either type of fx-
ture can be placed end to end to achieve an even wash. In most cases, a mere two inches of solid
scenery is necessary to mask them effectively. Thus, they can be installed behind headers and
inside cornice molding, bookcases, and china cabinets.

The shape and size of Lumilines and showcase lamps also make them ideal for use in very narrow
light boxes. A light box fitted with Lumiliness and covered with a rear projection screen or white
Plexiglas@can be framed out of 1x3 and work quite admirably as long as its front surface is cov-
ered with a diffusion medium that masks filaments and wiring.

Lumiliness and showcase lamps share one disadvantage: neither can be readily focused. Providing
a reflective surface for the light to bounce off helps, but by no means does it solve the problem.

LUMILINESm

Designed for display cases, dressing room mirrors, and other places where the color of fluorescent
light might not be appropriate, the Lumilinem lamp is a completely dimmable incandescent fmture
with an unconventional disc base at either end. The base fits into a special socket called a
Lumilinea cap. Normally, the caps are plugged into a special wall mount. For the theatre, the wall
mounts represent added bulk and expense that can be avoided by soldering leads directly to the
caps. Small wooden brackets cut from 1x3 will hold the lamps securely in position.

The Lumilineo is available in twelve-inch (11$") and eighteen-inch (17 9")lengths. The twelve-inch
unit comes in 40 watts: the eighteen-inch unit, in 30 or 60 watts. With all sizes there is a choice
of three envelope finishes: clear, frosted, or white. The clear transmits the most lumens, and the
white transmits the least. All Lumilinesn have a n overall diameter of one inch.

SHOWCASE LAMPS

As its name implies, the showcase lamp is used in museum and store showcases. Theatre techni-
cians are also familiar with it because of its use on music stands for symphonies and orchestras.
Unlike the Lumilinen, the showcase lamp has a medium screw base that makes wiring more
straightforward. Showcase lamps are available in six-inch (5%")and twelve-inch (11 s")
lengths.
The six-inch comes in 25, 40, and 60 watts, clear or frosted. The twelve inch comes in 40 and 75
watts, also clear or frosted.
 Easily Concealed Low-Profile Lighting Fixtures

STIK-UPS@

The Great American Market of Hollywood, CA, sells the Stik-Up@,a lightweight wire frame that sup-
ports a lamp housing and a reflector and mounts easily to scenery with gaffers' tape or wire. The
manufacturer specifies the use of a Q/CL 100-watt quartz lamp.

Though the Stik-Up@has a reflector, its output is not particularly focusable. In addition, the Stik-
Up@is somewhat expensive compared to the Lumilinem and showcase lamp. Nevertheless, it is very
compact (3"x 3" x 47, and Great American does sell special extension arms and clips for holding
color media in place in front of the lamp.

AVAILABILITY

All of the low-profile fMures discussed above are commercially available, and with a few phone calls
can become part of any theatre's lighting inventory. If they are not stocked by your local lamp dis-
tributor, they can be obtained by special order. Discuss your needs with an electrical supply house
and choose the fixture that suits your mounting needs.

Lumilinem and showcase lamps are manufactured by GE, GTESylvania, and North American
Philips. The twelve-inch and eighteen-inch Lumilineso retail for $8.00 to $10.00 per lamp. The
showcase lamps are less expensive than the Lumilineso. Lumilinea caps made by Leviton in Little
Neck, NY,sell for about $.90 each. Call Leviton for the nearest distributor in your area. Stik-Ups@
are available through theatrical supply houses and stage lighting companies that stock the Great
American Market line of products. One Stik-Up@without accessories lists for $69.00; a set of three
with all accessories will cost $289.00.

13
Low-Cost ACL Fixtures John Hollowq

The problem presented was to produce a large number of fixtures for PAR-36-size ACL (aircraft
landing) lamps. The fixtures would need to be focusable along both the horizontal and vertical axes.
They should be durable, functional, inexpensive, easy to make, and should not look shop-built.
They were to be mounted on an octagonal lighting truss made of welded square tube, and wired in
series in groups of four to maintain the proper voltage.

Parts needed would include a barrel housing to hold the lamp, a yoke to provide for movement along
the vertical axis, and a fastener to hold the unit to the truss and to provide for movement along the
horizontal axis. It was immediately apparent that the material of choice for most of the basic com-
ponents would be some sort of plastic. The right kind would be durable, easy to work with, and
non-conductive.

1"
4 PlexiglassO

I I Retaining II II

I FIGURE
1: SECTION AND FRONT
VIEW

For the barrel or housing of the lamp I tried various sizes and types of PVC pipe and fittings, hap.
pily discovering that a lOOW, 28V #4591 ACL lamp nestled quite comfortably into a 4"-PVC cou-
pling. As Figure 1 illustrates, a retaining ring of 4" PVC pipe was used to hold the lamp in place.
For the yoke of the fixture, a l $ " wide strip of Plexiglas@was heated and bent to the proper
shape. Using round-head bolts and wing nuts for all fasteners allowed the units to be focused
by hand - no wrenches required. In quantities of twenty or more, these fixtures should cost about
$6.00 each and take 30 to 45 minutes to build.

BARREL CONSTRUCTION

1. Wrap a piece of heavy paper around the coupling and mark the placement of 5"
holes for the
yoke bolts. Use the paper as a guide for marking the remainder of the couplings so that
parts will be interchangeable.
2. Cut 1"-longsections of the PVC pipe. It is best to have a few spares and they will never be eas-
ier to make than right now. Turn the rings sideways and cut a slit through to the inside, just
the size of the blade itself. Check for an easy fit into the coupling, and shave off some more if
necessary. The lamps will burn out after about 28 hours and will need to be replaced. The
rings should slide in easily but not fit too loosely.
3. To hold the rings in place, drill a $" hole through the top of the coupling and the ring, and
insert a cotter pin. For uniformity, mark these holes using the paper guide used in Step 1 .
John Hollowgy Low-Cost ACL Fixtures

YOKE CONSTRUCTION

1. Cut strips of $" Plexiglas@to the dimensions shown in Figure 2. I used white Plexiglas@to
match the PVC, but color makes no difference if you will be painting them later. Be sure to
sand all the corners and edges before you bend the yokes.
2. Using a jig to ensure exact duplication, drill E''holes as indicated.
3. Using two layers of p" plywood, make the jig illustrated in Figure 3 . Both A and B will be used.
Attach B to a scrap plywood base. It is best if the base has a very smooth surface. Trim an
extra t''
from the inside of A to allow space for the thickness of the Plexiglas@.

2: YOKE DETAILS
FIGURE FIGURE
3: PLYWOOD
TEMPLATE

4. Using a heat gun, heat the center 12" of the yoke until an easy plasticity is reached. It may
be best to practice this on a piece of scrap if you've never done it before. Bend the yoke around
your form, and then use A to hold it in place for a few seconds until it cools and becomes rigid.

ASSEMBLY

Assembly should be an easy and obvious matter by this point. Be sure to use wing nuts on the
bolts in order to facilitate focusing. I used a hex head bolt to attach the furture directly to the
truss.

15
Two Devices for Simplifjr’ng Cable Tracing Steven A.Balk

Cable tracing can be a frustrating and time-consuming task. This article describes two inexpen-
sive testing devices used by other industries that can make this job much easier and faster. The
first device comprises two Progressive Electronics, Inc. (PEI)products: the Tracer@,model 77A and
the Inductive Amplifier@,model 200A. Together, these two units can be used to identify one partic-
ular pair of wires in a multi-conductor cable. The second testing device, the Tic TraceP, manu-
factured by TIF Instruments, can be used to indicate the presence of voltage in on-line AC electri-
cal equipment or cable.

IDENTIFYING CONDUCTOR PAIRS

Isolating one pair of conductors in a multi-conductor cable is difficult when color coding has been
duplicated or ignored. Using a VOM to identify the pair can be very time-consuming because of the
number of steps involved and the number of wire pair combinations you need to test for. A much
easier and faster method makes use of the PEI products noted above.

The TraceP generates an alternating signal that can be transmitted through a pair of wires. After
connecting the leads of the Tracer@to one end of the wire pair to be traced, the technician moves
the Inductive Amplifier@back and forth across all the conductor pairs at the opposite end of the
bundle. During this process, the Tracer’s@signal fades in and out, and the pair the technician
wants to trace is the pair that provides the strongest signal.

Because the Inductive Amplifiers is capable of receiving the Tracer’s@signal through the wire’s
insulation, it is unnecessary to strip conductors before tracing. Moreover, this pair of instruments
can be used on either AC or DC circuits. Though the Tracer’# signal can be detected in live DC
circuits, its signal resembles alternating current, and any AC conductors to be traced must first be
taken off line. Nevertheless, using the Tracers and the Inductive Amplifiefl rather than a VOM,
the technician can save a great deal of time since there is no need to short wires together, strip back
leads, or test all the combinations of conductors one at a time.

LOCATING BREAKS IN LIVE AC CIRCUITS

It is not uncommon to string several shorter cables together in order to form one long AC circuit.
If power does not reach the end of the cable, it is necessary to determine where the break is locat-
ed. This, too, can be accomplished using a VOM, but, as with conductor-pair identification, it can
be a very time-consuming process. Starting at the dimmer, the technician must check voltages at
all connections. After finding a non-powered connection, the technician must discover whether the
fault lies in the female connector, the male connector, or the cable itself.

TIF Instruments’ Tic TraceP offers a faster and easier method of locating such faults. The Tic
Tracer@picks up the presence of the magnetic field created by an AC potential. The condition of a
live AC circuit is indicated by the frequency of the audible tics the device generates. In the vicini-
ty of a strong voltage the tics are close enough together to produce a steady tone: if there is a low
voltage, the tics are farther apart.

Testing proceeds by powering the suspect line and testing each connection in turn, starting at the
source. As long as there is a steady tone, the circuit is still sound. A steady tone on one side of a
connection but not on the other indicates the presence of a fault.
Steven A.Balk Two Devices for Simplifylng Cable Tracing

FINAL NOTES

All three units described above are portable: the PEI units can be worn on a belt, and TIFs Tic
Tracer@fits handily in a back pocket. In addition, their cost is extremely reasonable. Together the
PEI devices cost approximately $60.00; TIFs Tic Tracefl, about $30.00.

Time is one of theatre technicians’ most valuable assets. Whenever there is a complicated special
effect with many control lines, or when large cable bundles are used to power remote lighting tow-
ers, there will most likely be wiring problems. By using either of the devices described here, these
problems can be solved quickly and easily.

For more information, contact the manufacturers at the following addresses:

Progressive Electronics, Inc.

325 South El Dorado
Mesa.= 85202

TIF Instruments
9101 North W. 7th Ave.
Miami, FL 33150

17
 Lighting Effects

Simple Smoke Michael D. Fain

A Fog Machine Silencer Kenneth Sanders

A Fog Manifold Andy Sharp

Groundrow Fog Disperser Tim Clinton

Pyro Stand Michael D. Fain

A Photographic Aid in the Preparation of Scenic Jon Farley

Projections

A BiUy Woods
Simple Smoke Michael D. Fain

Limited amounts of non-toxic smoke can be easily and inexpensively produced by heating small
quantities of ammonium chloride (NH,CL, sal ammoniac) in a heater cone or in an aluminum pan
on a standard hot plate. Ammonium chloride can be found at most chemical supply stores for
approximately $3.00 per pound. A heater cone is a n inexpensive ($4.00)porcelain cone with a heat-
ing element wrapped around it. The cone holds a small quantity of powder (1 0 2 . ) and has the
advantage of heating up and cooling off more rapidly than a hot plate. A hot plate with a heating
control allows more effective control over the duration of the smoke.

The white smoke produced rises slowly and can linger for 10 to 15 minutes in a space with little
circulation. Another attractive feature of ammonium chloride smoke is that it doesn't leave a
residue. No oil, wetness, or powder is left after it has dispersed. However, the airborne particles
can be an imtant if the smoke is used in large quantities over extended periods of time. The
smoke's chemical odor can be improved by adding a small quantity of cinnamon to the ammonium
chloride.

It is necessary to test each application to determine the quantity of powder to use, the length of
time it will take to produce smoke, the best device(s)to heat it in, and whether prevailing drafts will
affect the direction of the smoke. A small quantity of powder heats and produces smoke faster than
a large amount (4 to 6 minutes is average). After a portion of the powder begins to smoke, more
can be added to sustain or increase the volume of smoke. For consistent results use fresh powder
each time. When the heated powder turns dark brown it should be removed from the heat. More
than one hot plate or cone can be used to increase the volume of smoke or to have it originate from
more than one place. Many theatres have prevailing drafts on stage. Such currents should be
noted during testing under full lighting and the sources of the smoke placed accordingly. If the
smoke needs to disperse quickly, exhaust ventilation will be necessary. In many theatres smoke
onstage will pour into the house, requiring exhaust ventilation in the house.

Two examples of the use of ammonium chloride smoke are as follows: first, a light smoke effect
was needed to represent a small cooking fire. A hot plate was built into a fireproof box inside a fire-
place. One ounce of ammonium chloride powder and cinnamon was poured into a pile in the cen-
ter of the pan. Heated for 5 minutes, the powder smoked lightly for 8 to 10 minutes. The smoke
rose slowly up and offstage, collected as a haze at about 12' after 6 or 7 minutes, and then dissi-
pated within 3 or 4 minutes. The effect succeeded because it gave a n indication of smoke without
being obtrusive. Second, for a troll scene demanding a heavier smoke effect, one cup of powder was
evenly spread to a depth of $'' in a pan. After 5 minutes of heating, a light smoke developed for the
transition and was quickly followed by billowing clouds for the trolls' entrance. The hot plate was
placed stage left to take advantage of a left-to-right draft. The smoke was quickly drawn onto the
stage where it remained for 10 to 15 minutes. The smoke revealed brilliant beams of light as the
light illuminated the particles in the air.

SAFETY WARNING

Though non-toxic, the smoke generated by this method is widely recognized as a respiratory i m -
tant. Each heater cone should be attended at all times by an operator with a fire extinguisher.
Kenneth Sanders A Fog Machine Silencer

One common problem in using a fogger is noise. The machine's hissing sound is particularly unde-
sirable in an intimate space, since it distracts the audience and also reminds them that technolo-
gy is being used to create an effect.

Fortunately, the problem can be easily and quite inexpensively solved. C . Windsor Wheeler, Master
Carpenter of the 1985 Champlain Shakespeare Festival in Burlington, VT, borrowed principles from
the firearms industry to construct a silencer that solved the problem quite well.

Mr. Wheeler bored a series of uniformly spaced 5"

holes along the length of two pieces of schedule
40 PVC pipe, one measuring $'I x 18+':and the other, 3" x 18". See Figure 1 for hole placement.

v U v v v v v W W
3" Schedule 40
PVC Pipe
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3"
- 4 Schedule 40
PVC Pipe
15 0. c. -1"
18" 2

I FIGURE
1

He then formed a cylinder of standard-density

Styrofoam@to sleeve over the $It schedule 40 PVC 3"Schedule 40
PVC Pipe
pipe and inside the 3" schedule 40 PVC pipe. After
coating the outside of the $" pipe and the foam -
3"
Schedule 40
4
cylinder with 3M's Fastbond 30@,he assembled PVC Pipe
the pipes and cylinder, offsetting the holes in the
inner pipe by 45" a s in Figure 2.

The if' long section of the all pipe that protrudes

out of the assembly slid easily but securely into
the discharge opening of a Theatre Magic FR1 fog
machine.

Not only does this device significantly reduce the

Note Relative Hole Placement
noise produced by the machine, but, with the dis-
charge end of the silencer fitted with a tee or other
PVC connector, the machine is easily set up for
satellite lines.
I
I
FIGURE
2
A Fog Manifold A n 4 Sharp

For a Yale Repertory Theatre production of The Alchemist, the set designer requested five practical
chimneys that could smoke either independently or in conjunction with each other. The problem
we faced was how to make one fogger serve as five. Master Electrician Donald W. Titus devised the
fog manifold shown in Figure 1: a collection box fitted with five separately controlled PC fans that
would deliver fog to desired locations through PVC piping. Turning one or more fans on pushed fog
through the desired chimneys while pulling air backwards through any non-active chimneys.

output Ports
\ \ \ \ \

COMPONENTS
$" plywood Manifold Box with 3"-diameter input and output ports and a removable panel
PC Fans (available from Radio Shack)
Water Closet (toilet) Flanges with 3" mouths
3" schedule 40 PVC Pipe, Elbows, and Couplings
Dryer Hose and Duct Tape
Silicone Sealant

CONSTRUCTION

We built our box 18"high, 2' deep, and 3' long. The input port was cut into one end at a height
that would align rvith a fog machine's nozzle when both fogger and box stood on the same surface.
We cut five output ports into the top, enabling us to run our PVC pipe straight up, with the box tak-
ing their weight. A removable side panel allowed us to get to the fans inside the box as necessary.
Assembly instructions follow.
A n 4 Sbaq A Fog Manifold

1. Bolt the fans in place on the inside of the box, lining them up with the output holes, and put-
ting the nuts inside the box.
2. Attach the water closet flanges to the outside of the box, again lining them up with the ports.
If possible, use one set of bolts to join both fan and flange to the box. Otherwise, countersink
the heads of the fans’ bolts or use silicone sealant between flange and box. Whatever the
approach, make the resulting seal airtight.
3. Wire the fans and run the wires out through a hole in the top or side. Caulk the hole.
4. Place the box in the most convenient position backstage and attach the PVC pipe. There is no
need to cement the joints if the elbows and couplings fit snugly, particularly if the joints are
duct taped. This practice also leaves the PVC pipe and connectors reusable.
5. Run the fogger into the box. Test each run for leaks and for fog-transit time by turning the
fans on as they will be used in the show.
Groundrow Fog Disperser Tim Clinton

As well as serving as technical support for the Fine A r t s departments, the University Theatre of the
University of Calgary Campus is a rental facility for all types of performances. One thing that these
groups often want is fog.

These days, chemical fog machines are pretty reliable, and, with water-based juice, they're not even
very messy. So fog is easy to do, right? Even dry-ice fog is no problem. In our theatre, however,
these shows are often performed on a bare stage, and we had no method of getting the fog on stage
other than setting up the outlets of the fog machines just inside the wings and letting it waft
onstage. That would probably work except for the fact that in our theatre the prevailing winds blow
the wrong direction, and the final effect was that I would either be waist deep in dry ice fog or suf-
focating in chemical fog backstage. Only 60% of the fog ever made it onstage, and it seemed like a
waste, as well as being uncomfortable, for the little effect that it was having onstage.

1"
3 Rotary Mahogany

- -
escaping out the back.

I FIGURE
1: REAR VIEWOF GROUNDROW

When we decided that it was time to build a new groundrow for the stage, it occurred to me that
here was a chance to try an experiment. Our groundrow hides the gap between the cyc and the
stage floor, and gives u s a place to hide strip lights for lighting the cyc. There would also be room
inside for a bit of plumbing. The new groundrow (see Figures 1 and 2) is built in two 18' sections,
replacing the old one, which was in five sections. Running through the length of each section is a
piece of 1$" schedule 40 ABS plastic pipe. In the center 10' of each section, slots cut in the pipe
feed fog into a channel that leads to an opening in the groundrow's lower front edge. When the two
sections of the groundrow are placed end to end, the pipe ends butt together. This allows fog to be
fed in from either or both ends at once.
 1
Tim Clinton Groundrow Fog Disperser

Exit openings under center --,

10' of front edge of each section
of groundrow

~ Slot cut in tubing to direct

fog out front edge.

Fog fed in from offstage edge

flows along length and continues
on to next section.

FIGURE
2: BOTTOM
VIEWOF GROUNDROW

The l + "tubing with standard fittings found in any plumbing supply store fits perfectly onto the
i"
outlet nozzle of the Rosco fog machines that we use. A simple adapter from 1 to 4" allows easy
changeover to the 4" flexible dryer hose we use on the dry ice machines. This rather inexpensive
experiment (adding only the cost of the AT3S pipe and fittings to the price of a piece of equipment
we were building anyway) permits us to deliver the fog to center stage with a minimum of fuss.

NOTE

This article appeared first in the September 1989 Alberta Section USITTNewsZetter and was sub-
mitted by the author for publication here.

25
Pyro Stand Michael D. Fain

An effect of an exploding ship was desired for a production of Peer Gynt. We investigated the idea
of using the Pyropak@airburst placed on a stand to create the effect. The Pyropak@airburst charge
is a small quantity (1 teaspoon or less) of airburst flash powder contained in a 3" x 3" square of
flash paper tied into a small bundle with an electric match inserted into the center. See Figure 1.
The airburst charge leads are attached to the airburst transformer terminals, and the transformer
is connected to the Pyropak@multi-channel controller.

Electric Match -/I/'

1"
3 Roundstock

1: FULL-SCALE
FIGURE PICTOFUAL

The ship, located 3' upstage of a white scrim and 4' downstage of a light blue cyc, was constructed
of black tie line and flame-proofed muslin. The pyro stand was placed 1' upstage of the ship.
Pyropaks@manufacturer, LunaTech, Inc., recommends keeping the stand's distance from flamma-
ble materials equal to the diameter of the burst, but our explosion's proximity to the ship and to
drops made that impossible. No flammable materials were located on either side or above the area
of the explosion, however, so we decided to change the shape of the explosion to a more nearly two-
dimensional fan shape. See Figure 2.

We constructed a stand to direct the explosion as well as position it at the proper height. A 2+"
length of 1"-deep steel channel was welded to a 5' length of +'' round steel rod that was threaded
into a small boom base. A hole drilled near the center of the channel allowed the leads of a n
electric match (ignitor) to drop through and connect to the transformer terminal.

Through testing we determined that one cap (approximately teaspoon) of Pyropakm Regular Air-
burst Flash Powders created a fan-shaped burst approximately 10' high and 20' wide.
Michael D. Fain Pyro Stand

I
\ I /
I
I
I
I
I
\ Ii
I1,

Front View Side View

FIGURE 2: FRONT
AND S I D E VIEWS

For more specific information about the Pyropak@airburst, contact the manufacturer:

LunaTech, Inc.
P.O. Box 2495
Huntsville, AL 35804
(205) 533- 1487

27
A Photographic Aid in the Preparation of Jon Fad9
Scenic Projections

When projected images must closely align with stage scenery, it becomes vital to know what the
stage looks like from the projector's point of view. Careful preparation of artwork must compensate
for the focal length of the lens, length of throw, and angle of the projector axis relative to the pro-
jection surface. In simple cases, these factors can be dealt with by drafting a distorted grid and
scaling the artwork on it. In most cases, however, the preparation of such a grid is extremely dif-
ficult because of the complex geometry involved.

A simple technique useful in correcting artwork for projection geometry is the photographing of the
stage with the scenic projector that will eventually be used to project the image. By doing this it is
possible to create a print containing an image of the stage that is inherently corrected for projec-
tion angle and lens characteristics and exactly the same size as the final slide. This image can be
traced directly in the preparation of hand-painted slides or enlarged to fit any scale in which the
designer wishes to work. If a pre-distorted grid is desired, it can be easily produced by working
from known vertical and horizontal lines in the image. Regardless of how the print is used, remem-
ber that the image is reversed and inverted so suitable corrections in artwork must be made.

The technique is simple, inexpensive, and can be performed by anyone with minimal darkroom
experience. Slides that are correct the first time should be easy to produce. The following describes
the process.

MATERIALS

Black and white photographic paper. Any moderately high contrast paper will do, but resin-
coated paper is best. Kodabromide W , Grade 3 would be a good choice.
Chemicals
Kodak DektolB Developer
Kodak Indicator@Stop Bath
Kodak Fixer
Three Processing Trays
Photographic Safe Light
Paper Cutter
Two Glass Slides or 35mm Glass Slide Mount depending on the projector
Focus Slide
Portable Floodlight (500W to lOOOW quartz is best.)
3
4 masking tape
1,

PROCEDURE

1. Line the set with masking tape. Outline important features with masking tape so they will be
easily identifiable in the print. If the set is all white, a dark-colored tape should be used.
2. Install the projector. Place the focus slide in the projector and turn on the lamp. Aim the pro-
jector so its field covers the desired area and the image is in focus. With certain large lens pro-
jectors, it may be necessary to add a diaphragm to the front of the projector to effectively stop
down the lens and bring the image to acceptable clarity. A suitable one can be made by cut-
ting a 1" to 3" hole in a piece of matte board and placing it in the color frame of the lens.
3. Lock the projector down. From this time until the closing of the show, the projector should
not be moved. If it is, accurate slide alignment will be very difficult to achieve.
4. Turn the projector off, allow it to cool, and remove the focus slide.
Jon Farly A Photographic Aid in the Preparation of
Scenic Projections

5. Set up the chemicals. The prints will be processed immediately after exposure so the trays
should be convenient to the projector.
6. Darken the theatre. The theatre now becomes a photographic darkroom. All light except a
safe light near the projector must be extinguished. Light leakage through doors must be
stopped and exit signs temporarily turned off.
7. Prepare the photographic paper. Once the theatre is dark, open the package of paper. Cut a
piece to exactly the size of the finished slide and return the remaining paper to its package. If
desired, paper can be cut in advance and transported to the theatre in a light-proof contain-
er. For large-format projectors, sandwich the cut piece between two glass slides; for 35mm,
place it in the glass slide mount. Place the mounted paper in the gate of the projector with the
emulsion side facing the stage.
8. Expose the paper. Since most projectors do not have shutters, exposure is controlled by the
amount of time the set is lit. This can best be accomplished by “painting”the set with a hand-
held floodlight for a measured amount of time. Start with an exposure of 15 seconds and
adjust a s necessary. I t is important that all areas of interest receive even doses of light and
that the flood is never shown directly at the projector. A human figure included in the scene
will give a sense of scale to the image.
9. Develop the paper. Remove the paper from the projector and process like any photographic
print.
10. Restore light to the theatre and check the print. A few tries will be needed to get a satisfacto-
ry image. Adjust exposure time and concentration of light as needed to improve the results.
11. Document the print. Be sure to record exposure time, position of projector, and date on the
back of the print. This will facilitate its later use.

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

If desired, Kodak Ektamatic Stabilization Process Print Paper@can be used in this application. I t
has the advantage of a faster and simpler chemistry, which expedites the exposure process and
eliminates some of the mess of the three open chemical baths. Its disadvantages are the expense
of a processing machine (about $300), and the relatively short life of the resulting prints (about 6
to 8 months).

Do not attempt to use an auto-focusing projector. The auto-focus mechanism shines a separate
light into the projector gate, which will fog photographic paper and thus ruin the print.

SOURCE

R. Duncan MacKenzie.
A Fiber-optic Star Drop BiIb Woods

The most commonly used technique to give the illusion of stars is low-wattage lamps, laboriously
wired into a fairly bulky sky drop. This article describes a much lighter, more quickly built, and
more durable sky drop, which uses fiber-optic filaments in place of both the lamps and the wires
that connect them.

While high-grade fiber optics were developed for the communications field, Mitsubishi Rayon
Company has developed a grade of less expensive fiber optics especially suited to theatre. Marketed
under the trade name of Eskam in diameters of 0.1 to 3.0 millimeters, this durable plastic filament
can be purchased in spools of up to 2.4 kilometers in length.

BUILDING A FIBER-OF’TIC STAR DROP

In the earliest stage, building a fiber-optic star drop is no harder than building a low-wattage lamp
star drop. The lighting designer maps out the location of the stars on a black drop with bits of
masking tape. At the same time, the master electrician plots the best offstage location for the two
or more 250W Fresnels or lekos that will be the sources of the starlight. The best locations are
those that are well masked, are out of stage traffic patterns, and will result in the use of the short-
est fiber-optic filaments. Once both the stars and the positions of the light sources have been locat-
ed, assembly proceeds as follows:

1. Modify a 4x4 duplex box as follows. Spot-weld the open face of the box to a piece of sheet metal
that will slide into the gel-frame holder of the light source. Screw romex connectors into the
knockouts on the back of the box.
2. Poke individual strands of fiber-optic filament through the drop from the back, letting them
extend about beyond the front and hot glue each filament to the drop at its point of pene-
tration.
3. Group the filaments into “trunk lines” and run them along the back of the drop toward one of
the starlight sources.
4. Cut the filaments to a generously long rough length.
5. Lay the trunk lines flat against the back of the drop and gaffers’ tape them in place.
6. Where the trunk lines extend beyond the edges of the drop, heat-shrink or cable-wrap them
into bundles that run to the light sources.
7. Trim the bundles to their final length and fit the ends with SO connectors to prevent crush-
ing. Insert the ends into the romex connectors and tighten the connectors.

EMBELLISHMENTS

In the night sky stars vary in size, color, and intensity, all of which can be approximated by mak-
ing changes at the starlight source instruments and/or at the star points. Varying the wattage of
the lamps in the source instrument or putting a gel in the frame can add color variety. Variety can
also be achieved by treating individual filament tips (the stars). An untreated tip has a 60” light
output angle. Touching a tip with a soldering iron causes it to mushroom, increasing the output
angle and making the star appear dimmer. Sanding a tip with very fine dry-wet sandpaper makes
the star seem to sparkle when viewed from the house. Dipping tips in transparent lamp dye adds
color dimension. A little creative experimentation may yield surprising results.
Bi.& Woods A Fiber-optic Star Drop

FINAL NOTES

The materials cost of a fiber-optics star drop is greater than that of a low-wattage-lamp star drop.
A 2700-meter spool of 0.75mm Eska@costs approximately $900.00 wholesale. On the other hand,
the savings in labor far outweighs the materials cost. Building a 400-star fiber-optic star drop took
about 40 hours; building a low-wattage-lamp star drop of comparable size takes about 100 hours.
Fiber-optic star drops also weigh less than low-wattage-lamp star drops, are extremely durable, and
can be taken apart for reuse. They also take up fewer dimmers, allowing designers more control
elsewhere, and simplify troubleshooting since there are only a few real light sources and no sol-
dered connections.

SOURCE

Donald W. Titus.
A Television Lighting Effect Michael Van Dyke

Many modern scripts call for a television onstage. Directors and lighting designers want to see the
effect of the TV screen illumination on the actors and the scenery. The easiest way to achieve this
effect is to plug in a working TV with the volume turned down. There are several disadvantages to
a practical television, however. The intensity of the light coming from the screen cannot be adjust-
ed beyond the limit of the set’s brightness control. The effect cannot be faded in and out of the
scene with the stage lights. And, unless a videotape is used, the effect is inconsistent since few sta-
tions broadcast the same episodes of the same shows night after night.

The effect of the light from a TV screen is a n apparently random variation of intensity that changes
smoothly through camera panning, fades, and the like, as well as abruptly through camera cuts.

190m
+5vm - b A ” L
output output output output output output
to to to to
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, 200m

7
8 7 6 51 .01

3-
I 7474

5
3-.
I

1 : CLOCK
FIGURE AND ?TL RANDOM POWERSUPPLY:k5vDC
NUMBERGENERATOR

To achieve this effect and solve the problems of using a working TV set, I devised a n electronic cir-
cuit to vary randomly the controller output to an SCR dimmer to control a stage lighting instrument
placed in a gutted TV set. See Figures 1 and 2.

The circuit is based on a pseudo-random number generator triggered by a n electronic pulse maker
(the “clock). I chose a six-digit generator that gives a repeating sequence length of 63 distinct
states, hence the term ‘‘pseudo’’-random. The values of the first three digits are sent to a n opera-
tional amplifier to be translated into voltage values that change immediately. The second three dig-

32
Michael Van Dyke A Television Lighting Effect

FET
.. 2N38 19

z-1
E
20m

Inputs 0 -
I

2: VOLTAGE
FIGURE VARIATION
CIRCUIT SUPPLY:
POWER 15VDC

its are sent to an op-amp to be translated into voltage values that change slowly. A third voltage
value with a potentiometer allows for setting the base level of brightness of the effect from which
the changes occur. These three voltage values are added together proportionally in a summing
amplifier to equal the voltage range required by the dimmer. The additional amplifier stages accom-
modate the polarity needs of the control voltage and input of the controller signal.

Through experimentation I found that the smooth changes still occurred too frequently. To reme-
dy that problem, I arranged to send the second three digits through additional flip-flops to reduce
their rate of change to one-half the time of the abrupt changes.

Built into the circuit are three variables to allow adjustment of the effect to suit individual needs
and tastes. The clock pulse that controls how quickly the voltage digits change is adjustable
through variable resistors from a little less than one pulse per second to several hundred pulses
per second. Both the abrupt and smooth change op-amps have variable resistors to allow adjust-
ment of the proportion of one to the other. I have already mentioned the variable base level of
brightness of the effect. There is one additional potentiometer near the dimmer input to balance
the input signal for the particular control voltage required by the system. This pot would normal-
ly be set once and then left alone.

Although this circuit was conceived as a television effect, it seems potentially useful for other
effects. Fire comes to mind immediately. Because the circuit controls the output of a n entire dim-
mer, the effect is limited in scope only by the capacity of the dimmer.
Dancing Light Martin Gwinzlp

Creating a lighting effect that works in rhythm with a music cue can be easily accomplished.
Tinkerbelle’s magical appearances would be one example. The idea is a simple, inexpensive and yet
effective way of achieving this type of effect. First, decide on how you would like the light to hit the
stage. Install the effect where you would normally place a n instrument to light this area.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

A Loudspeaker (one that will be used solely for this effect)

Broken Mirror Pieces
A Heavy-Rubber Balloon
A Lighting Instrument (preferably one with a fairly direct and sharp beam)

PROCESS

1. Cut the balloon open so that you have a flat piece of rubber. Stretch this over the face of the
speaker and attach with any reasonable adhesive. If the rubber is heavy enough, hot-melt glue
will work nicely. “Super glues” also work well.
2. Using the same adhesive, glue a number of mirror pieces to the balloon covering the speaker.
3. Install the speaker in the chosen position. Patch the speaker into the theatre’s sound system,
giving it a separate output so that its volume can be adjusted independently.
4. Focus the instrument at the face of the speaker. Adjust the speaker and the instrument so
that the mirror’s reflected light hits the desired area on stage.

Passing sound through the speaker will make the balloon vibrate and the reflected light “dance”in
rhythm to the sound.

NOTES

The effect will work with any type of sound going through the speaker, but to optimize the vibra-
tions the speaker’s frequency response should be suited to the frequency range of the sound being
fed to it. Be especially careful to avoid setting the lighting instrument too close to the speaker: it
will melt the balloon.
 Painting

Theatrical Applications of Aniline Dye Theodore G. Ohl

Metallic Painting Process Judy Zanotti

Frosting Plexiglas@Windows with Beer and Epsom Salts Curtis Hardison

Texture Techniques Using Paper and Flexible Glue Martin Gwinup

Photo-Murals for the Stage Christopher H.Barreca

Painting Photographic Scenery Using Friskets Charles Grammer

Photocopy Transfers David A. Stach

Theatrical Applications of Aniline Dye Theodore G. Obl

Several types of aniline dye are available. A very useful type for theatrical applications is soluble
in either water or alcohol. A wide color palette is available with aniline dyes. They are also quite
inexpensive, as aniline dye powder is extremely concentrated.

To mix a concentrated dye solution dissolve about a teaspoon of dye in a quart of boiling water.
This concentrated solution can be stored in closed containers until needed and then diluted with
water to achieve the desired color intensity. For applications that require flame-retardant qualities,
the solution can be diluted with water in which flameproofing salts have been dissolved.

Shellac-based aniline dye can be used to give a deep, translucent color to surfaces to which water-
based dye will not adhere. To use shellac as a medium and binder, use a quart of unheated alco-
hol instead of the boiling water, and mix this concentrated solution into shellac to achieve the
desired color intensity. Lightly saturated shellac-based dye can also be used to achieve a rich,
toned-down surface.

A major drawback to the use of aniline dye is its tendency to bleed through subsequent coats of
paint. This problem can be circumvented by applying a topcoat solution of bronzing powder and
white shellac. Mix enough bronzing powder into the shellac to produce a thin opaque film on the
dyed surface. The shellac should be stirred frequently while being applied to keep the bronzing
powder evenly mixed. This film protects subsequent layers of finish - unless the finish contains
alcohol, which will weaken or dissolve the shellac and permit the dye to bleed through. Further, a
finish containing ammonia (such as high-gloss latex paint) will slightly damage a single coat of shel-
lac and bronzing powder. Two coats of shellac and bronzing powder will usually prevent the ani-
line dye from bleeding through.

HEALTH AND SAFETY NOTES

Use care when working with ani,,ne dye: it is a carcinogen. Minimal precautions should involve
the use of barrier creams: non-permeable, chemical-resistant gloves: and a face mask if not a res-
pirator.
Jzld3/ Zanotti Metallic Painting Process

The following is a step-by-step process for obtaining a metallic finish on props.

BASE COAT

For the best results use an acrylic paint. On large props a mixture of clear latex and dry pigment
can be used. Metal finishes such as pewter, silver, and steel can be achieved with a base coat in
the blue to black range. Golds, bronzes, and brasses should be based in reds, browns, or greens,
depending on the desired look.

TEXTURE

Go over the base coat with millinery lacquer and bronzing powder, which comes in a variety of dif-
ferent metals and should be used rather sparingly. Dip your brush into the millinery lacquer and
then into a small amount of bronzing powder. Apply it to 75% to 85% of the surface area, leaving
random patches of the base coat showing.

FRENCH ENAMEL VARNISH (FEV)

Give the prop a coat of French enamel varnish:

1 pint Denatured Alcohol
Approximately 2 tablespoons White Shellac
Fiebing’s Dye@,(color and amount depend on the color desired). Fiebing’s
Dye? a leather dye available in many colors, is a recognized health haz-
ard. Insist that anyone who works with it wear gloves and other pro-
tective clothing as well as a respirator with an appropriate filter.

The varnish shouldn’t be shiny when dry. If it is, dilute the mixture with a little more alcohol.

SHADOW

Using the base coat, shadow in about 20% of the prop’s surface.

HIGHLIGHT

Finish the process by highlighting about 3% of the prop’s surface with a combination of millinery
lacquer and bronzing powder, a shade lighter than that used before.

The look obtained with this process can vary so much that it is important to experiment with each
step in combination with the others before trying a finished piece. Each step should be dry before
going on to the next. If, after a long period of storage, the finish has started to dull, it can be revi-
talized by starting with the FEV step and following through to the end.

SOURCE

Hunter Nesbitt Spence.

Frosting Plexiglas@Windows with Beer and Cudr Hardison
Epsom Salts

One easy way to treat Plexiglas@windows so that they appear to have been frosted by the cold is
with a mixture of beer and epsom salts. This method is quick and much less laborious than sand-
ing the Plexiglas@with sandpaper. The beer acts as a medium and as a binder for the epsom salts.
After the beer has evaporated, the salts remain on the Plexiglas@,giving it a frosted appearance.

PROCESS

1. Mix the beer and epsom salts. A 2:l mix of beer to salts seems to work well, though an
increase in the amount of salts will result in a heavier frost.
2. Sponge the mixture onto the Plexiglas@. The Plexiglas@needs to be clean and laid flat to pre-
vent the mixture from running before it dries. As the mixture dries, add more frost to small-
er areas as desired.

NOTES

The mixture will take about twelve hours to dry, and there is no need to seal or treat the finished
surface in any other way. After it has dried, “de-frosting” areas of the Plexiglas@can be done with
a sponge and clean water. The frosting is very durable and should last the run of a show. One
other advantage to this approach is that the Plexiglas@can be cleaned and reused after the show is
over.

SOURCE

Sally Barr.
Martin Gwinzlp Texture Techniques Using Paper and Flexible Glue

One of the many problems faced by technicians, painters, and designers is that of achieving believ-
able relief textures on stage. Here is an inexpensive process that can produce textures ranging from
stucco to leather and is so simple that anyone - even those without scene-painting experience -
can master it in a short amount of time.

MATERIALS

The process uses two basic materials: paper products and flexible glue. The paper chosen depends
on the texture to be created. Used paper towels simulate rice mats or leather, toilet tissue resem-
bles floorplanks, and paper doilies work well for wallpaper patterns. Wrinkled wrapping tissue
looks convincingly like stained glass, and wadded paper napkins resemble stucco. The possibili-
ties for different textures with this process are almost limitless.

The flexible glue has many advantageous properties. I t is easy to work with, has no toxic proper-
ties, and dries faster than most other glues. Its sheen makes it ideal for use with finish glazes.
Further, since it remains flexible when cured, it wears very well as a floor surface and can even be
mopped. In combination with whatever paints, dyes, or bronzing powders you use, you can create
an endless number of realistic textures with these two materials.

EXAMPLE APPLICATION

Here is one idea using standard wrapping tissue to achieve high-quality wood grain textures rang-
ing from paneling to wooden beams, logs, and bark.

1. Wrinkle the wrapping tissue up the long way, one sheet at a time. Rather than wadding it up
into a ball, gather it along its full length. Prepare a number of sheets at once. Tear a ragged
edge along the top and bottom of each piece so there will be no defined line where the pieces
overlap.
2. Next, mix a batch of the flexible glue, cutting the glue with water. A 2: 1 water to glue ratio is
commonly used, but a different ratio may work better in some applications.
3. Apply the glue generously to the surface to be textured. Lay the tissue paper onto the surface
with its wrinkles oriented in the desired grain direction. Without crushing the wrinkles, dab
it with fingertips or a brush to keep it in place.
4. Brush a second coat of glue over the applied tissue, being careful to keep from flattening the
wrinkles. The depth of wrinkles left will determine the ultimate roughness of the texture.
5. Once the piece is dry the surface is ready to paint. In painting, do not worry about leaving
some small sundays: the dye glaze overcoat described below will heighten the contrast
between the painted and unpainted areas, and deepen and enrich the finish.
6. While the paint is drying, mix the dye glaze. Though the proportions of components depends
entirely on the desired finish, here is one possible recipe:
1 gallon Water
1 teaspoon Aniline Dye dissolved in water
2 cups Flexible Glue
7. Apply the glaze to the painted and textured surface, taking care this time to cover every part
of the surface. Avoid leaving runs and drips, which cannot be covered once dry.
Texture Techniques Using Paper and Flexible Glue

SUPPLIERS

Several different types of useful paper products can be obtained in bulk and at reasonable cost from
paper supply houses. It is also possible to find manufacturers who will donate paper products that
are either the wrong item or size for the jobs they are doing. Be wary of paper products that come
with patterns dyed into them. Such patterns can be used with stunning success for, say, a wall-
paper pattern, but the dyes they use might bleed through any attempt at a paint overcoat and
remain inappropriately visible in other surface finishes.

Two suppliers of flexible glues are ...

Swift's Products (see local Yellow Pages)
Spectra Dynamics of Albuquerque, New Mexico.

HEALTH AND SAFETY NOTES

Use care when working with aniline dye: it is a carcinogen. Minimal precautions should involve
the use of bamer creams; non-permeable, chemical-resistant gloves: and a face mask if not a res-
pirator.

SOURCE

Don Hannon.

40
ChiJtopher H. Barreca Photo-Murals for the Stage

A photo-mural is, roughly, any photo-enlargement larger than 20" x 24". Commercial black and
white mural processing costs about $5.00 per square foot: mounting, toning, and special negative
preparation are extra. I t is possible to process black and white photo-murals at about a quarter of
the commercial cost. The three steps are shooting and choosing the negative, testing and printing,
and mounting and finishing the mural.

SHOOTING AND CHOOSING THE NEGATIVE

The negative must be clean, sharp, fine-grained, and of relatively high contrast. For shooting neg-
atives of print material, use a very fine-grained film such a s Kodak Plus-X Pan Professional@. Set
the original under a clean piece of glass on a matte-black surface and shoot with a tripod-mount-
ed camera. The lighting should be diffuse and color corrected to 3600°K. Take at least 3 shots of
each print, subtly changing the f/stop and focus. Have the film processed commercially. Crop and
mount the negatives in plastic slide mounts. For shooting live, using a faster speed film such as
Kodak Tri-X Pan@will allow you to shoot in lower light conditions without a large increase in grain.
Set the shutter speed at no slower than & of a second to stop motion. If your light meter does not
register at this speed, you can push the film by adjusting your camera to a s much as twice the indi-
cated speed. Indicate how much you pushed the film when you have it processed. For each neg-
ative, have an 8x10 print made to use as a guide when processing the paper.

TESTING AND PRINTING

Kodak mural paper, contrast grade 3, is the only quality paper available for printing large murals.
I t comes in rolls of up to 4'-6" x 98'-0" and costs approximately $0.50 per square foot. Keep the
paper in its light-proof container until ready for use. Expose and process the paper in separate
exposing and developing areas set up in advance to avoid destructive delays during printing. Figure
1 illustrates a good layout. Maintain darkroom conditions in both areas: use photographic safe-
lights and keep the room temperature at 68".

f-20'-0"
Drainage 00-
Containers ---'
Clothesline-

I,,,,,-Exposing Easel

ar Chemical
Containers Plastic
Ground
Cloth
A

IIPaper Cutting
Table

Exposing Area
EE: lb \
Water Hose

Developing Area

FIGURE 1: EXPOSING
& DEVELOPING
&A LAYOUT

In the exposing area, set up the projector equipped with a diffusion card and a light-proof plywood
cover. See Figures 2 and 3. Keep the projector's lens level with the center of the exposing easel, a
framed Homasotem panel gridded into 3" squares and 12" larger than the mural in both directions.
Photo-Murals for the Stage Christopher H.Barreca

I I In the developing area set up the developing tray

I as shown in Figure 4 on a large plastic ground

'cl-
YDiffusion Card Card in Lamp Housing 7
cloth. Have ready 3 fivegallon plastic buckets
/

Black Matte Board containing the processing chemicals: developer:

Roscolux 114 fx:and hypo cleaning agent. For best results,
use Kodak Dektols developer diluted with one
part water to one part working developer solu-
2: DIFFUSION
FIGURE CARD& LAMPHOUSING tion. The temperature of all chemicals and water
should be between 65" and 70°F. Slight changes
in temperature of the developer can affect the
See Figure 2 density of prints. Also have ready 2 ten-gallon
plastic drainage buckets, rubber gloves, water
See Figure 5 hoses with hot and cold running water, a water
Remote thermometer, and a timing clock.
\See Figure 6
Before printing the mural, run tests to determine
the best combination of exposure and develop-
ment time. Choose the print with the sharpest
focus and best contrast range. Remove the pro-
jector's light-proof cover, put the corresponding
negative in the projector, and focus the image on
3: PROJECTOR & COVER
FIGURE the exposing easel. Place the &"-f/stop card
shown in Figure 5 in front of the lens and adjust
the focus. With a footcandle meter check the
3" light level at the easel - it should be $fc with the
Plastic-lined g Plywood Tray,
6"deep and 6"larger than mural on all sides 7 negative, 2fc without the negative. With the
image focused on the easel, pick a 6" square that
is of medium density and mark it with a push-
Pipe Pivot
pin. Reverse the slide tray to a blackout slide
Drain 1 shown in Figure 6 and lower the light-proof cover
and over the projector.
Plug
Cut a 6" square test piece of mural paper. Lay a
\ Kodak Projection Print Scale on the piece of
10-gal Drainage Bucket mural paper and push-pin the test piece and
scale to the easel over the square you picked ear-
Fixed Saw Horses Q sides lier. Turn the projector on and forward the tray
Removable Saw Horses Q ends to the negative. Expose the test for one minute,
Plastic Groundcloth 1 then reverse the tray to the blackout slide.

Process the test piece in the premixed chemicals.

FIGURE
4: DEVELOPING
TRAY Wear rubber gloves and agitate the test in each
container as follows: water rinse, 10 seconds:
developer, 3 minutes: water rinse, 15 seconds;
Black fE, 5 minutes: water rinse, 1 minute: hypo, 2
Matte-Board minutes: and water rinse, 5 minutes.
Donut
On the test print, you should see a circle divided
1 " 1"
Make Several - 32 dia. to 5 dia. into wedges that get progressively darker. These
relate to the divisions on the print scale. If the
I 5:
FIGURE m I C A L f/sTOP CARD print is very dark, use a smaller diameter f/stop
Christopher H. Barreca Photo-Murals for the Stage

card: if it’swashed out, use a larger diameter one. Pick the

wedge that is closest in density to that of the 8x10 print.
Slide Mount
The proper exposure time is marked in the corner of the Aluminum Foil - ’
wedge. Turn on the projector and pick three 6” squares;
I
one dark, one light, and one with a lot of detail. Pin up 3 Place in Tray on Either Side of Negative
I
pieces of mural paper to these areas and expose them for
the timing you chose. Process these as before and check I FIGURE6: BLACKOUTSLIDE I
their density against the 8x10 print. If the light test area
is washed out, you can “burn in” detail by exposing the Burning Tool
print for the allotted time and then exposing the light areas
for a few seconds more by waving a burning tool about 1’
in front of the lens to block out everything but the light
area. If the dark areas are too dark, you can “dodge”these
areas by waving a dodging tool about 1’in front of the lens,
blocking light to the darkest areas during the normal expo-
sure time. Figure 7 shows both tools. If contrast is low,
try a combination of underexposing and overdeveloping.

Develop the mural as follows: rinse with water for 10 sec- Dodging Tool
onds; drain the water into one of the ten-gallon containers; Coat Hanger Black
Wire7
~

plug the drain and pour in the developer; remove the end /’Matte Board
sawhorses and seesaw (rock) the tray for 3 minutes; check 2” oval
the highlight area for detail. Under safelights, prints will
appear deceptively dark; if necessary, “burn in” highlight
detail with a sponge soaked in fresh developer; drain the
developer back into its container and rinse with water for 15 seconds; plug the drain and pour in
the hypo; rock for 2 minutes: drain and wash with water for 5 minutes; hang the print up to dry or
wet mount it immediately.

MOUNTING AND FINISHING THE MURAL

The mounting surface must be rigid and smooth, like lauan or Masonitem. The mounting adhesive
can be any commercial chemical mounting adhesive. More economical is wet mounting with either
printers’ padding, or a 1:1 solution of white glue and water applied evenly to the mounting surface.
The wet mural can then be pressed in place with a damp sponge. Wrinkles can be removed by plac-
ing a wet rag in the center of the mural and allowing the edges to dry first.

Aniline dyes and magic markers are best for coloring prints, but commercial toners such as Kodak
sepia toner must be used for complete retoning. Lacquer seals prints best because it will not yel-
low. Clear latex is also satisfactory, but it will not stand up to outdoor use. Shellac and FEV can
be used for aging.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND WARNING

Under intense stage lights fading may occur. Conditions of humidity below 20% may cause brit-
tleness, and above 50% may cause discoloring and buckling. Recent studies have shown that pho-
tographic chemicals are highly toxic and carcinogenic. Wear rubber gloves and a respirator.

43
Painting Photographic Scenery Using Friskets Charles Grammer

The process described here is an inexpensive method of quickly duplicating the look of a high-con-
trast black and white photograph in a large scale. It is significantly cheaper than a painting pro-
duced by machine from a rendering, and it is quicker than painting a photo blow-up from a pro-
jected image. Three people painted about 1200 square feet of flattage in five days for a Yale School
of Drama production.

The method is based on the “frisket principle,” whereby objects are laid on a surface before it is
spray painted. When the objects are later removed, the shapes of the objects remain unpainted.
The process lends a certain freedom to the painting process but requires some experimentation with
materials.

In this application, a sequence of painting steps results in a photographic image comprising layered
shades of gray.

PROCEDURE

If the fabric used is to be mounted on a flat frame, paint it before framing to avoid inaccuracies that
would otherwise occur where the fabric sagged or paint sprayed under the frisket.
1. Staple the fabric to be painted onto the floor and prime it with white paint.
2. Mark important reference points on the fabric. Include the edges of the flat or drop, and draw
in other significant elements of the photo.
3. Assemble the frisket: place wood, rope, cloth, paper, and other materials on all of the areas
that are to remain white or a shade of gray. These frisket objects should, when possible, be
the same material as the objects in the photograph, e.g., use rope for clothesline and cloth for
laundry.
4. Use gravel and sawdust for texture in areas that are to look soft and broken up.
5. Spray a mist of good quality black paint around the edges of the frisket materials. The object
is to produce a shade of light grey - not black.
6. Remove the materials that represent the next-darkest objects in the photograph, and spray
another layer. Continue alternately removing objects and spraying paint until all of the frisket
materials have been removed. The areas uncovered last remain the whitest.
7. To create large-scale textures like brick or stone, make a hardware-cloth screen in a n easily
handled size. Glue paper cutouts of appropriate shapes to the screen. Apply joint compound
to create some holes in the screen and polyurethane to waterproof and stiffen the paper. Paint
sprayed through the screen will reproduce the shapes of the bricks or stone with a “dotty”look.
8. Glaze the entire painting with warm and cool washes of watered-down casein tinted with dyes
to match the photograph.
9. With a Hudson-type sprayer, spray the finished painting with a 3:l mixture of clear flat and
clear gloss latex. This finish coat both seals the painting and gives it the matte look of a photo
print.

NOTES

This process is used to duplicate an existing photograph. Study the photo to find appropriate tex-
tures and materials.
Charles Grammer Painting Photographic Scenery Using Friskets

Avoid being too specific about a texture. A brick mask, for example, should be composed of shapes
that merely suggest the shape and repetitiveness of brick rather than neatly arranged rectangles.

Always spray through or around a frisket. Arbitrary spraying without a frisket defeats the advan-
tages of the process and can spoil the results.

Mark the completed painting for identification and orientation to avoid confusion during framing.

SOURCE

Lisa Frank.
Photocopy Transfers DavidA. Stach

Photocopies of drawings or photographs can be reproduced on any type of natural-fiber fabric. The
simple process outlined in this article applies to both color and black and white photocopies and
assures exact duplication of any pattern. This process is useful in making your own fabric patterns
for limited size applications such as upholstery. I t reproduces multicolored patterns faster and
more accurately than stencils. Reproductions of color or black and white photographs on pillow
covers, clothing, towels, and other small items can be accurately and easily accomplished with this
process. Photocopying (about 406 for color, 5 6 for black and white S+" x 11")is relatively inex-
pensive compared to the equivalent cost in time involved in painting or stenciling.

FABRIC

Any fabric made from a natural fiber such as cotton, flax (linen), wool, or silk can be used, though
cottons and linen work best. In general, the tighter the weave of the fabric, the sharper the image
on the fabric will be, and conversely, the looser the fabric weave, the fuzzier the image. Thus, cot-
ton-backed satin would be a good choice for reproducing hard-edged patterns and designs: and
light-weight muslin, a good choice for reproducing those with a softer quality. Lettering on photo-
copies will appear in reverse on the fabric. This problem can be solved, however, by photocopying
a reversed transparency (slide) of the original. Note that photocopy ink will bleed when the fabric
is washed unless the ink has been set by ironing after completing the transfer process.

MATERIALS

Any absorbent Material A Rag

Photocopies Fabric
Acetone White, Iron-On Pellon (optional)

PROCESS
1. Obtain enough photocopies to duplicate the pattern as many times as desired. Each repro-
duction requires its own photocopy.
2. Back the fabric with pellon if it needs to be reinforced.
3. Place the fabric, pellon-side down, on the absorbent material. Place the photocopy, face down,
in the desired position on the fabric.
4. Hold the photocopy in place and firmly rub the back with a rag soaked in acetone until the
photocopy is saturated.
5. Peel the photocopy carefully from the fabric and allow it to air dry thoroughly before use.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Acetone is extremely flammable, and should not be used near a n open flame. Acetone is also very
toxic: use in a well-ventilated area and wear gloves and a respirator throughout the process.
Max Leventhal Two Periscopes for Full-scale Cartooning

To translate a small rendering or painting onto a large set element, the scenic artist may first make
a full-scale line drawing, often called a “cartoon.” In order to achieve an accurate drawing, a set
painter makes the cartoon from a full-scale projection of the original artwork. Any opaque,
carousel, or large-format projector can reproduce the original on a wall or a screen perpendicular
to the floor. But for those artists who prefer to paint their material on the floor, either the Flying
Periscope or the Cart Periscope described below would allow the cartooning to be done in the same
location as the actual painting.

CARTOONING WITH A FLYING PERISCOPE

The Flying Periscope is for use by painters who work on a stage floor with a fly system overhead.
The size of the image projected onto the floor is adjusted by the height to which the projector is
raised in the fly loft.

Fly the periscope to a reachable height, focus the projector, and adjust the tilt of the mirror until
the projected image on the floor does not appear distorted. Allowing the remote controller to hang
down, raise the batten until the projection is near the desired scale, and re-focus. Fine tune the
height and focus until the projected image matches the full-scale dimensions you have laid out on
the floor.

CONSTRUCTING THE FLYING PERISCOPE

Piece A in Figure 1 is a hollywood flat covered with

mirrored Mylafl or any other material with a spec-
ular surface. The flat is attached to the two
extended side pieces of projector platform B at the
pivot points D so the angle of tilt may be adjusted.
The mirror must be far enough away from the plat-
form that the light beam does not burn the mirror
surface and is not obstructed when reflected
downward. This distance, a s well as the size of the
projector platform, depends on the type and size of
projector used, the heat output of its lamp, and
the dimensions of its beam. Frame C attaches to
a batten with U-bolts or C-clamps. These guide-
lines are, of course, far from a definitive construc-
tion approach.

CARTOONING WITH A CART PERISCOPE

~

Adjusting the size of the image with the Cart FIGURE 1: THEFLYING PERISCOPE
Periscope is not as easy a s with the Flying
Periscope, but if a fly stage is not available the Cart is a simple alternative. The scenic artist first
grids the original work into workable squares. He or she then shoots a slide of each grid square
that includes some portion of any adjacent squares. In cartooning, start a t one corner of the drop
and adjust the angle of the mirror and the focus of the projector until the image is not distorted.
Tailor the size of the projected image to the grid square by raising or lowering the projector plat-
form. When the corner square is cartooned, move to a n adjacent square, change the slide, fine tune
the focus and alignment, and then continue cartooning. Move from one square to its neighbor until
the drawing is complete.
Two Periscopes for Full-scale Cartooning Max Leventhal

CONSTRUCTING THE CART PERISCOPE

The mirrored frame A and the projector platform B in Figure 2 are constructed the same as they
were for the Flying Periscope. In order to add stability to the cart, it is necessary to place extra
weight on the counterweight platform C. Attachment holes D in the framing members connecting
platforms B and C enable the projector to be raised and lowered for size adjustment.

FIGURE
2: THECARTPERISCOPE

THE IMAGE DISTORTION PROBLEM

Projecting at such a large scale may cause the image to curve a t the edges or fall out of focus in the
corners. The use of better-quality lenses and high-powered projectors lessens the effects of distor-
tion. Wide-angle lenses, which spread the image over a large area in a relatively short throw, are
ideal for the Cart Periscope. The fish-eye effect is not nearly a s pronounced a t the projected scale
a s it is in those familiar photographs of leering faces. Finally, leaving a part of the neighboring
squares in the gridded rendering when shooting slides for the Cart Periscope insures that the grid
to be cartooned will be distortion-free even if the border itself is not.
MaxLeventbal Two Periscopes for Full-scale Cartooning

FINAL NOTE

When detail and accuracy are demanded on a large-scale reproduction, say of a large version of a
well-known artwork, projection is generally the solution. With either the Flying or Cart Periscope a
scenic artist can accurately cartoon in almost any shop or on any stage. You may encounter prob-
lems in the initial setup but if you keep in mind that it is distortion that inhibits accuracy, you
should end up with very satisfylng results.
Easy Stenciling Technique Tom LeToumeau

For years I have been stenciling wallpaper patterns and have tried a variety of published tech-
niques. Each method involved some drawback. Ordinary stencil paper will not last long enough to
complete a large project even if shellac or some other sealant is applied, so multiple masters need
to be cut. If you must work on a vertical surface and the pattern is lacy, the weight of the paint
often pulls some parts of the stencil away from the wall, and delicate sections eventually break off.

In searching for a more suitable and durable material, I cut a small pattern out of a plastic “Garage
Sale” sign available at any hardware or discount store. I t was extremely easy to cut with an X-Actom
blade, and even lacy sections did not break away after multiple uses. The original sign was too
small to be practical for many stenciling needs, but I observed that many in-store signs are made
of this material to promote products and advertise specials. At the time, I did not know that the
material is 15-mil polystyrene, available in sheets of several sizes from plastics suppliers. I did
learn, however, that even some of the larger signs can be obtained free of charge after a short dis-
cussion with the store manager, since stores dispose of them anyway after the sale or special has
ended.

Durability is only one of polystyrene’s advantages as a stencil material. It is very lightweight, and
large, stiff stencils can be handled easily by one person. If your stencil has small sections that are
difficult to keep in contact with the surface, you can spray the back side of the stencil with a light
coat of Scotch 77@adhesive and avoid underspray by temporarily gluing the stencil to the surface.
After a light dusting with the adhesive, the stencil will stick to the wall by itself with no underspray
or drips at all. You can remove and reapply the stencil four or five times before you need to apply
another coat of the Scotch 770. When the stencil is removed from the wall, the adhesive does not
leave any residue. The front surface of the stencil can be cleaned easily with a wet sponge after
each application to prevent paint buildup. When you are finished, your stencil can be saved for
future use. If paint does dry on the stencil, simply place it in a pan of water for a day or so and
the paint will separate easily from the plastic. Scotch Natural Cleaner@can be used to remove
residues of the Scotch 77s adhesive, and you’ll have a like-new stencil.
 Props

Snowballs for the Stage Theodore G. Oh1

Artificial Canapes Sharon Braunstein

Stage Blood Randy Fullerton

A Remote-Controlled Portable Water Source C o s m Catalano, JK

Circuitry for a Remotely Dimmable Portable Lighting Donald R. Youngberg

Practical

Remote-Control Live Fire Chris R Jaehnig

Snowballs for the Stage Theodore G. Ohl

INGREDIENTS

One Personal-size Bar of I v o v Soap

One Cup of Cold Water

EQUIPMENT

Cheese Grater
Blender
Electric Mixer
Ice Cream Scoop

Coarsely grate the soap. Place the cold water, then the grated soap, into the blender, and immedi-
ately liquefy the mixture for 2 to 4 seconds or until it is foamy. Avoid blending for too long a time
(that is, until the soap is completely dissolved), as the soap mixture must still have a bit of texture
to whip properly. Snowballs that have been blended too well will be rubbery and not break con-
vincingly on impact. Pour the blended soap into a bowl and beat on high speed until the mixture
“peaks,” having a meringue-like consistency. Using the ice cream scoop, dish the whipped soap
from the bowl onto a piece of waxed paper. One batch of soap should yield 5 or 6 large snowballs.

Let the snowballs dry overnight, then turn them and let them dry overnight again. The dry snow-
balls may then be lightly scored into quarter sections to facilitate breaking. Finished snowballs are
usable for 4 to 5 days, but after that they become dry and will not break properly.

SOURCE

Hunter Nesbitt Spence.

Sharon Brazlnstein Artificial Canapes

Artificial canapes can be a valuable alternative to real ones, since food can spoil and replacing it is
costly. These canapes can be used alone or as supplements to real canapes.

BREADS AND CRACKERS

BROWNAND RYE BREADS

Choose a yellow cellulose sponge. Yellow is the ideal choice because it is the most neutral-color
sponge available and will take paint best. If you cannot get a sponge the thickness of the bread
you would like, you can slice a thicker sponge with a razor or band saw. Cut the sponge to fit
the shape you want for your canapes. To color, mix scene paint to the appropriate color and
soak the sponge in it. It may be necessary to dip the sponge several times to achieve the right
color.

WHITEBREAD
Cut white Styrofoam@to the desired shape. Coat with tissue paper and diluted white glue.

CRACKERS
Cut shapes out of +'' foam-core board. Compress to a n irregular thickness of about i'' by using
your knuckles. For additional depth and shaping, use a blunt object like a screwdriver han-
dle. The final texture and color can be achieved by stippling the crackers with scenic dope
applied with a small irregular piece of sponge. If you are creating a light-colored cracker, you
can use the natural dope color. If the cracker is to be another color, add dry pigment to the
dope.

TOPPINGS

CHEESE
SOFT AND SPREADS
Tint powdered wood putty, such as Durham's Rock Hard Wood Putty? with acrylic paints to
create the desired color. If the topping is to be applied decoratively, you can use a standard
pastry tube available at any kitchen supply store. For grainier foods, such as ham spread, add
sawdust to the putty.

PIMENTOS AND OLIVES

For pimentos, dip red fabric in shellac and drape across the canape. Beads can represent green
or black olives, whole or sliced.

CAVIAR
Shellac small black beads together.

GARNISHES
Decoration adds a final touch of realism. Plastic vegetables, such as carrots and peppers, can
be chopped, diced, or grated and used on spreads or cheese. Plastic greenery, particularly
parsley fern, is also good for topping off a piece.

SOURCE

Hunter Nesbitt Spence.

Stage Blood

In the following stage blood recipes, specific quantities of the ingredients can be determined only
through experimentation. There are several factors to consider: the quantity and texture of the
blood, the surface to which the blood will be applied, and the light under which the blood will be
seen.

INEXPENSIVE. EASY METHOD

KY@Jelly
Water
Food Coloring (red and green)

Combine red food coloring with KY@ Jelly. Dilute this mixture to the desired consistency with
water. Add the green food coloring as a toner. Mix thoroughly. This mixture dries quickly and
looks chalky when completely dry. I t is not good for long scenes and also stains fabric and skin.

BLOOD IN THE MOUTH

White Corn Syrup

Corn Starch
Water
Food Coloring (red and green)

Combine white corn syrup with a small amount of corn starch for body. Dilute this mixture with
water until the desired consistency is obtained. Add red food coloring and then slowly stir in green
food coloring until the desired color is achieved. This mixture is edible and easy to make, but it is
sticky and does stain fabric and skin.

Carnation Instant Breakfasts (chocolate or strawberry)

Atecoo Food Coloring (red and green)
Water

Combine all ingredients until the desired color and consistency is achieved. Atecos is a highly con-
centrated paste food coloring available at bake shops or kitchen supply stores. “Christmas Red”
and “Leaf Green” were used in this recipe. As a result of the food coloring, this mixture also stains
fabric and skin.

COMMERCIALLY PREPARED BLOOD

Reel Blood@
Jack Sperling Studio
13639 Vanowen Drive
Van Nuys, CA 91405
(213) 780-7715

A very good product, one gallon costs $40.00 but lasts a long time. The mixture hardly stains, can
be diluted, and can be used orally - it tastes like cinnamon. It has a sugar base and becomes
sticky. This product dries normally and does not appear chalky.

54
Ran& Fdlerton Stage Blood

OTHER COMMERCIAL SOURCES

Rosco Laboratories
36 Bush Avenue
Port Chester, NY 10573
(914) 937- 1300
$5.50 for 6 ounces

Special Effects
18 Euclid Avenue
Yonkers, NY 10705
(914) 965-5625

Theatrical Services and Supplies

2050 Brook Avenue
Deer Park, NY 11729
(516) 242-5454
$5.50 for 8 ounces (External use only)

GENERAL COMMENTS

Most blood mixtures can be combined with shredded cheesecloth to resemble ripped flesh. The
cheesecloth can be attached to the flesh with liquid latex. When the latex has dried, a coating of
blood is applied.

A convenient way of dispensing blood within the actor’s mouth is by using commercially purchased
gelatin capsules. These are obtained from pharmacies and can be filled by using an eyedropper.
Once they are filled with blood, the capsules last about 30 minutes - longer if refrigerated.
Prolonged refrigeration stiffens the blood mixture, however, and time should be allowed for the cap-
sule to soften at room temperature.

Another way of dispensing the blood is by using a small bloodbag - a corner of a cheap plastic
sandwich bag tied off with a string or rubber band is sufficient. This method provides a conven-
ient way of presetting blood on the set or in an actor’s pocket and is extremely effective when bit-
ten into and spit out by the actor.

Large quantities of blood can be dispensed by filling a sponge with blood and placing it in a plastic
bag on the set or in a plastic-lined pocket on the actor. Most stage bloods stain both fabric and
skin. A sample of any blood used should be tested by the costume department. Cold water is effec-
tive for removing blood stains on fabric, and bleach can be used as a cleansing agent. The fabric
should be soaked in cold water before the stain has dried.

SOURCE

Hunter Nesbitt Spence.

55
A Remote-Controlled Portable Water Source Cosmo Catalano, Jr.

In a production at Penn State University we needed a working hand pump on stage. For various
reasons, we could not hook up a hose to a sink or use a recirculating pump to supply the water.
Furthermore, as the pump was used ad lib by performers during the show, we wanted to control
the flow of water from the stage manager’s desk in the light booth. The pump we found could not
draw water on its own.

We were, therefore, presented with two problems - the supply source for the water, and the remote
control of the flow. We chose not to use a Hudson-type sprayer for the supply source because we
were concerned with the potability of water from a device not designed for that use. We decided
instead to use a hydro-pneumatic pressure tank. These tanks are often used in houses where the
water is supplied by a pump, as they provide a constant pressure without the necessity of running
the pump continuously. A hydro-pneumatic pressure tank has two compartments separated by a
plastic diaphragm. On one side of the diaphragm the air is pressurized to around 20 pounds per
square inch. The other side is then filled with water, further compressing the air behind the
diaphragm. The compressed air maintains pressure on the water, assuring an even, pressurized
flow from the tank. Because the tank provides its own pressure, it can be easily used on remote or
moving pieces of scenery.

To solve the control problem we used a discarded dishwasher solenoid valve that was responsive
enough to simulate the pulsing of hand-pumped water. Because of the high control voltage
required (12OVAC), we electrically grounded the entire system to reduce the possibility of electrical
shock. A ground-fault-interruptor would further reduce this possibility and is recommended.

The hand pump used on stage had no plunger or valves. A rubber hose was run through the pump,
ending just short of the mouth. The other end was hose-clamped to the output side of the solenoid.
After the initial actuation this hose stayed full of water, and the lag time between the actuation of
the solenoid and the arrival of the water at the mouth of the pump was negligible. The input side
of the solenoid was connected by a short length of garden hose to a hand valve on the hydro-pneu-
matic tank. Because the solenoid - an on/off device only - was not able to control the volume of
the water through the system, this valve was used to preset that volume. By installing a tee fitting
and another valve at the tank output, the tank can be filled without removing it from the set piece.
See Figure 1.

I
I I
Volume Control Solenoid Supply to
Air I 1 Valve Onstage Device
Shutoff Valve
I Hydro-Pneumatic
Fill Valve
Tank

Water
(Solenoid Power)
I I

1: SYSTEM
FIGURE SCHEMATIC
Cosmo Catalano, Jr. A Remote-Controlled Portable Water Source

The non-adjustability of volume is the major drawback with this system. If cues called for varying
amounts of water, a different and more expensive solenoid valve would be needed. Another draw-
back is the limited quantity of water available from the tank. Our tank held about 4 gallons. Larger
tanks are available at increased cost, weight, and size.

In a situation where remote control of water flow is not necessary, the output of the tank can be
connected directly to standard plumbing furtures and controlled by actors onstage.

SUMMARY OF COSTS

Hydro-pneumatic tank, 7.3 gal. $75.00

Solenoid from old dishwasher $0.00
50' garden hose $5.95
Hand valve for tank output $4.89
Hose-clamps and miscellaneous fittings $5.00
$90.84

The initial outlay for this system is high, but all the parts are reusable and greatly simplify the
installation of any limited-use water supply.

57
Circuitry for a Remotely Dimmable Dona& R Youngberg
Portable Lighting Practical

This article describes an electronic circuit that allows a battery-powered practical to be carried onto
the stage, set down, and remotely switched to a n external power source. Advantages of this circuit
are the dimming and extinguishing of an unattended, battery-powered practical during or at the
end of a scene.

1N5400
3A

Autotransformer
or
SCR Dimmer

1N5400
3A

FIGURE
1: SYSTEM
SCHEMATIC

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) in the circuit allows a lamp’s power source to be switched
from an internal battery to an external source. The resistor and “on” switch supply and limit the
threshold gate current that triggers the SCR and turns the lamp on. When the voltage from the
external source rises to a value equal to the voltage across the lamp, the current through the SCR
goes to zero, turning it off. This opens the battery circuit and turns the control of the lamp over to
the external power source. The “off‘switch provides an easy method of interrupting the battery cir-
cuit if it were accidentally turned on.

Contacts connect the battery-powered practical to its remote external power supply. Large, thin
copper plates cemented to the bottom of the practical, and spring-loaded contacts concealed in a
scenic unit make this connection simple and relatively foolproof. With practice, an actor can align
the baseplate rings and contacts easily.

A variable DC power supply or a rectified and filtered variable AC source can work as the external
power source. Connection to an existing dimmer includes the practical in lighting presets. The
optional lamp provides a way to increase the intensity of the practical after connection to the exter-
nal power source. The schematic shows a possible rectifymg and filtering circuit for the output of
an SCR dimmer. The capacitor must be large enough to keep the lamp from flickering when the
external source voltage approaches the battery voltage. The circuit described above costs about
$40.00 and can be easily built by those who have some background in electronics.

SOURCE

Alan Hendrickson.
Chris l? ]aehn& Remote-Control Live Fire

Described below is a safe and proven method of controlling live fire onstage from a remote position.
The reader is cautioned that the use of any live fire effects must gain the prior approval of the local
Fire Marshal. Because of the relative expense of building this system, plans for the effect should
be presented and approved before construction is undertaken.

ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM

FUEL
The fuel most commonly used is propane. This fuel is used in most motor homes and farm
buildings, and suppliers are listed in the Yellow Pages under “Petroleum-Liquefied.” When
handled with care it is a safe fuel. Route the fuel to the other system components with rubber
hose similar to the hose used on oxyacetylene rigs. The use of rubber hose precludes estab-
lishing any unwanted electrical circuits - which might include the fuel tank.

CONTROL
The fuel is routed from the tank to a normal-closed solenoid on/off valve. From the solenoid
the propane moves to an adjustable flow control valve that adjusts the height of the flame.

Fuel and Ignition Control

Circuits

Remote Control Package

Solenoid and Step-up Transformer

Propane Tank Flow-Control and Burner

Fuel Control Ignition

FIGURE 1: SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

Remote-Control Live Fire Chris I? ]aehn&

BURNERS
The fuel travels to a burner that is fabricated from a length of $" stainless steel brake line hose
bent into an appropriate shape. Holes A''in diameter are drilled on 1" centers to allow fuel to
escape and mix with air.

IGNITION
The fuel is ignited by a spark produced by a high-voltage step-up transformer such as that used
in neon light applications. Heavy-gauge, solid wire terminal leads from the transformer are
bent to form an arc gap approximately above the burner.

REMOTE-CONTROLPACKAGES
This package should contain a toggle switch and indicator light for the solenoid on/off valve,
and a momentary contact switch for the transformer.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Observe the following before you test the system:

1. Check all connections: there must be no leaks.

2. Isolate the transformer and the terminal leads from all other parts of the system.
3. Check that all the scenic elements near the fire are thoroughly flame-proofed.

ACTIVATING THE SYSTEM

1. Open the valve of the fuel tank.
2. Activate the solenoid on/off valve, allowing fuel to enter the burner.
3. Depress the momentary contact switch controlling the transformer until the fuel ignites.
4. Adjust the height of the flame with the flow-control valve.

FINAL NOTE

A campfire using this design was built for the Seattle Repertory Theatre's production of Savages.
To allow the flame to grow on cue, a second control line and burner were added. When the second
solenoid was activated, the flame spread to the second burner. When both solenoids were deacti-
vated at the end of the scene, the fire was immediately extinguished.
Jon Lagerpist High-Volume, Low-Cost Modeling Clay

The need for large amounts of modeling clay in several productions at Cal State Long Beach spurred
research into low-cost clays. The local art school had an easy-to-make clay recipe using easily
found ingredients.

MATERIALS

These ingredients will yield one 150-pound batch:

3 slabs Microcrystalline Wax (a slab weighs 11 pounds)
10 quarts of new Non-detergent 30-weight Motor Oil
100 pounds of Talc (hydrated magnesium silicate)

DIRECTIONS

Using a large, clean tub, melt the wax into the oil over a medium flame. Add the talc slowly while
stirring and heating to keep the mixture fluid. When ingredients are fully mixed, pour the clay into
forms or onto a plastic sheet on a cement floor and let cool at room temperature.

FINAL NOTES

Varying the ratio of ingredients will affect the feel of the clay. The wax and talc can by found at art
or pottery shops and the motor oil at auto supply houses. It may be possible to dye the clay before
adding the talc, but the dye’s setting ability should be checked in a small batch before mass pro-
duction.

SOURCE

Herbert Camburn and Richard Johnson.

61
Gelatin Molds Mark Shanda

The following is an easy method for creating a flexible negative mold for use in making plaster or
polyester resin castings.

MATERIALS

KnoxQ Unflavored Gelatin

Ethylene Glycol (permanent antifreeze)
Water

EQUIPMENT

Hot Plate
Double Boiler
Plastic or Non-porous Container (for mold making)
Coffee Can with Lid (for storage)
Positive of Desired Casting. The best results are achieved with non-porous objects such as
metals, stone, glazed ceramic, glass, plastics, and Plasticine@.

In the top of a double boiler add equal parts by weight: dry gelatin mix, cold water, and ethylene
glycol. Stir the mixture into a smooth slurry and begin to heat. Keep mixing over the heat until
the gelatin is all dissolved and you have a semi-transparent and bubble-free viscous liquid. The
mixture is now ready to be used immediately or to be stored in the coffee can for later use. The
stored mixture may be made ready for mold making by remelting in a double boiler.

When making a negative mold, place the positive you wish to copy into a shallow plastic or non-
porous container that is at least $" larger and higher than the item to be duplicated. Next pour the
melted mold-making mixture over the positive to a height at least higher than the positive. Let
cool slowly. You should have no air bubbles in the mold. When cooled to room temperature,
remove the gelatin mold from the positive. This should be done with some care for the mold will
tear, but the gelatin's moisture content will not allow it to stick to the positive. A plaster or poly-
ester resin casting may now be made from the gelatin mold. When no more castings need to be
made, the gelatin may be remelted and used for creating another gelatin mold.

Over time the gelatin mold will slowly lose water and shrink, but its life can be prolonged by wrap-
ping it in a plastic film like Saran Wrap@or by storing the mold in a n airtight container.

ONE NOTE OF CAUTION

When casting with either plaster or polyester resin to a thickness of over 1 $", sufficient heat may
build up to melt the gelatin negative. Our best results were achieved with castings that were no
thicker than 1 +'I.

SOURCES

Dennis Dorn.
Plasticsfor Arts a n d Craftsmen, Harry G. Hollander.
Steven A.Balk A Remote-Controlled Flash Effect

In a Yale School of Drama production we used a n infrared transmitter and receiver to control the
operation of a four to six-foot flash effect that emanated from a ceramic bowl. See Figure 1. Stage
action prohibited the use of contacts hidden in the stage floor. As a safety precaution, the system
had to be designed to be triggered reliably and by one device only. Radio and ultrasonic controls
were ruled out because of the risk of stray radio waves or sounds that could trigger the flash pre-
maturely.

The main design requirements of the flash effect were that it:

1. be produced by a mechanism that could be concealed inside a 1’-tall ceramic bowl having a
top diameter of 15” and a base diameter of 6”:
2. be capable of being carried onstage by an actor in the course of the play’s action:
3. be capable of sitting unattended onstage for 15 minutes before ignition:
4. be capable of producing a single flash 4’ to 6’ feet tall.

SternoOCan ~ 1.
-
.1.
(behind) --1

I
CremoraB Receptacle -e ,’

*
,
Receiver and
Solenoid-Actuated Valve ~ ’
,
Pipe Air Tank and
Schraeder -Valve Inlet -’
,/,
Lantern Batteries -,

FIGURE
1: FIRINGMECHANISM

THE SYSTEM PRINCIPLE

An infrared transmitter, positioned on a pipe thirty feet directly above the spiked placement of the
bowl, emits a beam of light “visible”to the receiver only. When the transmitter is activated, the
receiver responds by closing a circuit that operates a valve, releasing pressurized air through a con-
tainer of Cremoras, the common coffee whitener. The Cremoran is blown into a suspension in the
air above the bowl, and as it passes a pilot light of Sternom, it ignites quickly, simulating a dust
explosion. The system comprises two fundamental components: the remote control device and the
firing mechanism.
A Remote-Controlled Flash Effect Steven A.Balk

Lantern Batteries

SternoO Can Holder --

\\
19 I
Cremora@Receptacle P

Receiver and
Solenoid-Actuated Valve

Pipe Air Tank and -

Schraeder -Valve Inlet

FIGURE 2: TOP VIEWOF FIRING SHOWING

MECHANISM LOCATIONS
COMPONENT

REMOTE CONTROL DEVICE

A frequency-paired transmitter (Banner, Inc. #SMA91E) and receiver (Banner, Inc. #SMW95R),
positioned as described above, act as the remote control device. The transmitter is powered by a
non-dim; the receiver, by two 6V lantern batteries connected in series. The receiver contains a
built-in relay that, in this application, opens the firing mechanism's solenoid-actuated valve.

THE FIRING MECHANISM

The small, shop-built tank pictured in Figure 2 consists of a 1"-diameter schedule 40 black pipe,
6" long. The pipe is sealed with $" flat stock brazed across its open ends. The pieces of flat stock
are drilled and tapped to accept a Schrader tank valve (#1468E-6) and a solenoid-actuated valve.
Through this valve, the air tank can be charged to 8Opsi. The two-way, normally closed, spring-
return, solenoid-actuated valve, powered by the same batteries that energize the receiver, controls
the flow of air out of the tank. The output side of this valve is fitted with a n $" to d" NFT reducer,
drilled out to form a smooth funnel-like receptacle in which the CremoraB will sit. A sheet metal
Sternos can holder is attached to this funnel with a small hose clamp.

THE FLASH

Just before the bowl is to be brought onstage, the Cremoras receptacle is filled and the Sternoo is
lit. After the bowl has been placed on spike, the device is ready to be triggered. The light from the
transmitter activates the receiver's relay, energizing the solenoid-controlled valve and throwing the
Cremoras into the air like a cloud of dust. As the cloud floats down, its bottom edge makes con-
tact with the lit Sterno? and the whole Cremoraa cloud ignites in a spectacular, billowing flame.

INFRARED EQUIPMENT SOURCE

Banner Engineering Corporation, Inc.

9714 10th Avenue North
Minneapolis, MN 5544 1
(612) 554-3213
Scott Servbeen Growing Flowers Onstage

Recently, I was faced with the problem of devising a way to make flowers seem to grow on stage
between acts. The number of flowers needed, and the time frame in which they needed to appear,
prohibited a stagehand from placing the flowers onstage on cue. Thus, the growth of the flowers
had to be both quiet and reasonably fast. I developed a mechanism in which each of several flow-
ers is attached to a piston-like disc and seems to grow as its piston is pulled up a cylinder of PVC
pipe and through the surface of the deck. Below is a diagram and a short description of how you
might approach a similar project.
I

Fabric Cover 'h /-- Platform

Plumbers' Strap -'

Disc

I FIGURE
1: FLOWER-GROWING
MECHANISM

MATERIALS
2' pieces of 1" to l + "schedule 40 PVC Pipe
$"-thick Disc of Wood for the piston
&" Wire Rope
3' piece of Plumbers' Strap
Plastic Tubing
Gaffers' Tape
&I'Nicopress@Stop Sleeve
Artificial Flower of Your Choice

The mechanism described below requires 9" to 15" of space below the deck surface. There should
also be a great deal of space available below the deck for easy access and installation. If you are
using multi-flowered stems, or would like more than one flower to grow from a stem, I recommend
using a larger-diameter PVC pipe.

Cut the PVC to a length that is about 3" longer than the flowers you plan to use. If you are work-
ing with a raked deck, be sure to cut the PVC at the angle of your deck. Determine the thickness
of the deck at the place where the flower will be placed, add three inches for working clearance,
measure and mark this distance from the top of the pipe, and just below this line, drill a hole large
enough to allow the plastic tubing to fit through.

65
Growing Flowers Onstage Scott Servbeen

Next, you need to create a holder for the flower in the pipe. Cut a disc out of the piece of wood
that will fit the inside of the PVC pipe with enough room to slide up and down the pipe easily. The
ease with which the disc slides within the pipe is crucial to the operation of the effect. Sand the
edges of the disc well and cover them with a non-greasy lubricant when the mechanism is ready to
be put together. Drill a hole large enough for the wire rope to pass through into the center of the
disc. Now drill a hole for the stem of the flower.

Cut a hole to accommodate the outside diameter of the PVC pipe into the deck where the flower is
to grow. Next, insert the wire rope through the plastic tubing. A little graphite squirted into the
plastic tubing will ease the insertion. Install the plastic tubing below the deck between the point
from which the effect will be run and the site of flower growth. At this time attach a stop to the off-
stage end of the wire rope to prevent it from slipping through the plastic tubing while you work.

On the onstage end, slip the plastic tubing and wire through the hole in the PVC and let it extend
out of the bottom of the tube. Insert the PVC through the hole in the deck until its top is flush with
the top of the deck. Screw the plumbers' strap to the bottom of the deck and bend it 90" so that it
is adjacent to the PVC. Using gaffers' tape, tightly secure the PVC to the plumbers' strap. The PVC
should now be rigidly secured to the deck.

The remainder of the installation is best accomplished by two people. Insert the onstage end of the
wire rope through the appropriate hole in the disc. Attach the Nicopresss stop sleeve to the end of
the wire rope to prevent it from slipping back through the hole. Spray the sides of the disc with
Pledges or a similar furniture wax so it will slide through the PVC. The plastic tube can now be
pulled out of the PVC until it is just inside the hole in the side of the pipe. This is a good time to
check the action of the mechanism. By pulling on the offstage end of the wire rope, the disc should
easily slide up the PVC pipe. Since it is not easy to push the wire back through the tube, it is nec-
essary to go onto the deck with a rigid piece of wire or wood and push the disc back down the tube
from above.

Once the system is working satisfactorily, the flower can be added to the mechanism. The stem
should be cut about 2" shorter than the PVC. Push the disc out of the bottom of the tube again.
Have one person insert the flower into the tube from above until the person below can grasp the
bottom of the stem. The stem should then be inserted into the hole in the disc, bent over, and sta-
pled or otherwise secured to the bottom of the disc. The first person should then pull again on the
wire while the disc is guided into the bottom of the tube. When the disc is approximately 1" above
the bottom of the tube, a second mark should be made on the offstage end of the wire. This will
prevent the disc from being pushed out of the tube during the reset of the flower. With a gentle pull
on the wire rope, the flower should emerge from the surface of the deck.

To cover the hole in the deck surface, cut two small pieces of fabric and attach them to the surface
of the deck. Each piece should cover half of the hole. The attachment of the fabric should leave it
loose enough to allow the flower to push through with little difficulty. Paint the fabric to match the
surface of the deck.

If your show requires that the flower or flowers be pickable, glue a piece of drinking straw perpen-
dicular to the top of the disc instead of drilling a hole through the disc. The flower stem can then
be inserted into the straw, and pulled out at any time. Resetting of the effect in this case requires
a little more care to assure that the flower stays seated in the straw as it is pushed into the tube.
Bill Ellis Break-Away Glass: Formula and Process

While he was Production Manager at the Guthrie Theatre, Terry Sateren developed a simple and
easily repeated process for making panes of break-away glass. The process uses a pane of plate
glass to make a negative mold for a break-away casting of hydrocarbon thermoplastic resins. It
requires very simple tools and produces consistent results.

TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Refrigerator
Stove or oven
Electric saucepot
Heat-conducting support plate (we used a +'' aluminum plate larger than the final mold)
Cooling plate (we used a +'I- or %"-thicksection of glass plate, larger than the final mold)
Level cooling stilts (wood or metal)
Flexible mold
Picom plastic(s)

THE MOLD

For a glass pane, the best results (both for sizing and surface quality) are produced by making the
mold from a section of plate glass. The mold must be flexible in order to peel away from the cast-
ing, and must be able to withstand heat and cold with a minimum of temperature-related expan-
sion and contraction. We chose Dow Corning Silastics "E" RTV rubber with a Shore A durometer
hardness of 35, tensile strength of 7OOpsi, tear strength die of 9Oppi and a 400% elongation spec-
ification.

For a production of The Misanthrope we built the mold pictured in Figure 1, which produced a
break-away glass pane with a thickness of a':

T' -/I

FIGURE THROUGH MOLDEDGE

1: SECTION

THE RESINS

The actual break-away glass is composed of a two-part mix of hydrocarbon thermoplastic resins.
For our break-away glass we used a mixture of 75% Piccolastic DlOO Resin@and 25% Piccotex 100
Resin? The former resin is amber colored: the latter, white. This proportion produced a transpar-
ent, amber-tinted pane that broke remarkably well, producing good-sized shards and a realistic
sound. The resins are available from
Hercules Incorporated
Hercules Plaza
Wilmington, DE 19894

67
Break-Away Glass: Formula and Process Bill Ellis

These plastics are available in a solid form (400-lb. drums), and flake form (50-lb. bags). We used
the flake form for all castings. The flakes must be kept away from heat, and used within a rea-
sonable amount of time, or they tend to fuse, block, and lump up. Old flake material may produce
a darker product (because of oxidation) or may not mix at all. Moreover, the flake form does get
crushed down, producing a fine “sand”or particulate that is very flammable when suspended in air.
Keep the bags away from sparks, open flames, and high temperatures.

THE PROCESS

Once the mold had been produced, we followed a specific process to cast the break-away panes.
This process entailed melting the mixture of resins, pre-heating a support plate, pre-chilling a cool-
ing plate, and pouring the resin mix very carefully. A heated support plate heats the mold and resin
mix evenly at pour time, and a chilled cooling plate speeds the setup time and helps insure that the
casting will cool evenly. Placing the cooling casting on level stilts ensures a consistent thickness
throughout the casting and allows air to circulate around the casting for cooling. Following is a
detailed step-by-step approach to producing a pane of break-away glass. You may need to adjust
it to suit your particular application.

1. Melt 75% Piccolastic@and 25% Piccotes resins in an electric saucepot. Mix resins evenly as
you pour them into the pot. Let the mixture melt together for one hour.
2. Heat the RTV mold on the support plate in an oven for approximately 15 minutes.
3. Chill the glass cooling plate in a refrigerator for one hour.
4. Evenly and carefully pour the melted resin mix into the pre-heated RTV mold. Take care here
not to pour too fast or drip to avoid causing air bubbles to become trapped in the casting. Let
the mold and heating plate cool inside the oven on a level rack for 15 minutes.
5. Carefully slide the mold off of the heating plate and onto the cooling plate.
6. Place the cooling plate and mold on level stilts and let cool at room temperature for approxi-
mately one and one-half hours.
7. Carefully peel the mold off the break-away glass pane and store the casting in a safe, padded
place.

NOTES

We made at least two panes for every one needed for the production since accidents happen and
some castings suffer from poor mixing or bubbles. The proportion of the resins to one another will
vary the color, brittleness, rigidity, and clarity of the break-away product. Like other thermoplas-
tics, the resins are theoretically re-usable: it should be possible to re-melt the shards and form
them into new panes. Since we chose to use new resins for each glass pane, the number of times
this could be done was not determined.
Rod Hickey A Butane Torch for Use Onstage

For a Yale School of Drama production of Shakespeare's Measurefor Measure the director asked if
we could build a set of torches for the actors to carry. Because of the strict fire laws in Connecticut
we discussed the possibilities with the Fire Marshal and came to the conclusion that it would be
safer to build torches that used a butane canister than it would be to use Sterio? Early on we
decided that we should be able to control the flame height and that the torches should go out if put
down or dropped. The technical design of the torch was in part determined by the intended look,
but can be adapted for other applications.

The part numbers in Figure 1 , which illustrates the mechanism, are Clippard catalog numbers. Not
all parts are shown, however: see the parts list at the end of this article for a complete inventory.

Burner
Check Valve MCV- 1
Flow Control Valve MSC-2
NC Valve MAV-2
with Pushbutton 1 1916-1 Short Coupling 11999

Butane Canister Conical Bumper

FIGURE 1

One of the biggest problems at the beginning was how to achieve a good seal between the hose feed-
ing the burner and the neck of the butane canister. The Clippard miniature fittings and valves we
wanted to use terminate in threaded ends. We discovered that the nozzles supplied with most
butane canisters are not durable enough to be threaded. After playing with a number of fittings we
discovered that the small conical plastic bumpers used as feet on electronic circuit cabinetry fit
snugly over the nozzle. By threading a Clippard fitting into the top of the bumper we achieved the
necessary firm connection. I t is very important when assembling the various connections to attach
the hose firmly and seal all the threaded connections with some type of thread-lock compound.
There must be no leaks.

The next problems involved provisions for a dead-man switch for the gas and for a method of adjust-
ing the flow. We solved both problems with Clippard Minimatic valves. For the dead-man switch
we used a spring-loaded normally closed valve operated with a +"-diameter pushbutton that worked
well with our design and could be easily hidden. We controlled the flow of gas with a miniature nee-
dle valve, and for safety we added a miniature check valve to keep any burning gas from backing
A Butane Torch for Use Onstage Rod Hickey

up should anything go wrong. For the burner we used a piece of copper tubing bent into a cir-
cle with nine &" holes drilled in it.

Though regular +" vinyl hose used with Clippard compression fittings would probably be safe, we
used rubber hose rated for gas. Although we never timed it, the medium-sized canisters of butane
lasted at least forty minutes.

PARTS LIST

1 MAV-2 Normally Closed 2-Way Valve

1 MCV-1 Check Valve
1 MSC-2 Adjustable Flow-Control Valve
1 11916-1 Pushbutton
2 11752-2 10-32 to A" Hose Barbs
1 15010 Extension Fitting
1 11999 Short Coupling
1 15006-2 Pipe-to-Female Adapter
2 5000-2 Hose Clamps
Vinyl Hose
Bumper for electronics cabinetry
Alan Hend&soFi A Safe Lamp-Oil Torch

Hand-held live flame torches should meet certain safety guidelines while also being both inexpen-
sive and simple to construct and operate. Propane or butane gas can be incorporated into good
torch designs (see "A Butane Torch for Use Onstage" by Rod Hickey), but a local ordinance pre-
venting the use of bottled gases onstage forced a different approach. The design presented here
uses lamp oil as a fuel, is self-extinguishing if dropped, has a proven burn time of at least ten min-
utes, and is based on technology only as complex as a candle snuffer.

Basically, one cylindrical chamber holding an oil-soaked wick slides within another cylinder. So
long as the torch bearer holds onto a knob that keeps the inner chamber in its "up" position, the
wick is exposed and can be lit. If the torch is dropped, however, a spring retracts the inner cylin-
der and wick past a damper that flips down and seals out the air needed to maintain burning.

Construction consists mainly of machining two pieces of telescoping pipe. The inner pipe, an 8"
piece of 1$" chromed brass sink drain pipe into whose lower end a +"-thick brass disc has been
soldered, forms the housing for an oil-soaked wick. Since even a pinhole would have allowed excess
lamp oil to drip out the bottom of the torch, I used a metal lathe to turn the disc to a uniform 1.450"
diameter. A (roughly) +"-deep hole drilled through the pipe and into the side of the disc and tapped
for a 10-32 machine screw provided a mounting point for the wick chamber's knob - a 1" machine
screw with several nuts jammed up on the head.

The second piece of pipe forms the body of the torch. In our version it was an approximately 14"-
long piece of l$" schedule 40 aluminum pipe. Schedule 40 black pipe could be used, of course,
but its heaviness would be a considerable disadvantage. This second pipe is machined in three
places. A+"-wide slot is cut along the length of the pipe between points 7d" and 9%"from one end
to accommodate the knob movement. On the opposite side, and 1$" from the same end, a $'' hole
and two smaller holes are drilled as shown in Figure 1 to provide a mounting for the damper pin
and spring. Lastly, a small hole is drilled at a 45" angle into the end opposite the $" hole as a
mounting for the retracting spring.

A spring is used to retract the inner pipe when the knob is released. One end of this spring hooks
onto a small wire loop soldered to the bottom of the wick chamber. The other end attaches to the
outer pipe at the small hole drilled at one end. The spring should be strong enough to pull the inner
pipe even if the torch is held upside down, yet not so strong that its pressure is uncomfortable to
the torch bearer.

The part that actually snuffs out the flame, the damper, is a piece of sheet metal cut into the shape
shown in Figure 1 and bent to the radius of the inside of the outer pipe. (Though its shape is, the-
oretically, formed by the intersection of two equal-radius cylinders at a 45" angle, this damper is
most easily made through trial-and-error fitting and adjusting.) When the torch is burning, this
piece must fit between the inner and outer telescoping pipes. When the inner pipe retracts, the
damper, pushed by a small spring, flips down to seal out air.

Wicks of both cotton and Fiberglaso fabric have been used. The Fiberglaso is superior if the burn
time exceeds a few minutes because the cotton does not seem to be able to wick up fresh oil fast
enough to keep itself from burning up.

DESIGNED WITH

Corky Boyd.

71
A Safe Lamp-Oil Torch Alan Hendbckson

Spring-Loaded
Damper

Inner Cylinder
Containing Wick

Outer Cylinder

Torch with Wick Extended Torch with Wick Retracted

Damper-Pin Holes Damper Pattern

FIGURE 1
Tim Ficker A Light-Sensitive Portable Practical

Battery-operated practicals whose performance can be remotely controlled are certainly not new.
Like others, the wireless practical described in this article can be brought onstage fully lit, left unat-
tended, and will dim out as the result of a fade to black. But, rather than being controlled by a
dimmer, this particular design uses a photoresistor to make it fade up and down in response to the
changes in the ambient stage lighting: as the stage fades up, so does the practical: and as the stage
goes to black at a scene's end, this practical goes out as well.

The schematic in Figure 1 illustrates the simplest prototype of this device, which was designed as
a class project. The basic components are readily available at electronics hobby stores like Radio
Shack, and construction of the unit is fairly straightforward. The only caution worth noting is that
the photoresistor must be shielded from the spill of the 12V lamp, or the practical's own brightness
will keep the photoresistor continuously activated and the circuit will stay on.

-
SPST
11.,
I

6k-to-20m
\$
6k-to-20KQ
7 . +12vDc +12vDc t
12V Lamp
Switch TIP29B

O-to-50KQ -
-
-
-
-
I I
I
I

I FIGURE 1

PARTS LIST
1 6 to 20KR Photoresistor (such as EG&G Vactec's VT-333,dark
resistance 1OMR: 2 fc resistance = 28KR)
1 741 Operational Amplifier (op amp)
1 0 to 50KR Variable Resistor
1 2.2KR Resistor
1 TIP29B Transistor (NPN)
1 12V Lamp
1 SPSTSwitch

In addition to the essential components, the prototype features a variable resistor to adjust the
overall range of brightness, and an ovemde switch that disables the sensor so that the practical
can be carried, lit, onto a dark stage. A more sophisticated version might include additional photo-
resistors wired in parallel with that shown. The use of multiple photoresistors would eliminate the
undesirable dim-out that would occur in the prototype if its single sensor were accidentally
obscured.

SOURCE

Alan Hendrickson.

73
Faking Waterproof Beer Can Labels Chris Hzgins

For a production of The Beach at the Yale Repertory Theatre, I was faced with the familiar problem
of providing faked beer cans for use onstage. The cans had to fizz when opened, and had to be
waterproof, as they were to be stored in a cooler full of ice.

I considered two solutions to this common problem before making the choice detailed in this arti-
cle. The first was to drain real cans from the bottom, refill them with some non-alcoholic liquid,
and then seal them with a waterproof adhesive tape such as duct tape. This approach was out of
the question because, in addition to being fairly costly, it would have required far too much pre-
show setup time. The second alternative, that of covering soda cans with the generic, self-adhesive
labels used in film and television or with color Xerox prints of real labels, seemed promising. But
our designer and director wanted real labels, and finding a way to waterproof paper labels seemed
potentially troublesome.

The solution I chose was to cut a real beer can into a “label” to be applied to a soda can. Simply
removing the top and bottom of an actual beer can and making a vertical cut along its back turns
it into a label that can be repeatedly wrapped around any same-size soda cans. I used BudweiserO
beer cans, because the label design is printed on a white background that is easily simulated by
white tape.

Though each can’s top and bottom could be removed with a hacksaw, I used a metal-cutting band-
saw and took steps to avoid crushing the can in the process. I cut off the top first, since the tops
resist crushing better than the molded bottoms. Then, before cutting the bottom, I reinforced the
can by inserting a short length of pipe through its open end. Next, having slit the can up the back
with a pair of tin snips, I trimmed all of the edges on a sheet-metal shear, making sure that a $”
border remained around the label’s printing to allow for attaching the label to the can of soda. I
then used a metal file to smooth each label’s edges. The labels took about ten minutes each to
make.

The finished labels were first taped to the cans along the vertical seams at the back, and then
wrapped around the cans and taped in place along both the top and bottom edges. White plastic
electrician’s tape worked very well because it blended in with the BudweiserO label background and
stretched to conform to the shape of the soda can, completing the illusion. The labels I made with-
stood repeated attachment to soda cans during a four-week run and showed no appreciable signs
of wearing out.

NOTE

Self-adhesive labels are available in a variety of copyright-free designs from

The Earl Hays Press

10707 Sherman Way
Sun Valley, CA 91352
(818) 765-0700
Christopher Sibih Quick Casts in Under Two Hours

Casting Bondom (autobody filler) in molds made from plasticine proves a quick and inexpensive
method of reproducing small, low-relief objects. I t is a faster alternative to the more common
approach of casting liquid latex in plaster molds. The Bondom technique was developed in the
process of reproducing the finials of an existing brass headboard. It was impractical to make latex
casts because of the time commitment involved.

Latex casting requires a great deal of linear time because the initial plaster mold must dry com-
pletely before it is used, and each latex cast poured can take a full day or more to dry. Thus, mak-
ing a plaster mold and a latex cast of a deep object can take three to four days. In contrast, plas-
ticine and Bondom casting yields a rigid product ready for painting in under two hours.

SUITABLE ORIGINALS

This technique works well for recreating cast metal objects or other objects that were originally
made by a casting process. The object to be reproduced should have no undercuts since the mold
will distort when it and the object are separated. Objects that are more than half round cannot be
cast as one piece. To recreate full-round objects, cast each half separately and join the two halves.

MAKING A PLASTICINE MOLD

Plasticine responds to temperature, softening when warmed and stiffening when chilled. Since it
is portable and cohesive, unlike wet plaster, plasticine molds of gate and door hardware and the
like can be made away from the shop. Also, plasticine is non-reactive and will not damage non-
porous originals.

Begin with a lump of plasticine large enough to cover the object to 1" deep, i.e., deep enough to
keep the mold from distorting. Work the plasticine with your hands until it is soft. Form the lump
into the general size and shape of the object. Press the plasticine firmly onto the object: do not pull
it around the object with the fingers, as this can smear the image of the mold. If possible, use a
refrigerator, an air conditioner, ice packs, or even the temperature of a winter's day to chill the mold
and the object before attempting to separate them, for stiff plasticine will better resist distortion. If
chilling is impractical, let the mold and object sit for a while so that as much heat as possible dis-
sipates into the air. Next, carefully peel the two apart, trying not to bend or twist the mold. Attempt
to true the mold if separation has produced any mild distortion. If severe distortion has occurred,
rework the plasticine and try again. Each mold will probably make only one cast, and making more
molds than you will need is advisable and will take very little time. When you've finished making
molds, use soap and water to remove the oily residue.

MAKING A BONDOO CAST

Once the mold is ready, mix the two parts of the Bondom following standard instructions. Pour the
Bondom into the mold immediately. No additional release agent is needed since the oil in the plas-
ticine serves this purpose. To avoid air bubbles, use a stick to work the Bondom into the deepest
areas first. In three to ten minutes, the Bondom should be hardened. Carefully pull the cast from
the mold. Though (with great care) it may be possible to use a mold more than once, the heat of
the chemical reaction that hardens the Bondos softens the plasticine, making it difficult to remove
the cast from the mold without distortion. While the cast is still green, i.e., hardened but not com-
pletely cured, trim away excess material with a matte knife, rasp, or sandpaper.

75
Quick Casts in Under Two Hours Cbristopber Sibilia

NOTES

The detail achieved in this process may not be as fine as casting latex in plaster, but for most the-
atrical purposes it is sufficient. Besides, it is very fast and inexpensive when compared to latex
casting. Using this technique, I copied twenty-two finials for the headboard in four hours, and cre-
ated a pair of matching period door plates from one original in less than forty-five minutes. I t is
possible to make many plasticine molds and Bondom casts of a single original in the time it takes
one plaster mold to dry. As for the expense, a gallon of Bondom costs less than one-quarter that of
an equal volume of latex. Its last advantage over latex casting is speed. Because Bondom casting
involves a chemical reaction, casting time is independent of environmental factors, while the evap-
oration of latex is greatly hampered by humidity.

In fact, there is only one disadvantage to this process: using Bondom poses a health risk. Read the
health warnings printed on the container and take the necessary precautions.
Dr. Ronald Naverson Liquefied Auto Body Putty

For a production of A Funny Thing Happened

on the Way to the Forum, I needed to coat a
practical water fountain sculpture that was
manufactured in our shop with a substance
that would waterproof the porous plaster and
foam sculpture, add some rigidity to the draped
fabric parts, and be both thick enough to fill in
gaps but thin enough not to cover some of the
finer detail. My first inclination was to use auto
body compound available at any discount
department store or auto supply shop. The
putty by itself was too viscous to be applied to
the sculpture and keep the detail clear.
Fibergla@ resin by itself was too thin, and ran
and dripped off the form. However, by mixing
the body compound with Fiberglaso resin made
by the same manufacturer, I was able to lique-
fy the putty enough so that it could be painted
on the sculpture with a stiff-bristled, dispos-
able brush. The foam parts also had to be cov-
ered with plaster bandage in order to keep from
cavitating under the polyester mixture.

Through a little research, I discovered that even

though brand names may differ, most commer-
cial auto body putty and Fiberglaso resins have
the same polyester base and can compatibly
mix. The catalyst for either material can be
used to activate the hardening process. Setup
time can be speeded up by adding more cata-
lyst or by stirring the mixture for a longer peri-
od of time.

EDITORS NOTE

Working with auto body putty and Fiberglass resin presents a known health hazard. Wear protec-
tive clothing and gloves and an appropriately filtered respirator while using these substances.

DtDtD1.

77
A Very Useful Snow Machine &chard Gold

In the real world, the soothing effect of snow falling gently behind a window is one of nature’s gifts
to those who must also deal with the consequences of inches of accumulation the next day. But
for the Yale Repertory Theatre’s production of Ohio State Murders, the effect of snow was not
nature’s gift but a show requirement. The parameters additionally included that the snow be con-
centrated in a 3’ width upstage of a window hanging in free space, and of course that the mecha-
nism be as quiet as possible.

For “snow,” the production’s propmaster selected and purchased Consolidated Display’s Scatter
Flakes@on the basis of looks and fire-resistance. Upon inspecting it, we concluded that the mech-
anism constructed would have to be as jam-proof as possible, since the material seemed easily
capable of jamming in an opening and preventing further snowfall. This factor alone eliminated
many of the devices we had been considering: snow bags, chutes, conveyors, and auger mecha-
nisms. Eventually, we determined that a rotating drum could be the solution to the problem.

We bought a 30-gallon fiber drum from a nearby barrel distributor for $15.00 and modified it as
shown in Figure 1 . A compact, split-capacitor motor with a gear reducer that would provide an out-
put of about 4 rpm and 80 foot-pounds of torque was available and seemed perfectly suited for the
job - not too noisy or bulky. We chose a 3 : l gear ratio to meet the necessary speed and torque
requirements. After we assembled the parts on a simple bracket, we tested the apparatus.
Through trial and error, we determined an appropriate hole size (1”)and pattern to perforate the
drum, which allowed the snow to fall at an appropriate pace and density. This approach had the

Motor and ~

Gear Reducer

6’’\

0
0
0
/
/
fl
FIGURE
1
Rzcbard Gold A Very Useful Snow Machine

additional advantage that if the designer or director wanted the snow to fall a t a different speed,
additional holes could be drilled or existing holes could be taped closed.

We felt certain that there would be no problem providing a snowfall for the one-hour duration of the
show, but just how long a barrelful of snow would last in 8- to 12-hour techs was a point of some
concern. Our estimates proved to be conservative, as a half-full barrel lasted approximately 6
hours, and the operator was instructed to turn the machine off whenever extended periods were to
be spent looking at other aspects of the show.

The only problem we encountered was the mysterious loosening of the roller chain after a week of
smooth operation. With the addition of an idler sprocket, trouble-free operation was restored and
the machine worked fine through the run of the show.

The snow machine met all the requirements of the production, including quiet operation, pre-
dictable patterns of snowfall, simple construction and installation, and budgetary constraints.

Thanks to Patricia Bennett for the basic idea and M. Craig McKenzie for his help. Scatter Flakes@
are available from Consolidated Display Company, Inc., Naperville, IL.
 Rigging Hardware

A Hinge Device to Facilitate Hanging Vertical Booms WilliamR. Wyatt, Jr.

Sandwich Batten Clamps Jon Lagerquist

Spider-Cable Clamps Tom Neville

W C and Steel Pipe Traveler System David Sword

The Internal Expansion Pipe Splice Richard Mow

A "B ck-Release Rig Scott Robertson
A Hinge Device to Facilitate Hanging Vertical Booms Wi//iamR Wja&]~r.

The hinge device shown below can save time and facilitate accurate counterweighting of vertical
booms. See Figures lA, lB, and 2. The device makes it possible to attach a boom to a batten,
load the arbor with the batten in, and then fly the batten out.

1
i
LBatten =1 Hinge
--Batten -
/ -

\ Device
\

i
/inl:Device , _' Detail:
W
- -- Pre-Rigged
See Figure 2
LPre-Rigged Boom
Boom

~ Line for
Deploying Boom

FIGURE
1A: HINGEDEVICECLOSED FIGURE
1B: HINGEDEVICEOPEN

FIGURE
2: HINGEDEVICEDETAIL
Wihiam R Wjatt,]r. A Hinge Device to Facilitate Hanging Vertical Booms

MATERIALS

The main components are as follows:

1. A U-shaped piece of strap steel bent to fit over the batten.

2. A piece of schedule 40 black pipe 1' long and the same diameter as the batten with a triangu-
lar piece of steel welded to one end. The triangular piece serves as a stop keeping the boom
vertical.
3. A larger-diameter black pipe sleeve to join the 1'-long piece to the boom.
4. Double-nutted bolts to hold the pieces together.

ASSEMBLY

These are the steps to attach the boom to the batten using this device:

1. Fly the batten in.

2. Put the U-shaped piece over the batten and tighten the set screws.
3. Sleeve the pipe sections together.
4. Place the boom parallel to the batten and connect the pipe to the U-shaped piece with double-
nutted bolts.
5. Attach the unhinged end of the boom to the batten so it clears the floor. The hinge device is
now in the closed position. See Figure 1A.
6. Load the arbor.
7. Release the unhinged end of the boom and fly the batten out while lowering the boom into a
perpendicular position. The hinge device is now in the open position. See Figure 1B.

NOTE

When the hinge device is in the open position, gravity holds it in place. Therefore, most of the
weight on the boom must be on the side opposite the triangular piece.

DESIGNED WITH

Richard Thurman.

83
Sandwich Batten Clamps Jon Ldgerqzrist

This clamp is a low-cost means of attaching sandwich battens to a drop or scrim. It was designed
to stretch a scrim folded on its centerline without puncturing the scrim or using all of the shop's
C-clamps. The clamp consists of the four parts shown in Figures 1 and 2:
A Clamp Body. $" plywood. The shape of the notch and the width of the arm are
the critical elements.
B Sandwich Battens. Two 1x3s the length of the drop.
C Side Wedges. Two 4" pieces of 1x3 cut with a bevel to match the notch in the
clamp body.
D Bottom Wedges. Two 8" pieces of 1x3 tapered to a point.

1: COMPONENTS
FIGURE

INSTALLATION

1. With a contrasting color thread, baste a line on the drop where the top of the batten should
be.
2. Enclose a fold of the drop between the two halves of the batten. See Figure 2. Do not allow
any of the drop to extend beyond the bottom of the batten because the drop could be damaged
during the tightening process.
3. Temporarily secure the battens with C-clamps.
4. Slide the clamp body over the battens.
5. Insert the side wedges.
6. Insert the bottom wedges, one from each side.
7. Drive the bottom wedges together to tighten the clamp.

84
 '
Jon L g e r p i s t Sandwich Batten Clamps

Fabric ~

3"

f+
A

1"
3"
6,

3"
24

25' + +
,2
,; ,2 3" ~~
L

t 72

FIGURE 2: DIMENSIONS

Place the clamps on 4' centers. In most cases the clamps will not loosen, but if they are to be used
overhead, a few staples should be used to secure the bottom wedges to each other.

85
Spider-Cable Clamps Tom Neville

The "spider," a set of multiplexed outlets attached to a long, grid-mounted cable, allows an electri-
cian to use any batten as an electric. Once such a new electric has been flown to the desired trim,
however, the electrician is left with the problem of securing the excess cable at the grid. This arti-
cle describes a quick and safe solution to that problem - the spider-cable clamp. The spider-cable
clamp consists of two pieces of 2x4 joined at one end by a bent strap hinge, and at the other by a
Rot0 Locks mounted on pieces of steel flat stock. See Figures 1 and 2.

Rot0 Lock@

1"
3 " x g Flat
(bent)

6" Strap Hinge

(bent)

FIGURE
1: HINGEEND

Short Length of
Rot0 Lock@Key --

FIGURE
2: R O T LOCK@
~ END
Tom Neville Spider-Cable Clamps

CONSTRUCTION

1. Cut two pieces of 2x4 into lengths that will safely span the grid wells. The author advocates
the use of hardwoods such as maple or oak.
2. Clamp the 2x4s together face-to-face and drill a hole along the plane of contact between them
and equidistant from both ends. Make the diameter of this hole smaller than that of the
cable to be clamped.
3. Bend a 6" strap hinge to wrap around one end of the assembly. Attach it with 1" #10 screws
as shown in Figure 1.
4. Bend two pieces of 3" x $" steel flat stock to wrap around the other end of the assembly as
shown in Figure 2.
5. Hold the locked Rot0 Lock@in place and mark the location of the Rot0 Lock@bolt holes on the
steel. Accuracy in marking is especially important during this step.
6. Remove the steel from its clamps, and drill each Rot0 Lock@bolt hole closer to the right-
&I'

angle bend to assure adequate clamping compression. Drill four screw holes in the long leg of
each piece of steel. Countersink the bolt and screw holes.
7. Braze a short length of Rot0 Lock@key into the keyhole to eliminate the need for taking any
tool other than a safetied crescent wrench aloft.

87
PVC and Steel Pipe Traveler System David Sword

This system can be used in place of a commercially available traveler track to move light scenery
pieces across the stage. Lacking the weight capacity of roller systems, it is nevertheless much qui-
eter and less expensive, and it can be made from readily available materials.

~ 3 Guide
Slot Hanger Guide

1"
2" Schedule 40 15 Schedule 40
PVC Carrier Black Pipe Track

I FIGURE 1

The basic elements of the system are the

carrier and track illustrated in Figures 1 and
Track Components: 2. The carrier is made from 2" schedule 40
1"
x 1"Flat Stock Guide PVC pipe with a 2" PVC Tee fitting at each
/,' _/___________-
/ -- 81" x 1"Flat Stock Hanger end. To prevent the scenery from racking
1"
laterally if bumped or moved quickly, the
13 Schedule 40 Black Pipe carrier should always be as long as the
scenery it carries is wide. After the PVC pipe
has been cut to the desired length, the Tee
fittings are cemented onto each end with
PVC cement. When the cement is dry a
2" Schedule 40 PVC Tee slot is cut along the entire length of the car-
rier using a dado blade on a table saw. The
slot is further widened at each end of the

I FIGURE 2 I carrier to help align it with the hangers and

guides of the supporting track.

The supporting track is made from 1*"-diameter schedule 40 black pipe. If runs over 2 1' long are
needed, the pipe must be joined with an inside sleeve so that the entire run is smooth. Flat stock
measuring 1" x $" is used as hangers for the track and as guides for the carrier. The hangers we
used were 4" long with a $'' hole at one end, and the guides were 2" long. We placed a hanger every
8' along the pipe to provide support. To prevent the carrier from rotating on the track, the distance
between any two hangers or guides should not exceed the length of the PVC carrier.

After the carrier is assembled, it is slid onto the track and the scenery is attached to its Tee fittings.
The scenery can be moved either by an onstage actor or by an offstage crew using a conventional
sash cord and pulley system. Ordinary bar soap works well as lubrication between the carrier and
the track, and has the advantage of not dripping or staining.
&chard Mone The Internal Expansion Pipe Splice

Although theatrical rigging often requires that multiple pipes be spliced together in order to form a
continuous batten, the most common techniques for achieving such splices are either dangerously
ineffective or unnecessarily involved. Threaded couplings are too weak to be used for structural
splices, and internal cylindrical sleeves are difficult to fit and secure properly. The Channon
Corporation (now Chanco, Ltd.) recognized these problems, and, in the sixties, developed the inter-
nal expansion splice (IES)as a fast, neat, and effective means of splicing pipe.

The IES consists of two adjacent steel bars that are held in alignment by roll pins and fitted with
set screws that determine the distance between the bars. After the pipes are butted together with
the splice straddling the joint, the splice is expanded, thereby locking itself and both pipes in place.
The IES is superior to other splices since it is extremely resistant to bending while not requiring
complicated machining processes or welding. Other advantages of the IES are its complete inter-
nalization (no protrusions from the batten's surface), and its ease of removal.

The splice pictured in Figures 1 and 2 is sized for l + "schedule 40 black pipe, the most common
material used for stage battens. By using smaller or larger cold-rolled steel bars, however, the
splice is easily adapted to fit any pipe commonly used in theatre. If a splice of another size is to be
fabricated, the length of the steel bars should remain 1'. while their width and thickness should be
varied in accordance with the pipe's inside diameter. Be aware that pipes of the same nominal size
yet of differing schedules will usually require different-sized splices.

MATERIALS LIST FOR ONE 1+'I SCHEDULE 40 IES

2 pieces x 1$" Cold-Rolled Steel

2 &'I x 1" ~ 0 1 1Pins
2 +'I x 1" Set Screws

I 1 , I
1 I

I 156 x
l1
1"
I
I Roll Pin
I

I
I 1
I

FIGURE
1: LONGITUDINAL THROUGH IES
SECTION

89
The Internal Expansion Pipe Splice &chard Mone

CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION

No matter what size splice is to be fabricated the proce-

dure is identical. First, cut two 1' pieces of steel bar and
drill a&'I hole 4" from each end of both pieces. Next, set
one piece aside and, in the other, drill and tap for a $" set
screw 3" in from both of its ends. Finally, stack the two
steel bars so as to align the pairs of&'I holes, and drive a
roll pin into each pair of holes in order to connect the two
steel bars.

Ease of installation is one of the IES's greatest advan-

tages. To install, drill a +"-diameter hole 3" in from the
end of each pipe to be spliced. Insert the IES halfway into
one pipe and rotate it until the tapped hole on the splice
is aligned with the hole in the second pipe. Insert the
second set screw and tighten both it and the first set
screw so as to expand the splice and complete the union.
If it becomes necessary to remove the splice, simply re-
2: SECTION
FIGURE THROUGH IES AND move both set screws, re-compress the splice by driving
BATTENAT SEXSCREW the upper plate onto the lower with a punch, and pull the
two pipes apart.

For individuals who would prefer not to fabricate their own splices, IESs are available in standard
sizes from Art Drapery Studios, Inc., a Chicago rigging company. For more information on the
Internal Expansion Splice and other creative rigging solutions, contact

Art Drapery Studios, Inc. Chanco, Ltd.

5520 West Touhy Avenue, Unit M 3131 West Grand Avenue
Skokie, IL 60077 Chicago, IL 60622
(312) 736-9700 (312) 638-0363

***
Scott Robertson A “Bulldog Clip” Quick-Release Rig

When a designer asks for the seemingly impossible, often the simple low-tech solutions are the best.
Having to make a drop disappear in a five-second blackout with no one onstage and no flyspace
sounded impossible at first. But, with about $8.00 worth of “bulldogclips” like the one pjctured in
Figure 1, the drop tripped easily and predictably. We attached a series of the clips to our batten
and grabbed the drop’s webbing with the clips. The drop could then be pulled from the clips’ grasp
and dropped to the floor. The fallen drop became part of the scenery for the end of our show, but
we could easily have pulled it offstage and into a waiting hamper.

I FIGURE 1

The use of bulldog clips is straightforward and easily adaptable to different situations. Heavyweight
muslin or standard 3” webbing reinforcement at the top of the goods is essential, for repeated use
will tear the cloth otherwise. Tie the clips onto the batten with tie line through the hole in only one
of each clip’s jaws. If both jaws are tied it is very difficult to get the clip to open and close correct-
ly. To trip the drop simply pull on one end. Gravity will continue the drop’s fall from one end of
the pipe to the other in a controlled manner. I t would be equally easy to cause the drop to fall from
the ends to the center merely by tripping both ends at the same time. The goods will fall into the
same place repeatedly if the operator is careful not to breast the pipe while tripping the drop.

Predictably, the heavier the drop, the more clips are needed. A 40’ x 10’ erosion-cloth drop used
80 clips, while a 26’ x 8’ chiffon drop needed only 18. The best way to determine the number of
clips needed for a particular application is by trial and error. Finally, the distinctive and, in some
situations, objectionable metallic clicking noise made by the clips as they snap closed after releas-
ing the drop can be reduced by covering the inside jaws of the clips with gaffers’ tape.
Phenolic Resin Pulleys: Out of the Skies and
into the Future

Designed for use in aircraft, high-pressure-laminated phenolic resin pulleys are also useful to the
theatre technician desiring durable, cost-effective, and dependable aircraft cable pulleys. Pulleys
of the size commonly required for stage rigging can be purchased for $6.00 to $15.00 and can be
reused and adapted to fill a variety of rigging needs.

The pulleys are formed when various fibers are impregnated with high-strength resins and sub-
jected to high pressures while curing. Resulting phenolic laminates are machined into pulleys and
fitted with bearings. Available in an assortment of diameters and cable sizes, the pulleys cause vir-
tually no cable wear and suffer only minimal wear themselves when subjected to normal loads. The
pulleys are also available with a variety of prefitted metallic bearings that assure a smooth and quiet
operation superior to that of unrated and noisy hardware store pulleys. The bearings are manu-
factured in a variety of shaft diameters but are readily available in +'' and $I' diameters, so stan-
dard bolts may be used as axles. In critical applications, using high-strength hardware may be nec-
essary to realize the maximum safe working load of the pulley itself.

Ralmarko
MS24566-4B 1-

-
3 "
16 plate steel

-l

FIGURE RESINPULLEY
1: PHENOLIC MULINGSHEAVE
Corb Byyd Phenolic Resin Pulleys: Out of the Skies and
into the Future

Since phenolic resin pulleys are designed to exacting standards, they are well suited to use in sys-
tems with critical load considerations. The deep flanges on these pulleys help to keep the cable rid-
ing securely in the groove, and manufacturer specifications are available detailing allowable load
limits on pulleys and maximum cable loads for the different sizes of pulleys. Figure 1 shows an
example of a shop-built sheave that uses a 3$" pulley (Ralmarks #MS24566-4B) sized for $" air-
craft cable sandwiched tightly between two pieces of $" plate steel to form a general purpose mul-
ing or turn-around sheave. The additional bolts around the perimeter of the pulley serve as stops
to keep the cable from slipping out of the sheave when tension is released. At a cost of about $8.00
(less in large quantities), this pulley is rated for a working load of 1200 pounds.

If, as in the illustration, the wrap angle for the sheave is a full 180°, then the relatively small diam-
eter of the pulley will slightly degrade the safe working load limit and service life of the cable. A
larger, more expensive pulley, like the 4;" Ralmarks #MS24566-5B (about $14.00 and rated for a
working load limit of 3000 pounds), will provide an adequate diameter to preserve the maximum
safe working load for 6'' cable.

Of course, designing a system requires that particular care be taken to insure adequate safety fac-
tors whenever a failure of the system or its components could pose a life-safety threat. The slight
degradation of cable strength and service life resulting from an undersized sheave is often accept-
able in a tracked stage effect but may be unacceptable in a scenic effect that is rigged overhead or
used to move people. Specific questions about pulley performance can best be answered by a com-
pany representative, and consulting wire rope manuals can provide recommended working loads
and sheave diameters for specific cable sizes.

Specifications and ordering information for phenolic resin pulleys are available from these compa-
nies:

Ralmark Company Arvan, Inc.

PO Box 1507 1520 West 139th St.
Kingston, PA 18704 Gardena, CA 90249
(717)288-9331 (213) 770-3700
FAX (717) 288-0902 FAX (213) 324-6634

93
Flying Drops in Limited Space Bruce W. Bacon

Figure 1 illustrates a drop roller that operates much like a window shade and can be used to fly a
full-stage drop in 18" of masked fly space. The system's advantages over conventional "olio" drop
rollers are that control is achieved using a single rope, and both the roller and control ropes remain
masked at the top when the drop is in its playing position. Although this procedure assumes the
theater is equipped with a fly system, the roller can be adapted for use where rigged battens are not
available.
I

~ Control End: See Figure 2

p71GURE 1: FULLY RIGGED DROPIN ROLLED

POSITION

MATERIALS

One length of 5" schedule 10 aluminum pipe, 2'-0" longer than the width of the drop.
Two lengths of 1$" schedule 40 black pipe, approximately 2'-8" long.
5
Four pine washers. The inside hole should accept the 1 black pipe snugly, and the outer
diameter should match the inside diameter of the aluminum pipe.
Two heavy-duty bearings to accept l+"schedule 40 black pipe.
Two C-clamps, lighting type. Each clamp must connect to a bearing as described in Step 5 of
the Procedure. Obtain suitable hardware for the bearings you are using.
4
One length of " control rope. The length should be twice the drop height plus the horizontal
distance from the control position to the control end of the pipe.
Two S''plywood washers to channel the control rope. The inner hole should accept the alu-
minum pipe snugly: the outer diameter should be about 4" larger.
Two 4" pulleys to accept the control rope.

ASSEMBLY (REFER TO ILLUSTRATIONS)

1. Attach 4pine washers to the 1$" black pipe shafts, making axles for either end of the roller.
Each pipe has two washers, one centered l + "from the onstage end, the other 5+" from the
offstage end. Washers can be fured in place with a weld bead on either side of the washer.
2. Insert 1$" pipe axles into the aluminum pipe with the black pipe ends protruding about 4".
Attach by screwing through the aluminum pipe into the % pine washers.
Brace W. Bacon Flying Drops in Limited Space

1" Schedule 4 0 Black Pipe in Pocket

= _ -
--- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - - -- - -
=I=-= __ Iq1I' Schedule40
Black Pipe Shaft

FIGURE ENDAND SHAFT

2: CONTROL DETAIL

3. Attach %"-plywoodwashers to the control end of the aluminum pipe. One goes a s close as pos-
sible to the end, the other about a foot away from the end. Fix in place either with weld beads
or by wrapping the aluminum pipe with enough gaffers' tape on either side of the washers to
prevent them from sliding.
4. Attach the bearings to the protruding ends of the 1 $" pipes.
5. Attach the C-clamps to the bearings. There should be about 16" between the center of the
clamp jaw and the centerline of the bearing. Connections must be strong a s they will support
the entire weight of the system.
6. Clamp the roller unit to the batten.
7. Tape the top edge of the drop to the aluminum roller. Weight the drop with a 1" schedule 40
black pipe in a pocket.

97
Flying Drops in Limited Space Bruce W. Bacon

8. Attach the control rope. The onstage end should be fastened securely to the roller and two
wraps should be taken with the drop in the fully rolled position. Fasten one 4" pulley to the
batten above the channel formed by the %"-plywoodwashers. Fasten the second pulley at the
offstage end of the batten. Run the control rope through the pulleys to the offstage control
position.
9. Fly the system out, keeping tension on the control rope. Tie off the rope at the control posi-
tion.

OPERATION

To fly the drop in, ease the tension on the control rope. The weight of the 1" pipe in the drop's pock-
et causes the drop to unroll, spinning the roller. This winds the control rope onto the roller between
the two plywood washers. Pulling the control rope spins the roller in the opposite direction, wind-
ing the drop back up.

NOTES

1. Aluminum is used for the roller because of its light weight.

2. The above system - a 25' roller with a 20' high drop - weighs about 150 pounds and will
deflect less than p" in the middle. Steel is cheaper and stronger, but would be nearly three
times heavier.
3. Longer rollers can be made by welding two tubes together. They, however, should be supported
internally against deflection.
4. When sewing and painting a drop, allow two or three feet extra at the top for wraps on the
ro11er.
5. New drops painted with dyes, dry pigments, or casein work best. Old paint will tend to crack.
6. The rope's bunching on the roller will not affect the smooth operation of the system.

SOURCE

The Goodspeed Opera House, East Haddam, Connecticut.

Darvl S.Wa.skozv A Quick and Simple Rigging System

The use of wire rope and related hardware is a time-consuming rigging process. Wire rope is diffi-
cult to work with because of its tendency to kink and unravel a t the ends. Applying Nicopressm
sleeves or cable clamps requires the careful use of special tools, and assembly is often either slow
or faulty or both.

FIGURE
1: TYING
A WATERKNOT

A simpler and more flexible rigging system involves the use of webbing slings and carabiners. This
system requires no tools, is adjustable and reusable, and makes quick connections possible. The
carabiners’ wide opening and their self-closing gates allow one-handed operation. The only special
skill required to use this system is the ability to tie a water knot and form a choker hitch. See
Figures 1 and 2.

To form a water knot, begin by tylng an overhand knot in one end of the webbing. See Figure 1 .
Feed the other end of the webbing through the loops of the overhand knot and make it lie flat
against the loop’s contours. Once the overhand knot has been pulled tight, the water knot is com-
plete.

The completed sling is attached to structural support by use of the choker hitch, and then cara-
biners are clipped into the sling as in Figure 2, forming a pickup from which scenery can be hung.

99
A Quick and Simple Rigging System Daryd S.Waskow

FIGURE 2: CHOKER HITCHON A BATTEN

Obviously, slings can be attached to any support that they can be looped around, and are very use-
ful in the quick rigging of, say, that awkward piece of masking that has to be added after all.
Attaching such a sling and clipping in a carabiner takes only seconds, and when one is rigging
many pickups, the use of this system can save considerable time.

The only note of caution in using this system is that, as always, it is important to check that the
materials used are rated. This is especially true of webbing, as it comes in rated and unrated vari-
eties. Suppliers of webbing and carabiners will be able to provide load limits for rated climbing gear.
Jon Lgerqzlist e9 A Quick and Simple Rigging System: Addendum
Jamie C. Anderson

There are many manufacturers of webbing and carabiners both for industrial as well as climb-
ing/rescue purposes. Load ratings will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, so it is important
to obtain the load ratings for the specific equipment being purchased.

In general, carabiners can be purchased with load ratings ranging between 4500 and 7000 pounds
breaking strength with the gate closed. Moreover, these come with standard (straight), bent, and
locking gates - straight and locking gates being the most useful for theatre rigging purposes. Bent-
gate carabiners are designed specifically for sport climbing applications and are not recommended
for standard rigging applications.

Webbing slings, also called “runners,”made with standard rated 1”tubular webbing and tied with
a water knot, have a tested straight-pull breaking strength of greater than 5200 pounds. This rat-
ing assumes the raw webbing has a straight-pull breaking strength of over 3300 pounds and that
the knot is tied cleanly and properly.

Any knot tied in a sling decreases the sling’s effective breaking strength. A larks head knot, for
example, reduces a sling’s strength by 22%, and thus, a tied, 1”tubular webbing sling hung with
a larks head knot has a breaking strength ofjust over 4000 pounds: 5200# x 0.78 = 4056#. There
are two ways to raise breaking-strength values: hang a sling differently, or use a stronger sling.

The first method can be accomplished by simply draping the sling over the batten and clipping in
to both ends. See Figure 1A. This method effectively doubles the load rating as it uses double the
amount of webbing per pickup point. It is important to remember, however, that the carabiner’s
load rating has not changed, so that either a second one must be added, or its load rating must be
used as the load rating for the system. This draping, or “basketing,”of a sling will allow the pick-
up to slide along a batten. Adding a wrap around the batten will alleviate this problem while not
significantly decreasing the pickup’s load rating. See Figure 1B.

Sling Wrapped
Around Pipe

TWO
Carabiners

FIGURE
1

Alternatively, webbing vendors or manufacturers can supply stronger slings or make them to order.
There are many types of rated webbing, different widths, weaves, fibers, etc. In discussing needs
with them, remember that working loads will be many times smaller than the rated strength of a
piece of rigging equipment, depending on the safety factor one chooses to use.
A Simultaneous Travel-Fly Rig Don Holder

This article describes a simple rigging system that allows both vertical and horizontal movement of
scenery in two simultaneous operations. The system is useful in situations where it is necessary
to fly units diagonally through space, and can also be employed to keep the backstage floor area
clear of rigid set pieces that are too tall to be flown vertically out of sight. In addition, a uista scene
shifts that take advantage of the system’s potential for diagonal movement can help create very suc-
cessful “cinematic”visual effects. Figure 1 illustrates this last possibility and describes the rig in
general.

Batten
I IAI

i TravelerTrack
/
’ I
I /
I
I /
I /
n
,
T Proscenium Opening / I
I / I
/ i
1
’

A I Storage
I Position
I
I
I
I
I
I
.-j--
. - -_-
- --
-----A:-
/’

t ,--\
I
f /
/
/

I ( ‘ I
A
/
’/ Running Lines ii/
I

Tackle Block ’

Double-Sheave
Steel Head Block \\
FIGURE FROM UPSTAGE
1: VIEWOF THE SYSTEM

RIGGING

The travel-fly rig uses a modified traveler track attached to a single-purchase system batten.
Unusually long traveler track running lines are reeved through two floor-mounted double sheaves
- one directly below the end of the track, and the other as close as possible to the lockrail - and
through a single tackle block attached to the bottom of the lineset arbor. This arrangement keeps
tension on the running lines constant as the batten and arbor move. See Figure 2 for details.
Don Holder A Simultaneous Travel-Fly Rig

OPERATION

Proper operation of the system requires two people. The flyperson at the lockrail controls vertical
movement, while the travel operator a t the floor-mounted sheaves below the end of the track con-
trols horizontal movement.

Consistent and smooth operation of this system is possible only with thorough rehearsal. Since the
speed at which the travel operator works depends on the direction and speed of the system's verti-
cal movement, coordination between both operators is critical.

\
\
Arbor
\

Arbor -2 \
Hand Line \.

d \
Tackle d-/
\
Block
\
\
\

\
\

\
/
Running Lines \
(to Traveler Track) \
\
6" Double-Sheave \
Utility Head Block
\

-
\

I FIGURE OF TRAVELER LINEPATH

2: DETAIL TO h B O R

SAFETY NOTES

Traveler running lines crossing the backstage floor present a serious tripping hazard. Mark and
light the area involved or build a deck over the lines. Also, provide firmly anchored stops a t the
ends of the traveler track.

103
Travel-Fly Rig Modified Paul Carter

After reading Don Holder’s “A Simultaneous Travel-Fly Rig,” Paul Carter wrote the editors, “Wejust
hung a show, Brigadoon, here at the [New York] State Theatre that used a similar (travel-fly) sys-
tem . . . and avoided all the rope on the stage floor and rigging to the arbor.

As the traveler moves up and down with the pipe, the system works much like [the original]. In
addition, this system works when the fly rail is not at stage level.”

The modified system is illustrated in Figure 1.

Underhung Block
at Grid

/- Floor Mount

FIGURE 1: MODIFIED
TRAVEL-FLY
SYSTEM
Kzeran Kelb A Quiet Wire-Rope Curtain Track

Wire-rope curtain tracks are not new. However, such systems are often noisy and can be quite
bulky. We developed the following system to meet the following requirements:

1. to support a continuous bobbinet panel 60' wide, 11' high,

2. to incorporate a very slim, visually unobtrusive, curtain track,
3. to allow movement quiet enough to hear dialogue over,
4. to allow for smooth movement of the curtain by an actor onstage,
5. to restrict maximum sag to 6" at the center of the track.

MATEFUALS

A 20-yard length of bobbinet created a curtain panel weighing 8 pounds. White twill tape, with
" grommets every foot, held +'' split-key rings as glides and acted as a top web. The track itself
was $" wire rope with NicopressB swages or wire rope clips forming a thimble loop on one end of
the line, where it was anchored to the wall. In place of a thimble, a marine wire pulley was used
on the other end in order to allow the wire rope to slide through the wire rope clips during the ini-
tial tightening. A #1-size polyethylene tube was used over the wire rope to give the rings a smooth
surface over which to slide. This polyethylene tube had an inside diameter of 0.17" and an outside
diameter of 0.25".

The tubing cost $2 1.45 for a 500' spool, and is available from most plastics distributors. The wire
rope and other rigging components cost about $30.00.

INSTALLATION OF TRACK AND CURTAIN

1. Cut the wire rope to 70' to allow for tightening of the loop.
2. Cut the polyethylene tube to 60' length.
3. Lubricate the wire with silicone or WD-40@and push the wire through the tubing laid out in
a straight line.
4. Feed the wire rope through the rings of the finished curtain.
5. Connect the thimble end of the wire rope to the anchoring point.
6. Feed the wire rope through the pulley and make the tightening end loop.
7. Use the end loop to pull the wire rope taut with a winch, and trim the excess tube.
8. Tighten the clips at the pulley connection.
9. Lubricate the outside of the polyethylene tube with silicone spray so that the curtain runs qui-
etly and smoothly.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

This curtain track contains a great amount of potential energy, and must be handled with a great
deal of care. The tension in the wire rope with the curtain suspended must be calculated and rig-
ging components selected with an appropriate margin of safety.
Automatic Drop Tripping Jokn C. Howard

For a production of A s You Like It at Mount Holyoke College, the technical staff was asked to fly and
trip a scrim rapidly and in the dark. Clearly, life would be simpler if the movement of the counter-
weight arbor could be made to trip the bottom of the scrim a t twice the speed of the top of the scrim.
The double purchase principle came to mind with the thought of a 2:l ratio.

~ Mini Head Block L

' Added Loft Blocks

\ 11
Clew

+
~

Traveling Sheave

DROPTRIPSYSTEM
1: THEAUTOMATIC
FIGURE

Deanna Chrislip, Technical Director for the show, put a lightweight one-inch-square wooden bat-
ten in the bottom of the scrim and tied four triplines (mason line) to it. The triplines went straight
up to add-on loft blocks in the grid, over to a mini head block, and down to a clew (they all joined
at a ring). From the clew a $" line ran down to a pulley mounted on the top of the scrim's coun-
terweight arbor and then back u p to the grid. See Figure 1. In this manner as the arbor moved
down one foot, drawing the top of the scrim up one foot, the trip lines were pulled up two feet. This
system works best on light drops.
Jon Ldgerqzlist Rotating Flats While Flying

Fying flats that, at low trim, are not parallel to the plaster line can be a challenge. The rig described
here provides a means to fly a flat on a single lineset and have it rotate into a different orientation
automatically a s it flies in or out.

OPERATION

In this rig, four lines are attached to each of two pickups on the flat. See Figure 1. Lines a and b
are attached to a batten: lines c and d pass through pulleys on the batten and are secured at the
grid directly above the batten pickups. At low trim, all four lines share the load, and line tension
holds the flat at an angle to plaster. During the out, a and b gradually assume the full load, swing-
ing the flat parallel to plaster.

I
d

System Pipe

F d
C
C

Figure 1A: At Low Trim

a

Figure 1B: At High Trim (Oo Rotation)

Direction of Rotation
Flies In/

FIGURE
1: THE S Y S T E M AT LOW AND HIGHT R I M S
PULLEYS
NOT TO SCALE; AND SYSTEM LEADLINESNOT SHOWN
107
Rotating Flats While Flying Jon Lagerpist

Plan View Section View

FIGURE AT Low TFUM

2: THESYSTEM

C
h,
N.B: This is a true front elevation.
a b

FIGURE 3: THE SYSTEM AT HIGHTRIM

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Rigs like these must meet well-defined structural requirements. In ordinary flat-to-batten rigs, both
the batten and the top rail of the flat behave like beams. In this design, on the other hand, the flat's
rotation adds a compressive force to both members, causing them to behave like columns, which
must meet the demands of slenderness ratios. These ratios would limit the pickup-to-pickup width
of a soft-covered, traditionally framed flat's 1x3 top rail to a maximum of 3 7 i " . Similarly, the pick-
up-to-pickup distance of a standard l + "schedule 40 black pipe batten would be limited to about
10'. Careful structural analysis should be applied before committing to the use of any such rig.
Jon L g e r q d Rotating Flats While Flying

Having determined that the structural requirements can be met, the designer of the rig will ordi-
narily need to determine whether the flat can be masked at high trim. The answer to that question
can be determined by applying some fairly simple formulas to data obtained from the set design-
er’s drawings.

In Figure 2, h, represents the minimum distance required between the top rail of the flat and the
system pipe in order to mask the batten at low trim. In Figure 3, w, represents the pickup-to-pick-
up width of the flat: and w, the pickup-to-pickup distance along the batten. The difference between
w, and w, should be made as great as possible in order to minimize the momentum of the flat’s
rotation as it is brought parallel to plaster on the way out. Using a compass (as illustrated in Figure
4) and a scale, the designer can discover s, the horizontal distance between flat and pipe pickups,
and can scale m, the horizontal measure of line a. The true length of line a is determined by using
the following formula: a = dh,’ + m2
Having defined a and s, the designer can calculate h,, the distance between the top rail and the bat-
ten by using a second formula: h, = 4.’- s’

Use a compass to scribe an arc

centered on the intersection of
the flat and the batten and
passing through the flat’s pickup.

FIGURE
4: SCALING “M” AND “S”

Knowing h, (and the flat’s vertical dimension) the designer can sketch the flat on the general sec-
tion and discover whether or not high-trim masking is possible.

FINAL NOTES

This rig requires further careful planning. Before committing to its use the technical designer will
have to address three remaining issues: the inter-batten clearance required by the lines during
rotation: the size of the wire rope to be used in order to accommodate the rotation-induced increase
in tension: and the change of weight that occurs as the rig’s weight transfers from one pair of lines
to another. Nevertheless, when such a rig can be used, it produces a stunning visual effect.

109
Offset Flying John C. Howard

With increased concern over fleet angles, the Mount Holyoke technical staff have been less inclined
to give in when designers ask to have loft blocks moved “just a few inches upstage.” In order to
meet designers’ needs, we’ve begun using C-clamps as shown in Figure 1 to offset the placement of
very light scenic units without having to move loft blocks. In such rigs, a system pipe is prevent-
ed from turning by clamping one or two side arms to the pipe and attaching them to the pipe’s lead
lines, as is often done when electrics are overhung, rather than hung directly under their pipe. We
usually side-arm the lines that are carrying most of the unit‘s weight. Once the pipe has been
rigged to prevent rotation, the unit‘s pickups are hung from the system pipe and then passed over
C-clamps mounted horizontally on the pipe as shown in the illustration.

1:
FIGURE THE OFFSET R I G

As might be expected, this approach has some important limitations: it should not be used to offest
units weighing more than about 20 pounds: nor should it be used to achieve offsets of more than
3“ or so. And even within these limits, some frustrations will occur. If you want to hang a unit
totally upstage or downstage of the pipe, the side arm’s C-clamp will tend to swing in the opposite
direction, returning the unit to the plane of the pipe’s lead lines. Some of this effect can be mini-
mized by the use of longer side arms, however, and a 10- to 20-pound unit can be moved upstage
or downstage about 3”. On the other hand, this rig works particularly well if you want the unit
hung with one end downstage of the pipe and one end upstage of the pipe, for then the unit‘s weight
is centered under the pipe though not parallel to the pipe. Nevertheless, the side arms are still
needed to hold the pipe steady while adjusting the trim.
Delbert L.Hall A Tracked System for Flying Actors

For a production of Peter Pan I designed a flying system to enable a n actor to fly across the stage,
parallel to the proscenium, with independent control of both his height above the stage and his lat-
eral position. The system, described here and illustrated in Figure 1, was simple to operate, reli-
able, and safe.

Two 30' pieces of heavy-duty steel channel (#2800)were spliced together to provide a 60' track. This
track was hung from a batten using hanging clamps placed on 4' centers. Tormentors were set to
reduce the proscenium width to 40', thus giving us 10' of track offstage left and right.

Transverse movement was accomplished by a tram equipped with three master carriers (#2852)
that allowed it to travel along the track. The 4' tram carried two underhung traveling blocks that
would be used for the vertical movement of the actor. A live-end pulley (#2863-A),dead-end pulley
(#2864-A),and floor pulley (#2866-A)were used to rig the tram in a standard traveling fashion.

A 2:l mechanical advantage was designed into the system for the vertical movement of the actor.
A $'' aircraft cable connected to a 1" operating line ran through a n underhung head block mount-
ed on the track, through the first traveling block on the tram, down and around a floating block,
up and through the second traveling block, and finally, to an end stop on the f a r end of the track.
The actor was attached to the floating block by appropriately sized black aircraft cable.

As the tram moved along the track, the i'' aircraft cable rode through the two traveling blocks and
the floating block without changing length. Thus, unless the 1" operating line was raised or low-
ered, the actor remained at a constant height as he was flown across the stage. When the 1" oper-
ating line was pulled down, the floating block rose, lifting the actor half of that distance. The rig
used two operators: one to control vertical movement, the other to control horizontal movement.

The trim height of the batten holding the track was determined by adding the height of the set's
vertical sight lines to the maximum height of the flights and increasing that sum by an additional
10'. The trim height of the batten for our production, 45' above the stage floor, helped reduce the
noise made by the tram's travel along the track. Since the arbor was counterweighted only for the
weight of the rigging, the system became extremely pipe-heavy when an actor was flown. To keep
the rope lock from slipping and the batten from dropping during flights, one end of a piece of $"
aircraft cable was secured to the bottom of the arbor and the other to the locking rail of the coun-
terweight system.

All the blocks used in this system had 8" sheaves with Timken Roller Bearings to help ensure
smooth running. The cost for the flying system described here was less than $1,100.00.

The system ran flawlessly throughout rehearsals and run. The operators found the system easy to
operate, and everyone involved in the production felt secure in the safety of the flying. This system
met all of the flying requirements of the script and allowed us to choreograph spectacular
sequences.

SUPPLIERS

Blocks were supplied and the tram built by SECOA, 2731 Nevada Avenue North, Minneapolis, MN
55427. Track and hardware were built by Automatic Devices Company (a SECOA dealer), 2121
South Twelfth Street, Allentown, PA 18103. Black cable can be obtained from Foy Inventerprises,
3275 East Patrick Lane, Las Vegas, NV 89120; and black-vinyl-coated cable, from Hartford Cordage
and Twine Company, 687 Cedar Street, Newington, CT 06 111.

111
A Tracked System for Flying Actors Delbert L. Hall

~ 13. \ 5. 6. 14. 4 0 .

1. Channel Track #2800

2. Hanging Clamps
1"
3. 3 Aircraft Cable
4. 1" Rope (Operating Line)

Y
7.
5. Special Head Block
6. Tram and Traveling Blocks
7. Floating Block

;
- 11. 8. Aircraft Cable
8.
9. Actor
~ 4.
10. Cable End Stop
3"
11. 8 Cord (Operating Line)

L
9. 12. Floor Pulley
13. Live-End Pulley
14. Dead-End Pulley

- 12.

FIGURE
1: PARTSFOR THE TRACKED SYSTEM
FLYING

112
A n n Johnson A Safe and Sag-Free Cable Curtain Track

Structures that appear to defy the basic laws of physics and gravity are part of the magic of the-
atre. One such structure is the apparently sag-free catenary cable curtain track that stretches
across the entire expanse of a stage and disappears into the wings left and right. For no matter
how tightly a cable is stretched through mid-air, it can never be entirely sag-free, whether it sup-
ports any other object or not.

The most common way to provide a sag-free cable curtain track is to apply as much tension a s pos-
sible with a come-along or turnbuckle. Tremendous forces are generated in such systems, and to
protect the actors in a Yale Repertory Theatre production I felt it was important to limit the pulling
strength of whatever tensioner we used. Two cables stretched across the 56'-wide stage needed to
carry four 8' x 10' panels of chain-weighted ripstop nylon. I wanted to insure that, if an actor were
to trip and grab the curtain, the system's tensioner would release momentarily. Further, the pro-
duction was in rotating repertory, and the system would have to be set and struck repeatedly.
Figure 1 illustrates the system I designed to meet these criteria.

In order to calculate the amount of tension needed to pull the cable taut, you must first make an
assumption about how much sag will be acceptable. In my case, the scenic designer agreed that
3" of sag in a 56' span would be acceptable. I calculated that if the cable could sag no more than
3" when the full weight of the curtains was bunched in the center of the span, it would be subject-
ed to 790 pounds of tension. The s''vinyl-coated cable I had planned to use had a breaking
strength of 3700 pounds and was easily capable of carrying this load with a 5: 1 safety factor.

System Slack: System Tensioned:

Piston Extended Piston Retracted

\
136 Aircraft Cable
"

Cable Termination
at Cylinder Clevis

1x3 Tube Steel Support ~

~~

1: TRIPLE-PURCHASED
FIGURE TENSIONER
CABLE
A Safe and Sag-Free Cable Curtain Track AnnJohnson

Recognizing the inherent compressibility of air, I decided that a pneumatic cylinder would be a good
choice for a tensioning device. The downstroke of a 7" or 8" pneumatic cylinder could easily take
up an extra 6" of cable, which would be enough to allow a member of the shift crew to disconnect
the cable every night at changeover. However, since a cylinder capable of creating 790 pounds of
tension with a 6" throw was rather large and expensive, I decided to triple-purchase the cable, mak-
ing use of the pneumatic cylinders available in our stock. The triple-purchased system used an
18"-throwcylinder with a 2+" bore. Its 3:1 mechanical advantage created the necessary force, and
the cylinder's 18" throw reduced 6" of slack to a n acceptable 3" sag.

The system worked well: extra weight applied to the cable simply resulted in the further extension
of the piston rod rather than greater tension in the cable. The sag in the center of the curtain
proved to be very close to the desired 3",and the changeover crew was able to install and strike the
cables safely in less than a minute.
Magi Oman A Parallel-Guide Rig

Using the principle that tracks drafting-board parallel rules, Richard Gold, Technical Director for
the production of Mississippi Nude at the Yale School of Drama, enabled a single operator to move
a curtain track upstage and downstage. The movable track was hung parallel to the plaster line
and perpendicular to the three stationary tracks from which it was suspended. Aircraft cables A
and B,which ran through sheaves mounted at the ends of the movable track, were secured at the
ends of the outer stationary tracks, forming the same “ X rig that guides a parallel rule. Figure 1
presents the rig in plan; Figures 2 and 3, its details. Adding a running line to one end of the mov-
able track allowed a single operator to move the track upstage and downstage with ease.

Cable A Dead-Tied Cable B Dead-Tied

I
n
a ~ Connection Connection -~

Aircraft Cable A Central __

Stationary Track
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cables A and B I
///
Crossing in an
”X”Rig ‘1
\\

Cable B Turnbuckle Cable A Turnbuckle -

Proscenium I/

FIGURE
1 : GENERAL
PLAN OF RIG

This principle assures parallel movement in any plane, and with thoughtful planning, could be
applied to wagons, to trap platforms, and to hard-covered traveler panels. Depending on the scale
of the application, it could be necessary to devise a means of keeping the cables from sagging.
Regardless of the specific application, it is always important that sheaves be secured to take forces
in all directions. It is equally important to tighten the guide cables alternately, checking to make
sure that the guided object’s desired orientation is maintained: tightening one cable all the way
first will rotate the object out of its desired orientation, and such misorientation can jam the
sheaves and/or overstress other hardware.
A Parallel-Guide Rig Magi Oman

Stationary Track

Aircraft Cable A

,/

,
Aircraft Cable B

Movable Track

FIGURE
2: S L GUIDEASSEMBLYSEEN
FROM U S AND SL

Stationary Track

Movable Track

Aircraft Cable A
(to Downstage)

Aircraft Cable B
(to Upstage)

3: TOPSECTION
FIGURE THROUGH S L GUIDEASSEMBLY
 Safety

General Specifications for Stairs and Ladders Theodore G. Oh1

Compliance with Fire Safety George Lindsay

Determining Tension in Bridling Lines Paul Carter

Allowable Loads on Lumber-Nail Joints John Marean

A Comparison of Rope-Braking Devices Jon Lagerquist

Fire Safety Handbook DWPhineas Perkins

General Specifications for Stairs and Ladders Theodore G. Oh/

The configuration of structures leading from one level to another on stage is highly design depen-
dent. However, several safety considerations should be noted and, as much as possible, observed
in the construction of step units and ladders.

The general workable incline range for covered step units is 20" to 50",with the most comfortable
incline about 30" to 35", or a 7" to 9" riser with a 9" to 12" tread. Changes in riser height or tread
width within a set of stairs should be avoided. If the risers or treads must vary, the difference
should be less than +'I.If it is impossible to meet this criterion, a landing may be incorporated to
provide a break between two sets of stairs with different riser heights and/or tread widths. If a sin-
gle step must vary in height or width, it is safest to place it at the bottom of the unit.

As the riser height approaches the lower safe limit for stairs (about 3"),the depth of the tread should
be increased. Riser height should never exceed 12", and as the pitch approaches the upper safe
limit (about lo"),an open riser unit should be considered. If, for example, a rise of 3' for each foot
of run were desired, an open riser unit might be designed with 12" risers and 9" treads overlapping
5" (i.e.,with 4" exposed in plan). Obviously, railings become important as the pitch increases.

If pitches steeper than 75" are desired, a rung or wall ladder is the safest solution. A 12" rise
between rungs should be considered maximum. The wall ladder, however, has an additional con-
straint: a minimum of 7" of toe room between the ladder and the wall.
George L n d q Compliance with Fire Safety

The following notes are intended to assist the theatre technician or producer in complying with
accepted practice in fire safety procedures. As state and local codes and enforcement vary widely,
each producer should check with local fire safety officers and enlist their advice and cooperation to
insure compliance with the code.

FABRICS

All fabrics used in scenery or scenic decoration should be either inherently flameproof synthetics
or all-natural fibers that have been processed for flameproofing. The standard test is to hold a
match to the bottom edge of a 4”-wide strip of fabric for 10 seconds. When the match is removed,
the flame should go out though the fabric may be charred. Fabrics purchased pre-processed
should be accompanied by a certificate provided by the processor. Treatment can be done easily in
the shop with the use of commercially available flameproofing compounds.

WOOD

All wood and wood products used in scenery must have all exposed surfaces painted with either
casein or latex-based paint or conventional water -based paint to which a flameproofing compound
has been added.

PLASTICS AND STYROFOAM@

Sheet plastics and foam products pose a particular problem. Some vinyl and acetate products are
available that are called “self-extinguishing” and should meet most code criteria. Foam insulating
materials with low fire ratings are also available. In general, however, it is best to cover all exposed
plastics and synthetics with a flameproof fabric and a coat of water-based paint.

CARPETING

Carpets either must be composed of 100% natural fabrics and then treated for flameproofing, or
must have been tested and rated according to standard National Fire Protection Association tunnel
tests. Retailers of industrial and institutional carpets can provide certificates of test results for lines
of carpet that they sell.

OPEN FLAMES AND FIRES

Caution must be exercised at all times when smoking, lit candles, torches, or matches are to be
used in performance. Proper receptacles and extinguishers must be provided in the wings or off-
stage, and, prior to the opening of the show, the producers should be prepared to offer local fire
safety officers a careful and specific description of the use and handling of flame or fires onstage.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

All stages, whether temporary or permanent, should be equipped with properly charged and dated
fire extinguishers located conveniently and prominently in the stage area.

119
Compliance with Fire Safety George L n d y

AISLES AND EXITS

Aisles and exits from auditoriums must be kept completely clear and must be lighted and marked
at all times. When setting up temporary seating in halls or large rooms, careful attention must be
paid to allowing sufficient aisle width. Again, local codes vary considerably, but a standard rule of
thumb calls for a minimum aisle width of 3'-0",with a 4'-0" to 5'-0"provision for entrance and exit
routes. In general, no seat may be more than 6 seats away from an aisle, and all risers must have
safety rails. It is desirable (and sometimes required) to have the seats fastened to the floor or at
least connected in rows. In locations where regular inspections by fire safety officials occur, every
effort should be made to have the seating arrangement inspected prior to each first public per-
formance.

HOUSEKEEPING

The accumulation of trash and waste materials in the stage area during construction and rehears-
al periods is one of the most common fire hazards. At the close of each work period, return all tools,
paints, and materials to storage and remove trash from the building.

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is the most common cause of fires today. Insure that all tools and extension cords are
grounded, that lighting equipment is well insulated and properly mounted, and that all wiring and
circuits are sufficient to carry the loads in use.

EDITORS' NOTE

Laws governing fire safety have changed radically since this article's original publication, and vary
from one locality to the next. Consult with state and local fire authorities for information about
those regulations currently in effect in your area.

120
Pad Carter Determining Tension in Bridle Lines

I- Lifting Line ~ Lifting Line

FIGURE 1: BWDLING
TERMINOLOGY

When supporting a load with two or more bridling lines, the tension in each line is greater than the
load divided by the number of lines. This is true because each bridling line pulls against the
other(s) in addition to supporting its share of the load. See Figure 1. As the angle between the
bridling lines and horizontal decreases, the tension in the lines increases. The table in Figure 2
provides multiplying factors used to determine the tension in each of the bridling lines.

I FIGURE
2: BRIDLE
ANGLE FACTORS

To determine the tension in each bridling line, divide the load by the number of bridling lines and
multiply that figure by the factor listed for the angle between the bridling line and horizontal.
Example: Lifting a circular platform with three evenly spaced bridling lines (see Figure 2) where the
load is 500 pounds and each bridling line is 45" from horizontal. Solution: Each line supports one-
third of the 500-pound load or 166 pounds. Multiplying that figure by the factor for a 45" angle
reveals that the tension in each line is 235 pounds: 166# x 1.41 = 235#.

This article does not deal with uneven loads or forces due to acceleration or deceleration. In choos-
ing lines, always apply an appropriate safety factor.

121
Allowable Loads on Lumber -Nail Joints John Marean

Figures 1 and 2 show two ways to support the non-legged platform B by resting it on a wood car-
rying strip that is nailed to an adjacent legged platform A. Most builders would agree that, mate-
rials and loads being equal, the carrying strip in Figure 2 could be attached to platform A with fewer
nails than that in Figure 1. The question, however, remains: how many nails must be used in
either case? This article provides a guide for answering that question.

L L c a r r y i n g Strip

FIGURE
1 : WITHDRAWAL
LOADING 2: LATERAL
FIGURE LOADING

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Withdrawal load: A load applied parallel to a nail’s shaft.

Lateral load: A load applied perpendicular to a nail’s shaft.
Main member: The piece of wood in which a nail’s point is buried.
Depth of penetration: The distance a nail extends into a main member.

A nail’s resistance to withdrawal loading depends on its diameter, its depth of penetration, and the
specific gravity of the main member. A nail’s resistance to lateral loading, on the other hand, is lim-
ited by both the diameter of the nail and the wood fibers’ resistance to crushing.

The formula governing withdrawal loading is:

5
P = 1380 x Gz x D where: P = resistance to withdrawal (pounds per inch of penetra-
tion)
G = the specific gravity of the main member
D = the diameter of the nail (inches, in.)
1380 = a n empirically determined constant

The formula governing lateral loading is:

3
P=KxDT where: P = resistance to lateral failure (pounds per nail at rated
penetration)
K = the empirically determined coefficient of density of
the main member
D = the diameter of the nail (inches, in.)

Note: this formula assumes a penetration of 10 x the diameter of the nail for Group I1 wood species,
11 diameters for Group 111, and 14 diameters for Group IV.
John Marean Allowable Loads on Lumber -Nail Joints

SAMPLE PROBLEM

The 1x3 carrying strips illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 must carry 400-pound loads. They will be
attached to 2x4 Douglas fir main members by means of 6d common nails. How many nails are
required in each case?

Withdrawal Loading (Figure 1)

5
P = 1380 x GZ x D G (Douglas fir) = 0.51
D (6d Common) = 0.113 in.
5
P = 1380 x (0.51)Fx 0.113 in. = 28.97 pounds resistance per inch of penetration. The depth of pen-
etration = nail length minus thickness of the carrying strip = 2" - %" = 1 t " . Thus, each nail can
resist l i t 'x 28.97 pounds per inch of penetration or 36.21 pounds. Carrying a 400-pound load
would take 12 nails (400 i 36.21 = 12).

Lateral Loading (Figure 2)

3
P = K X D ~ K (Douglas fir) = 1650
D = the diameter of the nail (inches, in.)
3
P = 1650 x (0.113 in.)F = 62.68 pounds resistance per inch of penetration. Carrying a 400-pound
load would take 7 nails (400 t 62.68 = 7).

NOTES

1. Joints based on these calculations assume more than one nail is resisting the loading.
2. Nails must not split either the main member or the piece attached, and must not be too close
to either member's edge or end.
3. The formulas given do not apply when subjected to impact loading such as those caused by
jumping or dancing.
4. As predicted, lateral loading requires fewer nails than does withdrawal loading.

TABLES

Table I on the next page gives data for a few commonly used nails: Table 11, data for a few commonly
used wood species. Table I11 is a composite of the sort you may want to make up covering nails and
wood species used in your shop. Complete tables and further information are presented in
Understanding Wood by R. Bruce Hoadley, 1980, The Taunton Press, and National Design
Specflcations: Wood Construction, 1982 Edition, The National Forest Products Association.

123
Allowable Loads on Lumber-Nail Joints John Marean

Box Common
6d 8d 1Od 16d 6d 8d 1Od 16d
Length in Inches Length in Inches
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Diameter in Inches Diameter in Inches
0.099 0.113 0.128 0.135 0.113 0.131 0.148 0.162

I TABLE
I

Species G K Species Group

Douglas Fir 0.51 1650 I1

I Hemlock Fir 1 0.44 I 1350 I11

I Pennsylvania White Pine I 0.38 I 1080 I Iv I

TABLE
I1

I
Nail Type Douglas Fir Hemlock Fir PA White Pine
L2 w’ L2 L2

10d common 37.94 93.95 26.23 76.86 18.18 6 1.49

16d common 41.53 107.59 28.71 88.03 19.90 70.42
Jon Lgerqzlist Comparison of Rope-Braking Devices

When lowering flown scenery in to final trim, theatre technicians frequently need to apply braking
devices to hand lines in order to achieve a safe rate of movement and to assure that movement can
be stopped precisely at trim. Most technicians are familiar with the practice of “taking a wrap”
around a fxed pipe, and most understand intuitively that the braking effect can be increased by
increasing the number of wraps taken. But, as this article indicates, taking wraps is neither the
only nor perhaps the most desirable braking device. The figures and table that follow illustrate five
alternative braking devices and present the results of a series of tests performed to compare the
effectiveness of those devices.

THE TEST

A 25-pound load (the brake load) was applied to each rope to be tested. The rope was then passed
around a sheave, past the braking device, and around a second sheave, after which a second load
was applied. The second load was gradually increased until slippage through the brake began. The
ropes used in the tests were all laid ropes showing a moderate amount of wear.

THE ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1 illustrates both the test setup and the familiar wrap brake; Figure 2, the munter hitch,
which, like the wrap, requires no additional hardware. The more complicated carabiner one-wrap
in Figure 3 uses a single carabiner attached to a fxed support such as a counterweight rail-mount-
ed sunday; and the carabiner brake in Figure 4 employs two more carabiners. Figure 5 illustrates
the figure-eight brake, which is accomplished by reeving the hand line through a “figure-eight,”a
piece of hardware that can be purchased from mountain-climbing suppliers.

FIGURE 1: TEST SETUP - SINGLE WRAP AS BRAKE DEVICE

125
Comparison of Rope-Braking Devices Jon Lagerpist

n
To Applied Load

FIGURE
2: T H E MUNTERHITCH

ad

FIGURE
3: T H E CARABINER

I/ Rope to Brake Load

FIGURE BRAKE
4: THECARAEHNER

Ort

Brake Load

5: THEFIGURE-EIGHT
FIGURE BRAKE

126
Jon Lugerqztist Comparison of Rope-Braking Devices

NOTES

The reader should keep in mind two important points. First, the data that follow represent the
results of a small number of tests and, consequently, are more reliable a s a comparative rather than
definitive guide. Second, these were tests of static - not dynamic - conditions. The results indi-
cate merely the size of the load required to induce slippage. They do not indicate the amount of
braking force required to stop that slippage once it has begun; and slippage will continue once it
has begun unless the braking force is increased appropriately - even if the load is reduced.

BRAKE TEST RESULTS

Type of Rope
Brake Device (all applied to l + ”
schedule 40 black pipe)
s5 Hemp
41 I 5 Dacron I
1 t! Polypro’ I A13/PNX2

One Wrap 119 95 110 120

Two Wraps I 221 I 184 I 215 I 257 1

Munter Hitch 3004 182 3005 240

Carabiner Brake 300 119 123 270

Carabiner One-Wrap3 250 120 148 199

Figure Eight 1 3004 I 238 I 294 I 3005 ~

Once slippage began, it continued at a load one-half to three-quarters of the load listed.
2
American Brand PNX Rope is a three-strand rope with each strand made of a core of
monofilament polypropylene covered by alternate yarns of multifilament polyester and
monofilament polyester.
3
This piece is designed for ropes in the 8mm to 1lmm range and is too small for the ropes
used.
4
These supported loads well over 300 pounds. (Grasping the “load”end of the system, the
tester lifted himself off the floor without overcoming the brake.)
5
These supported loads until slightly over 300 pounds. (Slippage began a s the tester lift-
ed himself off the floor.)

127
Fire Safety Handbook Dwphineas Perkins

Through the years, many configurations of performance and audience areas have evolved within
theatres in order to provide a better relationship between the audience and performer. Today, in
many theatres, these configurations are meant to be flexible and are reestablished for each pro-
duction. Each individual arrangement should be reviewed with the provisions of fire safety codes
in mind. This article provides a checklist to maintain the public's safety during theatrical per-
formances, particularly whenever the seating layout is temporary. For the most part, these are
common-sense issues.

SEATING

Though the local fire authority usually posts a "maximum occupant load" for each theatre space,
its true capacity is dependent on several factors, and the following points should be scrupulously
observed:

AISLESEATING The back-to-back spacing of rows must be at least 32", provided

the back-to-front spacing is at least 12".

SEATING If there are more than 14 seats between aisles or 7 seats between
CONTINENTAL
an aisle and a wall or other such barrier, then an additional +''
must be added to the row depth for each seat added to the row.

PEW(BLEACHER) When seats have no backs, the depth between rows must be at
SEATING
least 22". When there are no dividing arms between chairs, at
least 18" must be provided along the bench for each person.

CASARECT
SEATING When fured and/or loose chairs and tables are used, a clear path
no more than 10' long must be provided from each seat to an aisle.

ACCESS FOR THE DISABLED

In every place of public assembly, access must be provided for the disabled. Therefore, spaces need
to be provided for wheelchairs. Two wheelchairs must be accommodated for the first 100 seats,
with one additional space for every 100 seats thereafter.

AISLES

Since an aisle's primary purpose is to get the audience to and from their seats, the aisles must be
kept clear of scenic and other obstructions at all times. Additionally, nothing should hang lower
than 8'-0" over any aisle used by the public. When an aisle leads to an exit at both ends, the width
of the aisle should remain the same along its length. In no case should an aisle's width decrease
as it approaches an exit. Additionally, all aisles longer than 20' must end at a cross-aisle or door
leading to an exit from the building. If there is seating on both sides of an aisle, the aisle width
must be at least 42". Aisles that have seating on one side only must be at least 36" wide.

EXITS

Two exits are required from performance spaces seating 50 to 300 people; three, for those seating
300 to 1000 people; and four, for those seating more than 1000 people. These exits should be as
remote from each other as possible and must lead to independent exits from the building. The
 Fire Safety Handbook

doors in these exits must open out from the space. Whenever the space is occupied by the public,
the doors must be unlocked and kept clear of all obstructions.

Every fire exit shall be so marked with an illuminated exit sign. Each audience member must be
able to see at least one of these signs at all times. Since the signs are intended to direct the audi-
ence from the building, the signs must be placed perpendicular to the path of travel and at a rea-
sonable height. Every exit sign is to remain lit at all times when the space is occupied.

ILLUMINATION

As is true of exit signs, all aisles and audience stairways must be illuminated while the audience is
in the space. In the event of an emergency or power failure, exit signs and aisle lights must remain
lit for at least one and one-half hours.

FLAMEPROOFING

While every state has different regulations concerning the flameproofing of scenery, it is wise to
flameproof all the scenery whenever there is no wall of protection between the audience and a set.
These precautions apply not only to the visible, onstage, sides of the walls and floor, but to the off-
stage and backstage portions of a set as well, and particularly to familiar objects and materials that
are used atypically. Some carpets, for instance, may be flame-resistant while in place on a floor,
but hanging them as tapestries greatly decreases their fire resistance.

FLAME ONSTAGE AND PYROTECHNICS

Whenever there is flame onstage - even cigarettes or candles - a fire extinguisher should be kept
nearby. To provide the maximum safety for the audience, any flame used onstage should be kept
as far away from the audience a s possible. All flammable materials to be used near the flame
should also be flameproofed. Pyrotechnic displays, which are not the same as flame, are often
stringently regulated. Check with your local fire authority for specific regulations in your area.

AUDIENCE AWARENESS

Before any performance, the audience should be informed of the intention to use any special effects
that are known to affect some individuals adversely. Generally, clear notice that a production
involves the use of fog, smoke, pyrotechnics, strobe lights, and/or other potential nuisances or haz-
ards should be posted in the lobby and should appear in the program.

FIRE SPEECH

Whenever a space's initially intended configuration is altered, a pre-show announcement should be

made. The "Fire Speech should contain a reminder of the prohibition of smoking, should clearly
define the routes of exit, and should reiterate the warnings concerning special effects and/or chem-
icals to be used during the performance.

129
Fire Safety Handbook

FINAL NOTE

All of the above guidelines are based on the National Fire Protection Association’s Life Safety Code
(NFPA-101). Whether the code is more lenient or stricter than your city and state laws, these guide-
lines represent a starting point. It is up to designers and, ultimately, to technicians and technical
managers to insure the safety of the audience at all times. When you are presented with a new
seating layout for a production or know that a production will use special effects, call your local fire
authority to verify the regulations that pertain to your theatre.

Communication with the fire authority should always be maintained. No matter how simple you
believe your production to be, it is wise to discuss the plans for your production as soon as you
have an idea about the design. The more communication between you and the fire authority - and
the earlier it occurs - the smoother and more pleasant the production process will be for everyone
involved.

Additional information may be obtained from the NFPA’s Code, Chapters 5, 8, and 9. You may con-
tact the NFPA at

National Fire Protection Association

Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02169

EDITORS’ NOTE

Laws governing fire safety have changed since this article’s original publication, and vary from one
locality to the next. Consult with state and local fire authorities for information about those regu-
lations currently in effect in your area.
 Scenery

Sawdust Street Bricks Douglas L. Rusk

Decision Trees Walter Williams

Improved Soft-Covered Stock Masking Units James Hull Miller

Mass-Producing Styrofoam@Balusters James Brewczynski

Laying Out Odd-Shaped Raked Decks M. Craig McKenzie

Free-Standing Curved Staircase Philip Grayson

1-Beam Tracking System Edmund B. %her &

Sawdust Street Bricks

Burlap-Backed Carpet (we salvaged ours from a n old apartment building)

Swift's 3917s Flexible Glue
Dental Plaster
Sawdust
Tinting Agent
3mil Polystyrene

EQUIPMENT

Cutawls
Buckets

Cover the area to be bricked with the carpet, burlap side up. Use a Cutawls to cut a convenient
size stencil from the polystyrene. We worked with a stencil 5'-0"x 3'-4". Then mix the "cement" by
adding equal parts of thinned flexible glue (9 parts glue to 1 part water) and dental plaster. If tint-
ing is desired, add the tinting agent to the thinned glue first. Next add sawdust to the mixture at
approximately a 4:l ratio, depending on the density of sawdust. The cement is then poured into
the stencils and scraped down with 1x4 sticks.

TWO problems occurred. First, the mix dries quickly, and cleaning the stencils proved difficult. We
had to coordinate our personnel so that the mixing rate and the pouring/scraping process could be
continuous. Second, a pronounced color shift occurs when the plaster is added, so experimenta-
tion is needed to achieve the desired color. Color control was finally achieved by mixing larger
batches of the tinted thinned glue.

The results exceeded our expectations. The bricks were 2"deep with well-defined grout lines. To
determine the quantity of mix you will need, estimate one gallon of finished mix to cover approxi-
mately 7 square feet. This figure will vary with the thickness of bricks desired.
Walter William Decision Trees

A decision tree is a conceptual model used to make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. A
decision involves a choice between several strategies, each of which may result in several possible
outcomes. A n outcome is any possible situation that may occur, either by choice or because of
chance events. When confronted with a decision for which there is insufficient information, one
intuitively weighs the possible outcomes according to their likelihood and chooses the one that
seems best. The decision tree is a method of formalizing this intuitive decision-making process and
keeping track of complicated situations.

PROBABILITY

Uncertain situations may arise either from random events or from lack of information. The key to
dealing with uncertain situations is the evaluation of each possible outcome in terms of its proba-
bility. A probability is a number between 0 and 1 indicating the likelihood that a particular event
will occur. A probability of 0 indicates a certainty that an event will not occur: a probability of 1
indicates a certainty that an event will occur. The probability of a coin landing tails up is 0.5: the
probability of a six-sided die landing with any given face showing is one-sixth or 0.166. The prob-
ability that an event will not occur is equal to 1 minus the probability that the event will occur.

A probability for a given event may be objective or subjective. An objective probability is determined
statistically. A subjective probability is derived from a subjective assessment of the likelihood that
an event will occur. Objective probabilities are preferred but rarely available, so decisions are usu-
ally made on the basis of subjective probabilities.

Decision analysis requires that events be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. An event
cannot have two different outcomes simultaneously, and an event must include all possible out-
comes. The latter means that the probabilities of all the outcomes must add to a total of 1. Two
important rules for probabilities are as follows:
1. The OR rule: p(A or B) = p(A)+ p(B). The probability of any of several mutually exclusive events
occumng is equal to the sum of the probabilities of the individual events.
2. The AND rule: p(A and B) = p(A) x p(B). The probability of A and B both occumng is equal to
the probability of A times the probability of B. A and B must be independent events, one fol-
lowing the other.

EXPECTED VALUE

The decision tree uses probabilities to calculate Expected Cost (EC) or Expected Value (EV). The
EC of an event is the real cost times the probability that the event will occur. The EV is the real
value times the probability that it will occur. For example, if I offer to flip a coin and give you $1 .OO
if it comes up heads your EV is p(heads)x $1.00 + p(tai1s)x $0, or (.5x $1.00) + (.5x $0.00) = $0.50.
Note that the case where the coin comes up tails is accounted for. All the possible outcomes must
be considered: the probabilities must add to a total of one.

TREES

There are often many alternatives in a decision that depend upon other decisions and chance
events. These are presented as a tree where each branch represents a process or action. The places
where the branches split are called “nodes.” Nodes indicate either decisions (usually drawn as
square boxes) or chance events (usually drawn as circles). The outcomes are placed at the ends of
the branches. Simple trees can be placed end to end so that an outcome of one tree provides the
Decision Trees Walter Williams

starting node of the next. The decision tree proceeds like a timeline from left to right. Once a deci-
sion has been made or a chance event has occurred, there is no going back.

For example, let us suppose that you are in a position to buy a welder. To simplify the example we
will use a one-year planning horizon. The options are to buy a new welder for $300.00, to buy a
used machine for $200.00, or to rent a machine for $60.00 a week when needed. The new machine
carries a warranty, so there will be no repair costs. The used machine, according to the local weld-
ing shop, will cost about $150.00 to repair if it breaks, and they give 50/50 odds on its breaking.
In addition, if the used machine breaks you may rent a machine instead of fixing it. You estimate
that there is a 0.6 probability that it will be used for 4 weeks, a 0.3 probability that it will be used
for 8 weeks, and a 0.1 probability that it will not be needed at all. Note that the probabilities are
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. The options are graphically presented in Figure 1.

EVALUATING THE DECISION

Once the structure of the tree has been drawn, the relevant information can be added. First, the
costs of various actions or events are added to the appropriate branches. Second, the outcomes
are determined by starting at each endpoint of the tree, summing costs along the way. The result-
ing cost (or value) of each outcome is placed at the endpoint corresponding to that outcome. Third,
the probabilities for the uncertain events are added to the branches growing from the chance nodes.

The result of this process for the example is shown in Figure 2. The costs are written along the
branches where they occur and the probabilities are listed in parentheses for the branches follow-
ing each chance node. The EV or EC is determined through a process known as “averaging out” or
“folding back.” Each node of the tree can be looked at as the root of a simple tree, so starting at
the right-hand side of the tree we look at the first simple tree.

If the first node is a decision node, we can choose the best outcome: if we are minimizing costs, we
choose the lowest cost; if we are maximizing value, we choose the highest value. We then place the
value chosen next to the decision node where it will become the outcome for the next part of the
tree. In the example, the rightmost nodes in the “buy used” branch are decision nodes. In Figure
2 the more costly outcome of these nodes has been crossed off, and the less costly outcome,
$350.00, transferred to the node to be used for the next calculation.

If the node is a chance node, we evaluate it by calculating its EV or EC. We calculate the sum of
each of the outcomes for that node multiplied by their respective probabilities. The resulting value
is written next to the chance node, and it again becomes the outcome for the next set of calcula-
tions. In the example, the rightmost nodes for both the “new” option and the “rent” option are
chance nodes. In the “new”case, all outcomes are identical, and since the probabilities for each
chance node must total 1, the EC is the same as the outcomes: (300 x .3) + (300 x .6) + (300 x . l )
= $300. In the “rent” case, the EC is (480 x .3) + (240 x .6) + (0 x . l ) = $288.00.

This process is repeated until we come to the left-hand side of the tree. In the example, the out-
comes from the decision nodes at the right-hand side of the “buy used” branch and the $200.00
“doesn’tbreak” outcome are combined to form the EC at the three chance nodes. These, in turn,
are used to calculate an EC for the “buy used” branch as a whole. This EC is (275 x .3) + (275 x
.6) + (200 x . l ) = $267.50. The three main branches now have ECs that can be compared. The
“buy used” option has the lowest EC and so is the most economical option.
Walter Williams Decision Trees

Use 8 weeks (0.3)

Buy new welder
$300 n Use 4 weeks (0.6)
\
/
Use 0 weeks (0.1)
Use 8 weeks (0.3)

I / Fix $150

4+
~ ~~

Breaks (0.5)
Buy used welder $200 Use 4 weeks (0.6) Rent $240
Doesn't break (0.5)

Fix $150
Breaks (0.5)
Use 0 weeks (0.1) Rent $0
Use 8 weeks (0.3) Doesn't break (0.5)
Rent welder
when needed Use 4 weeks (0.6)
W
Use 0 weeks (0.1)

FIGURE 1: BASICTREE FOR WELDER EXAMPLE

EC = $300
(0.3x 300)+ (0.6x 300) + (0.1x 300) Use 8 weeks (0.3) $300

\ Use 0 weeks (0.1) $300

EC = $267.50
(0.3 x 275) + (0.6x 2751 + (0.1 x 200) (0.5 x 350) + (0.5 x 200)
Buy used welder $ Use 4 weeks (0.63
Doesn't break (0.5)

EC = $288
-
(0.3x 480) + (0.6x 240) + (0.1 x 0) Use 8 weeks (0.3) $480
\ Rent when needed
I
Use 4 weeks (0.6) $240
Use 0 weeks (0.1)
$0

FIGURE TREEFOR WELDEREXAMPLE

2: COMPLETE
Improved Soft-Covered Stock Masking Units James Hull Miller

Using back-flap hinges to join two standard-frame flats into stock masking units results in three
problems. First, the crack at the hinge line between the flats may or may not remain masked,
depending on how much the hinged styles warp over time. Second, the projecting cornerplates and
keystones used on standard flats are a nuisance. Making each folded unit as much as one-third
thicker than it needs to be, they eat up storage space at a surprising rate. And, though they offer
convenient hand-holds, they also pose a tearing threat to the fabric surfaces of stock flats, which
undergo repeated handling. Finally, because the units typically fold one way only, they are seldom
built to be more than two flats wide.

The stock masking units described in this article use a cloth version of the paper hinge found on
many Oriental screens. The use of this hinge provides complete hinge-line masking and allows
units to be made more than two flats wide while minimizing their thickness to facilitate storage and
shipping.

~ Stile

Detail of Shoe Connection Between Rail and Stile Stock Masking Panel
Joints

FIGURE
1: FRAMING
PLANAND D ~ A I L S

FRAMING AND COVERING

The stiles of the individual flats are connected to the rails by mitre joints. Shoes measuring f ”x
8”are nailed to the ends of the toggles, and the “shoed”toggles are then nailed between the stiles.
See Figure 1. Coated, withdrawal-resistant nails are used in all joints. Though the use of half-laps
at the rails and toggles may seem feasible, the author finds the joints described above to be supe-
rior because, unlike half-laps, they do not cut into the stiles. After the frames’ sharp edges have
been sanded or planed off, the surface fabric is laid out on, wrapped around the edges of, and sta-
pled to the frame at the rear. Though muslin, duvetyne, and no-wale corduroy are all suitable as
cover fabrics for these flats, the author prefers the denser body of Veltex.
James Hull Miller Improved Soft-Covered Stock Masking Units

- Fabric
Hinge

‘\ Face of Matte-Board
Flat strip

Top View of Hinged Stiles

Face of Flat

Hinge

Hinges Tacked to Faces Elevation of Hinged Flats

of Adjacent Flats (Face Fabric Not Shown)

Frames to be hinged are laid face up next to each other. Next, 4”x 6” strips of the same fabric used
for the surface are laid face down on the stiles to be hinged as shown in Figure 2 and tacked down
through S’’x 5;’ strips of matte board or other heavy cardboard. The frames are then turned face
down with hinge stiles abutting each other, and each strip of fabric is pulled up through the hinge
joint. After the gap at the hinge joint has been minimized, the fabric strips are pulled snug against
the stile of the “partner” flat and tacked in place to form a durable continuous hinge.

NOTES

Since these hinges permit frames to fold either face to face or back to back, masking units may be
made more than two flats wide. The author has found three-flat units to be the type most useful
in mounting productions in “found”spaces.

The addition of a strip of plastic to the top and bottom edges of each finished unit, though not
essential, will prevent fabric wear. The reader is cautioned that these frames cannot be slid on their
hinged edges without damage to the hinges.

137
M a s s Producing Styrofoam@Balusters James Brewcvnski

Identical balusters can be mass produced economically for stage use by turning high-density
Styrofoam@on a drill press. While turning wood requires expensive material and skilled labor, this
method replaces the wood with inexpensive Styrofoam@and simplifies turning by using a profile
pattern. The task is accomplished in three steps: building the Styrofoam@blanks, building the pro-
file pattern, and turning the blank on a drill press.

BUILDING THE STYROFOAM@BLANK

1. Cut a $" dowel three inches longer than the baluster and chamfer one end. The dowel later
serves as a centering device during installation. To help secure the foam to the dowel, imbed
appropriately sized finish nails into the dowel from four directions at the points at which the
baluster is to be the widest. To accommodate the dowel, the center two sections of foam must
have $" semicircular grooves routed down their lengths.
2. Laminate commercial-grade polystyrene foamboard ("blue foam") with an aqueous neoprene
latex adhesive such as 3M's Fastbond 300. Avoid mastic adhesives, which do not dry com-
pletely, resulting in delamination during turning. Laminate the foam to the dowel 2" from the
top. Trimming the laminated block to a hexagonal shape decreases turning time.
3. The size of the finished baluster is limited by the drill press dimensions. The overarm (column
to chuck center) dimension limits the baluster thickness. Baluster length is limited by the
extent of table travel and/or excessive chatter that will occur when turning too slender cross
sections.

BUILDING THE PROFILE PATTERN

1. The pattern is a positive profile of the finished baluster. Cut two profile patterns simultane-
ously from f " plywood. This ensures that the profiles are identical and that the balusters will
be symmetrical. Allowing the profile to extend an inch or two beyond the length of the balus-
ter will make it easier to shape the baluster ends.
2. Attach the profile sides baseplate of $" plywood and a back of f " plywood. The assembled pat-
tern should be bolted to the drill press table with carriage bolts and to the column with a U-
bolt.
3. Install a bushing at the centerline of the profile in the base plate to provide a pivot point to
minimize spindle chatter during turning. See Figure 1C. The heat generated during turning
precludes the use of low-temperature plastics or wood for the bushing. Therefore, the bush-
ing must be made of a long-lasting material, such as Teflon@or nylon.

138
Jame.r Brewcvnski Mass Producing Styrofoam@Balusters

1B: Exploded View

of Foam Blank

FIGURE
1

139
M a s s Producing Styrofoam@Balusters James Brewcgtnski

TURNING THE BLANK

Suitable carving tools are easy to make, but they must be designed to abrade rather than cut or
gouge the Styrofoam@. Gouging foam at drill press speeds would be dangerous. The following
would comprise a renewable set of carving tools:

FORROUGH FORMING

1$" closet rod with 60 grit sandpaper

FORIMAGING
6" dowel with 60 grit sandpaper
6" dowel with 100 grit sandpaper
1+'' x $" stick with 150 grit sandpaper

FORFINE DETAIL LINES

1t''x $" stick beveled to zero

1. Load the 2" end of the dowel into the drill chuck. Seat the chamfered end into the bushing.
To minimize friction between the dowel and the bushing, do not apply downward pressure
while tightening the chuck jaws.
2. Operate the drill press between 1750 and 2750 rpm. Because of the generation of fumes and
dust, work in a well-ventilated area and wear a respirator and eye protection.
3. Hold the carving tool horizontally with both hands. Form the Styrofoam@blank into a cylin-
der by using long vertical strokes. Next, follow the pattern image to produce a rough shape.
Greater detail is achieved by using smaller tools for succeeding strokes. Remove the finished
baluster. Clear the debris. Set up the next blank.

FINAL NOTES

A preliminary limited test run will help determine specific requirements. In production runs, balus-
ters can be completed in less than ten minutes each. Setting up a comfortable work station and
preparing the blanks properly will increase the system's efficiency. In general, this system pro-
duces inexpensive balusters quickly and safely.

Users should note, however, that cutting Styrofoam@releases hazardous gases and can generate
enough heat that there is a potential for fire. Always wear protective clothing, gloves, and an appro-
priately filtered respirator, and keep a proper fire extinguisher ready nearby.

SOURCE

Clayton Austin.
M. Cra&McKenxie Laying Out Odd-Shaped Raked Decks

In planning the layout for any deck, the technical director seeks to minimize costs by using as many
stock platforms as possible and to minimize build and load-in time by devising the simplest possi-
ble legging system. If the deck is to be level, the technical director can simply draw the layout on
an overlay of the set designer's plan. But laying out a raked deck is a more difficult problem since
the designer's plan does not represent the true size and shape of the deck.

This article outlines a solution to laying out a deck that is raked and also oddly shaped. The
method, which requires a copy of the designer's deck plan and a clean piece of vellum, has three
major components: determining a rake axis line, dividing the rake axis line into useful segments,
and orienting standard platforms along the rake axis line. The following example assumes the use
of stock platforms measuring 4'-0" x 8'-0"and 4'-0" x 4'-0".

DETERMINING A RAKE AXIS LINE

To define the rake axis,identify the decks three most critical points. The points do not necessari-
ly include the highest and lowest points on the deck. For example, they may instead be points at
which the deck comes into contact with an escape. Once they have been marked, the rake axis can
be determined with the following method.

1. Draw baseline AB connecting the highest and lowest critical points (points A and B, respec-
tively, in Figure 1A).
2. On baseline AB, construct a section through the deck, section ABB'A'. See Figure 1B.
3. Locate point C', the middle critical point, at its correct elevation on the section, and construct
line C'D perpendicular to baseline AB. See Figure 1B.
4. Draw line CD. See Figure 1C. Note that all points on line CD are the same height off the floor.
5. Finally, erect rake axis line XX', perpendicular to line CD at any convenient point along CD.
See Figure 1C.

DIVIDING THE RAKE AXIS LINE INTO USEFUL SEGMENTS

Because this deck is raked rather than level, its plan view does not show its true size and shape.
Any line drawn perpendicular to the rake axis line can be scaled into segments, since all the points
it includes are at a single, constant elevation. Lines drawn in any other orientation, however, can-
not be scaled, since they represent changing elevations. Thus, in order to divide the rake axis line
into meaningful segments, the technical director must use the following approach.

1. Erect perpendiculars from points A and B through the rake axis line. See Figure 1D.
2. Construct a new section through the deck, section MNN'M', using a segment (MN) of the rake
axis line as a new baseline. See Figure 1D.
3. Starting at M', scale line M'N' at 4'-0" intervals and erect lines perpendicular to the rake axis
line that extend in both directions as in Figure 1E.
4. Lay the clean vellum over the plan and trace both the rake axis line and the perpendiculars
drawn in the preceding step.
5. Starting at the rake axis line, scale the outermost perpendiculars at 4'-0" intervals, and con-
nect the interval marks to produce a grid of rectangles as in Figure 1F. (Note: the gentler the
rake, the more closely these rectangles will resemble squares.)
Laying Out Odd-Shaped Raked Decks M. Crag McKeenXie

FIGURE
1

142
M. Craig McKenXie Laying Out Odd-Shaped Raked Decks

ORIENTING STANDARD PLATFORMS ALONG THE RAKE AXIS LINE

1. Keeping the rake axis line drawn on the vellum parallel to that drawn on the plan, slide the
vellum across the plan until the greatest possible number of complete rectangles fits within
the outline of the deck.
2. Tape the vellum in place, trace the outline of the deck, and indicate the best placement of the
stock platforms. Such a layout appears in Figure 1G.

NOTES ON LEGGING

This raked deck layout approach saves time in devising a legging system. Because each line of
cross-axis platform edges represents a constant elevation, it can be supported by a series of legs
cut to equal lengths or by a single stud-wall frame.

143
Free-Standing Curved Staircase Phil$ Grqson

For a production of A Streetcar Named Desire at James Madison University, Set Designer R. Lee
Kennedy wanted a freestanding staircase that would have the look of New Orleans ironwork. It was
also to be an open-camage design, i.e., it could have no external support other than the stage floor
and a platform at the upper end. In addition, actors needed clear passage under it, and Lighting
Designer Mark Darden wanted a clear view of the unit silhouetted against the cyc.

J M U students Kim Sprouse and Joel Moritz, who had taken on the project as part of an Advanced
Technical Theatre course, found little help from theatrical source books: in them, Sprouse and
Moritz found only closed-carriage designs, which hide a series of trestle tread supports (gates)
behind flats. Sweet's Catalog was somewhat more helpful because it contains many architectural
units that met the designers' criteria. Predictably, though, all of the commercially available units
were far too costly for the production budget. By drawing inferences from the Sweet's Catalog
descriptions and through discussions with commercial staircase manufacturers, however, they
gleaned enough information to design the shop-built, open, curved staircase shown in Figure 1.

The staircase was built around a 7'-0" inside radius. Its treads were 3'-0" wide and measured 9"
along the inside stringer and 1'-1" along the outside stringer. It was 6'-8"tall and comprised ten
treads built up on an 8" rise. It was designed to carry the weight of two average-size actors who, it
was assumed, might happen to climb the staircase simultaneously - a total combined static and
dynamic load somewhat in excess of 400 pounds and far less than the 1000 pounds on which some
manufacturers claim to base their commercial designs. Sprouse and Moritz judged that this load
could probably be carried by a staircase that used only two carriages made of x 12" steel bar,
even if they were cut to reveal the outline of the treads and risers. The design also used $" plywood
treads supported by x 2" x 2" angle iron welded between the carriages at each tread/riser inter-
section as shown.

I FQGURE 1: %AD/RISER INTERSECTIONDETAIL

CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLY

Since the J M U Theatre shop has no bending tools and only limited metal-working equipment, the
construction method was restricted to the possibilities offered by a standard power hacksaw and
 Free-Standing Curved Staircase

buzz-box AC welder. First, a half-scale cardboard mockup was produced to test the dimensions on
the designer's drawings. This process also allowed us to test the approach of cutting the camages
from flat material and then bending them. Satisfied with the model, we began construction.

After the carriages had been cut to length and notched to receive the treads and risers, we welded
the topmost and bottommost pieces of angle iron in place. Next, we leaned the stringers against
the back wall of the theatre and attached the topmost angle iron to the wall at the appropriate
height. Then, after swinging the bottom angle iron into its proper orientation and securing it to the
stage floor, we bent the camages into the final desired curve by hand, inserting tread-length 2x4s
between them at each tread location in order to establish and maintain correct spacing between the
stringers. This done, we replaced each 2x4 by welding an angle iron strut in place, working from
top to bottom. When we disconnected the unit from the wall and floor, the stringers remained
curved, and we had only to attach the treads, risers, and handrails.

We bolted the pre-cut treads in place, and followed them with a series of $"-plywood risers that had
been cut out to resemble New Orleans gingerbread. The railing consisted of 1" square tube steel
balusters (welded to the upstage/stage left side of each carriage) and handrails of strap steel.

145
I-Beam Tracking System Edmund €3. Fisher e9
Thomas P. Sullivan

A production at the Juilliard School required that a heavy wagon be pushed across a steeply raked
deck, from offstage left to centerstage, where it was rolled onto a n elevator. The full-stage show
deck was raked at about 2" per foot of run. The top deck of the 8' x 10' x 8' tall wagon had to fit
flush with the show deck when the elevator was lowered. This meant that tracking and placement
of the wagon on the elevator was critical.

THE PROBLEM

Platforms that are rolled across a raked deck tend to drift down the rake as they travel. Even
though a knife guide will limit the amount of drift, the knife will inevitably rub along the guide slot.
The friction that our 1700# load would cause was considered a significant problem, for in addition
to requiring extra force to move the wagon, it would create excessive noise and the possibility of
jamming was significant.

THE SOLUTION

We realized that our biggest problems were the result of one factor - the raked deck - and that if
we could get around the rake these problems would be eliminated. The solution was simple
enough: using a level track for the wagon underneath the show deck would eliminate the rake-
induced tendency to drift. We soon decided that a n I-beam section would be an ideal wagon-cast-
er undercamage, with its web serving effectively as a n unobtrusive knife guide and its flanges as
mounting surfaces for both wagon and casters. See Figure 1.

TRACK

Our track was built as a narrow stressed-skin panel with a $"-plywood top, 7 5
x 4 framing, and a
+'' plywood bottom. I t was built in 16' sections with male and female ends to assure rigid connec-
tion and tight-fitting seams between sections. The track was built narrower than the space in the
studwall in which it rested and yet wider than the wheels that rolled on it, so that alignment of the
track with the slot in the deck was not critical. The track was screwed to the studwalls to prevent
shifting. Unpainted, tempered masonite was added on top with the seams offset from the track
seams to provide the smoothest possible surface for the casters to roll on.

UNDERCARRIAGE

An I-beam has the perfect cross section for this application. We opted to use two I-beams that ran
the full length of our wagon because they would present the smallest number of leading edges to
catch on seams in the deck and they could be installed quickly. Further, full-length I-beams would
also be able to bear the weight of the wagon on a minimum number of casters without deflecting
appreciably. Caster mounting and alignment is important, of course, to ensure that the carriage
travels in a straight line. We found that, with the casters properly aligned, the I-beam web never
rubbed against the edges of the slots.

DECK

i''
Thin enough to provide clearance for the I-beam, the deck at Juilliard was only 1 thick. After the
deck was installed, two parallel f " slots were cut, centered above the track, for the I-beams to run
in. Since the tracks were 6" wide, there was about 2 s ' ' of unsuppoeed deck on either side of the
slots, which was important to take into account when laying out the plywood layer of the deck.
146
Edmund B. Fixber & I-Beam Tracking System
Thomas l? Szdbvan

This system provides a tracking wagon that is easy to move, very quiet (since the moving parts are
below the deck), and very accurate. We suffered no noticeable drift either upstage or downstage
during the run, and the two +'' slots in the deck were almost unnoticeable.

147
A Measured Approach to Kerfing Daniel J. Cztlbane

The typical trial-and-error approach to kerfing materials that are to be bent into arcs often produces
less than desirable results, whether the objective is to presenre the maximum amount of material
or to form an arc as quickly a s possible. The following method, which I learned from master crafts-

*
men at the Children’s Theatre Company, can help the builder reach both objectives more directly.
First, determine the outside radius of the required arc. Measure and mark the length of that out-

Outside Radius

+-
Distance from
Kerf Center to
I Kerf Center

Outside Radius i
FIGURE 1

side radius along one end of a scrap piece of the stock to be used. Kerf the stock at the center of
this mark. Place the stock on a flat surface and raise the measured end until the saw kerf closes,
a s in Figure 1.

Measure the vertical distance from the flat surface to the bottom of the stock. This measurement
is the distance needed from kerf center to kerf center in order to approximate quite closely the
required radius.

This approach allows a smooth and uniform arc to be formed in any material and cross section that
will accept a kerf.
Andrew Mudd Alternate Spike Marks

In performance spaces that seat the audience close to the stage, as with thrust or arena settings,
spike marks of glow tape, colored plastic tape, or paint are distracting on a stage floor; and tape or
paint marks virtually disappear under the low-light/no-light scene change conditions which are
often used in such spaces.

ALTERNATIVE 1: LEDs

One alternative to the usual spike marks is the use of LEDs set into the floor. (See the Technical
Briejarticle, ‘Two Easy LED Circuits” by Tom Neville.) In a Yale Repertory Theatre production of
Troilus and Cressida, narrow plywood bridges across a trap-room-deep moat connected the wings
to the central acting area. Holes were drilled down the centerlines of the bridges, and LEDs were
inserted from below, creating a runway effect while remaining unseen by the audience.

LEDs of different colors can signal the status of traps in a darkened stage. In the Yale Dramatic
Association’s production of Sweeney Todd, a pneumatic lift was used to lower a trap into the stage
floor. The edge of the trap was marked with two circuits of LEDs, one green and one red. Before
the lift could be lowered, the operator beneath the stage had to unlock the trap platform and throw
a switch that turned off the green LEDs and illuminated the red LEDs. Thus, actors moving toward
the trap in a dim or smoke-filled scene found the trap easily and knew the status of the lift plat-
form.

ALTERNATIVE 2: AMBIENT LIGHT FROM BELOW

A second alternative to tape was discovered accidentally in the process of mounting a Yale School
of Drama production of Romeo and Juliet, in which a rolling bed had to be brought onstage in a
blackout. The bed was secured to a shiny black deck with steel pins that slid into holes drilled in
the floor. As carpenters drilled holes in the deck for the pins, it became obvious that light from the
trap room below would create bright white spikes that would not be visible from the audience ten
feet away. Once the ambient light in the trap room had been reinforced by the addition of a scoop,
the bed was effectively spiked.
 Scenery Decks

Stressed-Skin Platform Units Bronishw Sammler

Modular Plafform Legging Tony Forman

Open-Comer Platforms Keith Bungs

Lap-Joint Decks William Buck

A Plafform System Bronishw Samnler

Two Methods of Constnrcting Terrain Decks muid cunningham

A Laminated Plywood Turntable Thomas l? sulliuan

Stressed-Skin Platform Units Bronis/aw Sammler

Stressed-skin platforms are a variation on stressed-skin panels used in building construction.

They are especially useful for long spans where heavy beams and numerous supporting legs are
visually or logistically undesirable.

A stressed-skin platform consists of stringers that run the full length of the span and are covered
on both sides with plywood. Lumber headers are placed across the stringers at each end of the
panel. If the platform is longer than the plywood being used, the plywood butt joints must be
backed with plywood splice plates centered on the joint and backed with lumber blocking. The
plates that fit between the stringers should be a s thick a s the skin being spliced. The length of the
splice plate varies with the thickness of the plywood: 6" long for 4'' plywood; 8" long for &I1 ply-
wood; 10" long for +'' plywood; 12" long for ;' plywood; 16" long for %'' or $" plywood. All joints
must be glued and nailed.

The design principle employed is similar to that of an I-beam. The stringers, like the web of an I-
beam, provide resistance to horizontal shear. The top and bottom skins, like flanges, provide resis-
tance to compressive and tensile stresses caused by bending. The top skin must also provide ade-
quate support between the stringers and is usually S'' plywood or thicker.

The spans listed in the table below assume 4'-wide platforms, continuous stringers 16" on center,
S''plywood a s the top skin, and plywood as the bottom skin.

STEUNGERS AND MAXIMUM SPANS

Based on a 50psf Loading Condition
Nominal Dimension Maximum Span
(Failure in Bending)
1x4 8'-0"
1x6 12'-0"
2x3 8'-0"
2x4 10""
2x6 14'-0"
2x8 17'-0"
2x10 20'-0"
2x12 23'-0"

NOTES

For more exact specifications and formulas for designing stressed-skin platforms, consult the fol-
lowing

Plywood Design Specijkations, SuppZement #3

American Plywood Association
1119A Street
Tacoma, WA 98401

***

152
Tov Forman Modular Platform Legging

This article describes an easy method to elevate, support, and secure platforms without the use of
hardware. The method employs wood modules - boxes with protruding corner cleats - that can
be quickly fabricated providing the user with height and layout flexibility. See Figure 1 .

The symmetrical cross section allows modules to be interchanged with one another. The snug fit
of the platform framing between the cleats holds the platforms together without the use of joining
hardware. Four adjoining platform corners can be legged and held together by placing each corner
over a single cleat. See Figure 2. Two platform edges can be legged and held together by placing
each over two cleats. One platform corner is legged by covering all four cleats. In all cases, the mod-
ule is not clamped to the platform.

H = Height of Platform Framing

W = Width of Platform Framing

FIGURE
1: OBLIQUE
VIEW
Modular Platform Legging ton^ Forman

FIGURE 2: PLAN VIEW, PLATFORM COVERS REMOVED

Platform framing dimensions determine the modules' size. The distance between cleats is twice the
platform framing width (2W).Box height is determined by subtracting the platform thickness from
the desired height. The length of the cleat above the box should allow the platform framing to rest
on the box (H minus $"). Cleats are beveled for easy assembly.

Holding cleats back from the bottom of the box the same distance they protrude from the top per-
mits them to be stacked for use and storage.

OTHERNOTES

1. Design height increments to suit needs.

2. Always lift platforms straight up to avoid framing damage.
3. Non-skid pads on the bottom will prevent rocking and sliding.

DESIGNED BY

Randy Engels and Danny Ionazzi.

Keith Bangs Open-Corner Platforms

Open-corner construction of parallel platforms is a standard construction method used in most

professional scene shops. The method described below reduces the time needed to build parallel
platforms, making them a practical platforming choice.

BUILD A J I G

Begin by taking two short pieces of the framing stock you intend to use and attach corner block
material to their faces. Next, lay them out end to end and fasten the two pieces together with the
type of hinge you intend to use. Bend the pieces to a 90” angle - this defines the open-corner
measurement, which includes the gap created by the hinge, the corner-block thickness, and the
framing-stock thickness. See Figure 1 .

Each parallel is made up of seven framing members called “gates,” five identical pieces for the
width, and two for the length. See Figure 2. The length of each gate is determined by subtracting
twice the open-corner measurement from the overall length of each gate.

\\ \\
/’ 1; \\ \\
/ I( \\
‘
\\
/ ;j \\
Open-Corner Framing Stock
Tight-Pin Tight-Pin-
Measurement -

/ Tight-Pin\\
, . ,
-
Loose-Pin

/
Tight-Pin
-
Loose-Pin
I ’ -2-\\ “\\
/’ \\ \:

/
/ Tight-Pin t
\\
Loose-Pin \\
I
\\
\\
\\
\\
Loose-Pin Tight-Pin t

1: OPENCORNER
FIGURE FIGURE
2: GATESIN PLAN VIEW

155
Open-Corner Platforms Keith Bangs

FIGURE 3

ATTACH THE HINGES

The real convenience of the open-corner construction method is that hinges need not be attached
while the parallel is in the upright position. Lay out the two side pieces and two end pieces as
shown in Figure 3 and hinge them together, attaching the loose-pin hinges first. Pull the pins and
move the end pieces to the other side, and then attach the tight-pins. Next, place hinges on the
pieces that are to serve as internal members, remembering to “hang the knuckles” of the hinges so
that their width will correspond to the end gates. They can now be hinged in the appropriate places
to the side gates still laid out on the bench, attaching the loose-pin hinges first, removing the pins,
and then attaching the tight-pin hinges. When all the hinges have been attached, pick up the unit,
fold it to the correct shape, and make the remaining hinges. Figure 2 will be helpful in determin-
ing the location of loose-pin and tight-pin hinges.

ADDITIONAL, NOTES

Parallels are most useful when raised platforming needs to be between 18”to 6’-0”tall. They pro-
vide a lasting, easily stored platform system. To increase their durability, glue the joints and bolt
one hole on each side of every hinge. Using corrugated fasteners on joints opposite corner blocks
is also a good idea. As lids, use sheets of plywood with blocks set back from the corners to hold
them in place.

156
Willam Buck Lap-Joint Decks

A lap-joint deck is a solid squeak-free alternative to traditional bolted decks. Individual platforms
are constructed with carrying strips and corresponding deck overhangs as shown in Figure 1, and
are screwed together from above during load-in.

Overhang -ph

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

-
I
I
I
Overhang ~ strips- I
I
I
I
I I
Carrying Strips I
I

-Carrying
\,
strips

FIGURE 4x8 UNIT

1: TYPICAL

The frame and top may be constructed of the materials used for standard platforming. ~ 5
x pine
3
is a good choice for the carrying strips, although 2x stock may be substituted. The carrying strip
must be firmly attached to the framing members. Gluing-and-nailing is suggested.

The plywood overhang should exceed the width of the carrying strip by For example, if the
&‘I.

carrying strip measures l k ” , the overhang should be 1 i ” . This allows for variance in lumber
dimensions and construction errors, thereby eliminating gaps between platform tops. Since the
vertical surfaces of the framing do not bind between platforms, the deck is quieter.

PLANNING THE DECK

1. All platforming is planned relative to the “key piece,” usually positioned downstage center as
shown in Figure 2. Other units are then laid out as with any other deck. Careful considera-
tion must be given to the location of the overhangs and carrying strips. In Figure 2, overhangs
are indicated with the letter “0.” A carrying strip must be placed on any platform side that
meets an “0”side. Note that the key piece would have carrying strips on three sides.

157
Lap-Joint Decks Willam Buck

2: TYPICAL
FIGURE DECKPLAN

2. Platforms on one side of the key piece are usually labeled with even numbers, while units on
the other side are labeled with odd numbers.
3. Obviously, it is not necessary to provide carrying strips or overhangs along the outside perime-
ter of the deck.
4. Tracks, turntables, and odd-shaped pieces may be planned into a lap-joint deck by applying
the above procedures.

ASSEMBLY

Since the location and orientation of the key piece determine the placement of the entire deck, con-
siderable care should be taken to place it precisely during load-in. Other units are then placed
around the key piece and screwed through the overhang into the carrying strip. Three or four 1 t"
flat head wood screws along each side will provide a sufficiently strong connection.

158
Bronislaw Sammler A Platform System

Many theatres stock a set of 4' x 8' platform units made with 2x4 framing and plywood tops.
Though units like these can be built quickly and inexpensively and can be repeatedly assembled
into decks by simply bolting on a new set of 2x4 legs, they are far from ideal. They frequently need
repair, their assembly into decks often requires the use of shims, and the decks they form always
seem to squeak.

The deck system described in this article has several advantages over its alternatives. Consisting
of 4' x 8' stressed-skin panels and a minimal number of Styrofoam@supports secured to the stage
floor, this system is more quickly and easily assembled, more rigid, and less likely to squeak than
others.

THE STRESSED-SKIN PANELS

S'' CD plugged and touch-sanded top skin

A typical 4' x 8' stressed-skin panel in this system uses a
and a $Itplywood bottom skin on a frame consisting of five x 3"pine stringers and two 1+'' x 3"
$I1

fir headers. Two Rot0 Locks@bolted onto the 8' side of each panel's top skin allow the panels to be
connected firmly together during deck assembly. To avoid having to notch the stringers to accept
the Rot0 Locks@and to provide a good handhold, the frame and bottom skin are made 4" narrow-
er than the top skin. In addition, the bottom skin of each panel is fitted with four bolt plates like
those in Figure 1 that allow for a firm connection between the panels and the Styrofoam@supports.

Complete design and construction details for stressed-skin panels appear in the pamphlet Plywood
Design SpeciJGxtions, Supplement #3, published by the American Plywood Association, 1119 A
Street, Tacoma, WA 9840 1.

One hole, drilled, tapped, and

countersunk from the top, for
5
a 16 flat head stove bolt.

Four holes, drilled and countersunk

1"
from the bottom, for 15 #8 flat head
I wood screws.

FIGURE 1: BOLTPLATE DETAIL

159
A Platform System B ronislaw Sammler

Rot0 Lock@connection

connection of
adjacent platforms

Thumb Screw hole

for connection
to floor

-r I '
I
Note: Rot0 Lock@connection eliminates the need to bolt the second platform to the support.

I Bolt connections between the first platform and the support -is
10 01
-
',
L,-
-1,

/L41'+
LyA Thumb-Screw connection between the support and the stage floor
\

FIGURE
2: CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
AND ASSEMBLY

THE STYROFOAM@SUPPORTS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION

These supports have enough "give" to compensate for a reasonably uneven stage floor, and, despite
their light weight, they are easily able to support the compressive loads placed on them.

1. Cut 4"Styrofoam@boards to a height 1" less than the finished support height. A raked deck
can be accomplished either by building tapered supports to be laid out in the axis of rake or
by beveling the top of the Styrofoam@and laying the finished supports out across the axis of
the rake.
2. Notch the Styrofoam@wherever connections to a panel or the floor are needed. See Figure 2.
3. Glue $" x 4" plywood strips to the top and bottom of the Styrofoam@and cap the end of each
support with a piece of x 4" pine cut to fit between the plywood strips. See Figure 2.
Bronislaw Sammler A Platform System

4. Drill holes through the plywood strips wherever the support is to be attached to the stage
floor or to a panel.

TYPICAL DECK ASSEMBLY

A 1'-high 16' x 16' deck would require eight panels and three 16'-long supports. The positive con-
nections between panels, between deck and supports, and between supports and stage floor assure
a firm playing surface. By following the sequence outlined here, a crew can quickly assemble the
entire deck without having to crawl underneath to make connections.

1. Place the Styrofoam@supports in position on the stage. The panels require support along their
4' sides only. Mark the location of the connections between the supports and the floor.
2. Move the supports and set a threaded insert into the floor at each point of connection.
3. Set the supports in place and connect them to the stage floor. Use thumb screws to speed
deck assembly. If the deck is to be more than 1'-0" high, provide suitably spaced diagonal
bracing between the supports.
4. Set the end panel of each row in place on the supports and use wing nuts on the four bolts
that connect the panels to the supports.
5. Rot0 Lock@the next panel in each row to the first and bolt the accessible 8' side to the sup-
ports.
6. Repeat the procedure until the deck is complete.

In addition to providing a firm playing surface, the 4"-thick stressed-skin panels stack very effi-
ciently for storage. Moreover, their framing lasts longer than conventional 2x4 framing because it
is not subjected to the wear and tear of repeated legging connections.

161
Two Methods of Constructing Terrain Decks David Cztnningham

This article describes two methods of constructing decks with contoured surfaces. These decks rest
on substructures consisting either of oddly raked platform units or of contour ribs affixed to gates
(frames) or studwalls. Plywood lath woven or arranged in layers on top of the substructure smooths
out the contours while providing the surface with the necessary strength. Successive layers of
increasingly flexible materials such as chicken wire, carpet padding, and burlap give the deck its
finish contours and texture.

The lath used can be cut in many widths and shapes from lauan or plywood $" to +'' thick.
However, the best material for lath is$'Iplywood ripped into 2" strips and cut on the bias, i.e.,diag-
onally across the sheet. Lath need not be applied over every square inch of the decks surface:
spacing at whole or half a strip's width is acceptable. Before the final coverings are applied, test
the bearing strength of all areas by walking on them.

Burlap -~

1"
/'- ;
I

Scrap Lumber

FIGURE
1: PLATFORM WITH BUILT-UP
AREAS

THE PLATFORM-SUPPORTED SYSTEM

See Figure 1. For gently sloping terrain, construct a set of platforms (compound-raked as neces-
sary) that roughs out the dominant slopes. Individual platforms need be neither rectilinear nor
level along any edge. Whatever the shape of any platform, identify the three points of elevation that
establish the plane of its surface. In determining the height of these controlling elevations, allow
for the estimated thickness of the built-up lath, which can be interwoven and broken off as neces-
sary to form the desired contours. Where a strip does not quite reach a nailing surface, subsequent
strips can be woven beneath it to provide better bearing strength. At the same time, however, lath
should not be forced to bend where it doesn't want to bend.
David Cunninghum Two Methods of Constructing Terrain Decks

~ Studwall

2: GATEAND
FIGURE STUDWALL STRUCTURE

THE RIB-SUPPORTED SYSTEM

For terrain with compound curves or abrupt changes in elevation, a series of plywood ribs braced
together at one-foot intervals provides a more suitable framework than a set of platforms. The con-
tours of some rib-supported decks may permit the installation of rib units on top of 2x4 studwalls
as shown in Figure 2. If, however, the contours of a ribbed deck are such that the ribs cannot be
parallel to each other, the ribs can be built as the upper rails of individual lx gates.

Whether rib units are supported by gates or studwalls, the location of the breaklines between them
should be based on both handling considerations and abrupt changes in grade. Contours along
the perimeters of adjacent rib units should be eased into each other by making any necessary
adjustments in elevation. Finally, the entire perimeter of each rib unit should be framed, as shown
in Figure 2, to provide a nailing surface at each seam. In a rib-supported system, the lath is lay-
ered rather than woven. A first layer of lath is applied as close to perpendicular to the ribs as pos-
sible. A second layer is then attached diagonally across the first: and a third layer, parallel to the
ribs.

ATTACHING THE LATH

Air-driven fasteners reinforced with glue produce the best connection between the lath and its sub-
structure. This approach is faster than the use of nails or screws. Moreover, nailing by hand tends
to shock previous connections loose, and screws too often split the wood.

FINAL NOTES

Doing a trial setup of the substructure for terrain decks before applying the lath is advantageous.
Set the substructure units in place separated from each other by the width of a saw blade. Then,
apply lath to the entire deck, smoothing the transition between units. Finally, cut the breaklines
into the lath with a reciprocating saw.

163
A Non-Skid Groundcloth Pbdp E.Hacker

The following method for making a non-skid groundcloth was devised at the University of New
Mexico to meet the needs of a specific touring production in which cast members stilt-danced on
the groundcloth.

The groundcloth had to be tacky enough to provide a sure footing for the stilts strapped to the
actors' legs. I t also had to resist bunching up around the base of the stilts, and it had to be kept
from sliding across the surface of the deck.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Large bucket Paint brushes
802 Duck or scenery cloth Deck broom
Phlex-glue Fairly coarse sawdust
Phlex-glue Super Plastisizer Sizewater
Latex paint 6" or 8" Sonotubem

Phlex-glue and Phlex-glue Super Plastisizer are produced by Spectra-Dynamics of Albuquerque,

New Mexico.

PROCESS

Lay out the groundcloth, leaving it oversized by 2' along each edge. Using heavy cotton thread,
machine-sew the fabric strips together with flat-felled or other appropriate seams.

Attach the groundcloth seams-up on a paint deck or seams-out on a paint frame. Staple the fab-
ric around all edges, size it, and allow it to dry.

To prepare the backing mixture, mix the Phlex-glue, latex paint, and Plastisizer in a ratio of 1 gal-
lon to l gallon to 2 ounces. The color of the latex paint used in the backing mixture should be com-
patible with the color scheme of the groundcloth's top surface.

Apply a first coat of the backing mixture to the cloth with a brush, using the cross-hatch method
to work the mixture into the nap. Although the backing mixture will never cure completely, it is
dry enough to work with if, when grasped between thumb and forefinger, it does not slide across
the surface of the fabric. Generally, a second coat of the mixture can be applied after about three
hours' drying time. Allow the second coat to dry for about five hours.

If the groundcloth has been treated on a paint frame, carefully remove it and lay it out on the floor,
coated side up. Avoid letting the coated surface fold back on itself: only with great difficulty can
accidentally folded fabric be unfolded. Once the groundcloth is in place seams-up, scatter a gen-
erous amount of sawdust along one edge. Then, having removed your shoes, sweep the sawdust
across and off the coated fabric with a stiff deck broom. It is not the coarse sawdust, but rather
the fine particulates remaining on the fabric that make the groundcloth non-skid. Flip the ground-
cloth over and slide it back and forth across the deck to insure even distribution of the fine partic-
ulates.

Next paint the top side of the groundcloth. The author recommends the use of diluted latex paints
to provide the desired skid resistance and to mask any bleed-through of the Phlex-glue mixture.
When painting is complete, trim the groundcloth to its final size.

164
Phih) E. Hacker A Non-Skid Groundcloth

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, AND STRIKE

The groundcloth should be stored and transported by rolling it evenly around a 6" or 8" Sonotube@.
The paraffin-impregnated surface of the tube will keep the material from adhering to it.

To install, roll the groundcloth out onto the stage and place it in position. Turn on all available
stage lights to heat and soften the undercoating and to flatten any wrinkles. Then, tape down the
edges with cloth tape.

During strike, allow the surface to cool before removing tape in order to prevent stretching the edges.
A Laminated Plywood Turntable Thomas J? Sulkvan

Traditional turntable designs cause some difficult problems for technical directors. Accuracy in
making the beveled cuts required for their framing is time-consuming and chancy, and the result-
ing joints often creak and groan. In addition, because the casters move across the floor below, run-
ning power or control cables to the pivot is difficult; and debris and dirt on the floor itself make the
turntable’s movement bumpy and noisy.

One way to address these problems is to eliminate their causes. A frameless turntable can be built
more quickly, for instance, and if the casters are attached, inverted, to the floor, nothing under the
turntable can interfere with their smooth and quiet operation. This article describes one such
turntable system.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Figure 1 clarifies the basic design of this system, which comprises four major components: the
turntable, the bed of inverted casters, the pivot, and a drive mechanism. Of these four, the pivot
and the drive mechanism resemble those used in familiarly framed turntables and will not be dis-
cussed here.

The caster bed comprises two rings of fured casters, inverted and bolted to a plywood panel, their
axles aligned with the radii of the turntable. See Figure 1A. The most complicated component of
the system is the turntable, a three-layer lamination of plywood panels. See Figure 1B. The
turntable’s construction will be outlined later in this article.

1A: Caster Bed

1B: Turntable

Center of Disk -1

1C: Section Through Disk at Overlap Joints 1D: A Laminated Section

1: CASTERBEDAND LAMINATED
FIGURE TURNTABLE
Tbomas l? Sulkvan A Laminated Plywood Turntable

DESIGN VARIABLES

Three interdependent elements need to be considered in designing turntables based on this system:
the load to be camed by the turntable, the distance between casters, and the size of the sections
of the turntable disc. The thickness of the turntable is based on projected loading conditions and
structural design information provided in the American Plywood Association's pamphlet Plywood
Design Specflcation. The distance between casters and caster rings is determined by the type and
thickness of plywood panel chosen. The size and number of sections in the turntable disc is deter-
mined by weight, handling, and storage considerations. The example in Figure 1 is designed with
four wedge-shaped sections.

DESIGN CONSTANTS

In order to take full advantage of plywood's strengths, a turntable based on this model should be
built with the following notes in mind:
1. Each layer of plywood in a section should be laid out with its face grain running parallel to
the face grain of the other layers.
2. The face grain in each section should run either parallel or perpendicular to the radius of
the turntable as much as possible.
3 . The seams between the pieces of plywood in each section should be staggered.

4. The joints between sections and between the sections and the pivot are intrinsically the
weakest parts of the turntable disc.
5. The overlap joint should be as wide as practicable. The sections are joined by bolts spaced
6" apart O.C. in rows 2" from either side of each joint as in Figure 1C. T-nuts epoxied into
the bottom of the disc will speed assembly.

MODEL SPECIFICATIONS

The 12'-diameter model in Figure 1 is designed to the following specifications:

LOAD 50 psf (a fairly typical deck rating).
PANEL
GRADE& THICKNESS CD interior sheathing.
CASTERSPACING 34"between the pivot and the first caster ring and between the
first and second caster ring.
JOINT
OVERLAP 1 foot. See Figure 1C.
CONSTRUCTION NOTES

1. Spread an even coat of wood glue over the area of contact between the panels in each section,
but do not put glue on joint surfaces of adjacent sections.
2. Once all of the panels in a section are in place, nail through the layers in a 6" grid pattern.
This will keep the necessary pressure on the plywood until the glue has dried.
3. Once the sections have dried, mark and cut the desired circumference of the turntable.
4. Once the sections have been completed, assemble them to form the entire disc.
A Plasticene/Styrofoam@Deck Plug David C. Pedman

THE PROBLEM

The action for the Yale Repertory Theatre's production of Edit Villarreal's Crazyfrom the Heart
involved plunging narrow wooden stakes into the ground during a Native American gambling game.
During each performance, a total of thirty-two sticks were to be repeatedly stabbed into the deck,
making a total of over 700 holes throughout rehearsals and the run. Since the Masonitea-covered
stressed-skin-panel deck had to work for both this show and another with which it played in rotat-
ing repertory, the deck had to retain a uniformly smooth, planar surface. Thus, for the gambling
scene, we had to devise a plug that met several criteria:

1. The surface had to resemble that of the surrounding deck in color and texture.
2. The contents had to make the stabbing look and sound plausible.
3. The stakes jammed into it during the performance had to remain upright.
4. It had to cover a reasonably large area to accommodate the action of the play,
yet could not be overly awkward to handle.
5. The area where the game took place would have to look "clean" each night, the
previous performance's indentations invisible.

We ruled out using sand alone as the filler for several reasons. Traffic across sand would have left
footprints, making the plug surface visually different from that of the surrounding deck. Sand
would also have made the plug too cumbersome for easy repping, and would have offered the obvi-
ous potential for creating a mess if the plug were dropped. Worst, so shallow a sand bed would not
provide enough grip to keep the stakes vertical. We also ruled out a completely Styrofoam@filler
because it would squeak when stabbed and because the cost prohibited replacing it after each use.

THE SOLUTION

The plug we built was a 1x3-and-plywood box measuring 36" x 40" x 2%" deep. After building the
box, we glued a layer of 1" Styrofoam@to the inside with Fastbond [email protected] then applied a coating
of Fastbond 30@to the Styrofoam@and laid in $"-thick slabs of plasticene. We topped the assem-
bly off with a layer of sand - not deep enough to result in footprints, but deep enough that the
audience could see sand thrown into the air during the game.

This idea worked extremely well. The key to its success was the plasticene, which kept the stakes
vertical, muted the sound of the Styrofoam@,and made the action quite realistic. The most valu-
able aspect of the plasticene was that it could be remolded to fill in the holes that the stakes made.

NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION

Commercially available plasticene comes in grades numbered 1 through 4 - soft to very firm. Two-
pound bricks of Grade 2 worked well for this application. Wrapping the bricks in plastic bags and
submerging them in hot water for about ten minutes made the material very pliable. For a n even
lower-cost approach, you might make your own plasticene following the instructions in the
Technical Brief article, "High-Volume, Low-Cost Modeling Clay" by Jon Lagerquist.

168
Neil Gluckman The “Perfect”Soft Floor

The design for a Yale Repertory Theatre production of Scapin called for the main portion of the deck
to be a 22’-diameter circle, 8”above deck height. In addition to the expected qualities of quietness
and durability, it had to be soft enough for acrobatics and pratfalls, and it had to have a non-skid
surface that would take paint well.

The first objective was to find the right resilient material. The first material researched, +’’ indus-
trial felt, was entirely too costly and not nearly soft enough. The next possibility, a custom-made
wrestling mat, would have cost $1,400.00 and taken four to six weeks to arrive. The material we
finally chose was Ethafoams, a trade name for a group of closed-cell polyethylene products. Many
are familiar with it in the rod form that is split to make moulding or bumpers for scenic pieces. For
this application, we purchased rolls of sheet Ethafoams 4’’ thick by 4’-0”wide by 125’ long. The
technical name for the product is “closed-cell polyethylene, density range 1.6 to 1.9 pounds per
cubic foot.” According to the vendor, this description will get you the same product nationwide. The
cost of each 500-square-foot roll was $210.00, and for this show we bought two rolls.

Having chosen a material, our next task was to attach it to the floor and to attach a groundcloth to
it as a paint surface. Attaching the Ethafoams to the deck became a non-issue for us because the
deck construction design we developed included a plywood ring that would hug the perimeter of the
disc tightly and hold the Ethafoams in place. For Scapin, we used two layers of EthafoamB sheets,
gaffers’ taping the seams of each layer’s adjacent panels together and then installing the two layers
with their seams perpendicular to each other as shown in the partial plan in Figure 1.

To attach the groundcloth to the Ethafoams, we used 3 M contact adhesive NF-30@,familiarly

known as “green glue.” Knowing that we wouldn’t be able to slide the groundcloth into place on the
Ethafoams once the green glue had been applied, we approached the task as though we were lay-
ing out a giant pie crust. First, we laid out the Ethafoams and placed the untreated groundcloth
on top of it, stretching the groundcloth smooth and making sure that its painted pattern was ori-
ented correctly. Next we folded the groundcloth back on itself to expose half of the Ethafoams and
the back of the corresponding half of the groundcloth. Once the green glue had been applied and
become tacky, we used a 24‘ roll tube as a sort of oversized rolling pin to roll the groundcloth into
place. Finally, we stapled the edge of the groundcloth to the perimeter of the disc and entrapped
the entire assembly with the ring as shown in Figure 2.

We were very happy with the results of this approach: the bond between the groundcloth and the
Ethafoams proved highly effective against actor traffic; the elaborately painted soft deck held up
well over the course of a four-week run; and we recovered whole sheets of reusable Ethafoams at
strike, discovering that the green glue would peel away with little effort.

169
The “Perfect” Soft Floor Neil Gluckman

-
FIGURE
1: PARTIAL PLAN VIEW OF DISCAND RING

Ring Profile
Groundcloth
Bonded to Top
and Wrapped Over Lumber

\
i-
,
/
Ethafoama Layers 2-J
(Not bonded together or to plywood)

Lumber and Plywood

Disc Structure , ,

5
2 Spacer -\\

Block ‘\\,

I
Stage Floor
7

FIGURE THROUGH DISCAND RNG

2: SECTION

170
 Scenery Electronics

Sliding Electrical Contacts Arthur Oliner

A Low-Voltage Remote Controller for Special Effects Kenneth J. Lewis

Two Simple LED Circuits Tom Neville

A Touch-Tone Relay Controller for Special Effects Steven E. Monsey

Programmable Logic Controllers John Huntington III

Sliding Electrical Contacts Arthur Oliner

Sliding electrical contacts provide an easy way to get power to electrically operated devices mount-
ed on tracked pallets or free-rolling wagons. The use of such contacts, which can cany either audio
signals or electrical currents, eliminates the need for cable that must be paid in and out as the pal-
let or wagon moves. Sliding electrical contacts are easily constructed in the shop.

- Travel
To Device

TO Power Source 1 ~
Brush
Contact Plate

1: BRUSH& PLATECONTACTS
FIGURE

OPERATION

The contact consists of two components: a flexible brush, and a contact plate. The brush, a curved
piece of copper or brass, is mounted on the underside of a wagon to bear on the floor with some
force. The contact plate, also copper or brass, is floor-mounted at the wagon’s playing position.
Power is supplied to the wagon by the contact of the brush and the plate. See Figures 1 and 2.
One sliding contact is needed for each conductor.

DESIGN PARAMETERS

Contacts must be designed to provide sufficient contact area to carry the current needed to oper-
ate the device. To determine the necessary contact area, first determine the amount of current
needed to operate the device. Then refer to a n electrical handbook to discover what gauge wire
would be needed to carry that current. This data appears under the heading “ampacity.” The same
handbook will reveal the cross-sectional area (in square inches) of that wire. That cross-sectional
area is the necessary surface area that must remain in contact between the two components.

According to the National Electrical Code, exposed contacts may not carry more than 50 volts. The
platforms’ playing position prevents exposure of the live contact plate. When the platform is moved,
however, current must be disconnected from the contact. Disconnection can be assured by the use
Arthzlr Oliner Sliding Electrical Contacts

of a dual safety mechanism consisting of one switch that is triggered mechanically as the platform
moves from its playing position and a second switch that can be activated by a n operator at a
remote station.

Insulating Base Contact Stop -

plastic
Mounting Hole
Brush Bar - copper
or brass bent to
create a curve 1"
Cable / Brush lower than the
Bolt bottom of the
Contact Stop

Brush Plate - copper or brass on

-1'I
32 plastic insulator

Mounting / Cable
Bolt

FIGURE DETAILS
2: BRUSH& PLATE

CAUTIONS

1. Check local and national electrical codes to insure proper installation and operation of the con-
tact.
2. Make the contact plate long enough to allow for variation in the travel of mechanically operat-
ed pallets or wagons.
3. Maintain proper insulation between the contact and surrounding materials to prevent acci-
dental electrification of parts not intentionally included in the electrical system.

173
A Low-Voltage Remote Controller for Special Effects Kenneth 1. Lewis

Special effects that respond to a simple on/off control signal can be operated by a Magnetic Reed-
Switch (MRS) Controller. The MRS Controller will operate such effects as "wheat" lamps, star-drop
circuits, bells, buzzers, and solenoids without requiring sophisticated electronics and construction.

An MRS operates by reacting mechanically to the presence of a magnetic field. It is widely and
cheaply available because of its use in intruder-alarm systems. In such systems, the switch is
placed on a door jamb, and the magnet on the door. When the door is closed, the magnet holds the
switch closed, completing a normally closed circuit. When the door is opened, the magnet moves
away from the switch, breaking the circuit.

In a special effects controller, any number of MRSs are attached to a plywood base in any desired
pattern. One terminal of each MRS is wired to the power supply: the other, to a separate wire for
each special effects device. The neutral wires of all of the devices can be ganged and are returned
to the power supply. See Figure 1.

FlGURE 1: SCHEMATIC

If sides are attached to the plywood base as in Figure 2, they can support a thin sheet of Plexiglas@
on which a magnet can rest in close proximity to the switches. The space between the Plexiglas@
and the MRSs is determined by the strength of the magnet and the sensitivity of the switches used.
The spacing can easily be determined through trial.

The operator of the MRS Controller can quickly set and adjust cues. Recording cues in the form of
a map drawn on the Plexiglas@facilitates repetition of cues.

174
Kenneth 1. Lewis A Low-Voltage Remote Controller for Special Effects

11I , ~ Plexiglas@Sheet I 1/j

\ ’\
Plywood Base ~ 2
\ >\
\,
\
\\ \
\ \
\

2: TYPICALSECTION
FIGURE VIEW

The MRS Controller is a simple stage effects tool. It can be built easily and adapted to a variety of
circumstances. For example, it has been used to operate a series of small lamps placed about the
scenery for a production of Peter Pan. In that production, the sequential lighting of the lamps rep-
resented Tinkerbelle’s location and movement.

Further, the Controller’s simple nature gives it very high reliability and allows cueing problems to
be solved quickly. Through its use, elaborate special effects that can delight an audience can be
easily reproduced.

175
Two Simple LED Circuits Tom Neville

Though LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are commonly used a s everything from panel indicator lamps
to the tiny flashers on sun visors, many technicians continue to find them somewhat mysterious.
This article describing two simple LED circuits should remove some of that mystery and hint at the
broad range of possible theatrical applications.

The constant-on LED circuit represented in Figures 1 and 2 could be used in place of a standard
120V cuelight system, freeing up house circuits for other uses. Similarly, it could be used to pro-
vide necessary escape-platform lighting or to replace glow tape in some other applications.

The flashing-LED circuit depicted in Figure 3 might be used to indicate the location of offstage
emergency equipment such as fire extinguishers and first aid kits. Its low voltage and small size
also recommend it for use in some self-contained onstage special effects such as flashing lights on
costumes.

CONSTANTON LED CIRCUIT

In this simple series-wired DC circuit, both the size of the battery and the number of LEDs used
are critical factors. The 9V battery will run four LEDs at normal brightness for a reasonably long
period of time. While a 9V battery cannot power more than four series-wired LEDs, it would quick-
ly fry a single LED. A constant-on LED circuit uses the following parts:
9V Battery
9V-Battery Cap
Package of Assorted LEDs
Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST)Toggle Switch
A Length of 22-gauge Wire

+ fl -
Side View Symbol
+ -
Toggle
Switch
9V Battery
+o-
Bottom View

F~GURE
1: PICTOFUAL
OF CONSTANT-ON
LED CIRCUIT
AND REPRESENTATIONS
OF LEDs

176
Tom Neville Two Simple LED Circuits

I 2: SCHEMATIC
FIGURE LED CIRCUIT
OF CONSTANT-ON

Y
- + 220pF
n
Fast Flash Circuit
ib

I 21

3909

u Up to 7 LED'S

3: PICTORIAL
FIGURE LED CIRCUIT
OF FLASHING
Two Simple LED Circuits Tom Neville

- + 2 7-
3909
220pF
-3 6

‘I +
I FIGURE
4: SCHEMATIC LED CIRCUIT
OF FLASHING

FLASHING LED CIRCUIT

Though the integrated-circuit chip makes it somewhat more sophisticated, this is really a simple
timer circuit that can operate one to seven parallel-wired LEDs. The components can be wired to
produce different rates of automatic flashes. For a flash rate of approximately one flash per sec-
ond, wire as shown. A slower flash rate (about one flash every three seconds) can be obtained by
eliminating the wire to pin 1 . The flashing LED circuit uses the following parts:
1.5V C Cell LM3909 Integrated Circuit (Chip)
C-Cell Holder Chip Socket
220pF Capacitor Small SPST Toggle Switch
Package of Assorted LEDs A Length of 22-gauge Wire

NOTES

1. All of the necessary parts for these and most other LED circuits can be found at any Radio
Shack or other electronic supply store.
2. Since most of the components used in these and similar circuits are polarized, the circuits
won’t work if components are wired “backwards.” During soldering, be sure to use appropri-
ate heat sinks to avoid “cooking”the parts.
3. Clear and readable explanations of the basic principles that underlie the operation of these
and many other electronic circuits can be found in such books as Horowitz and Hill’s The Art
of Electronics and Diefenderfer’s The Principles of Electronic Instrumentation.
Steven E. Monsgy A Touch-Tone Relay Controller for Special Effects

SCENARIO

You’re the master electrician on a production that involves the use of many special effects, includ-
ing smoke, lights, horns, bells, and whistles. The director insists that all effects be controlled by
the Stage Manager, who is located 200 feet from the stage. Your heart sinks a t the thought of run-
ning separate control wires for each effect. What do you do?

SOLUTION

As long as there can be a split second between the execution of any two effects’ cues, the solution
to your problem may be a Touch-Tone Relay Controller. Through only a singe pair of wires, this
controller can activate up to sixteen different devices. The schematic of the system is illustrated in
Figure 1.

I I

umber
24 9 -1
1 10 -2
2 8 -3
3 7 -4
21 6 -5
c1 22 5 -6

h6-
4 5 13 19

-
I
1
4
4
CMOS 18 - 8
-7

i7 - 9
20 -10
19 -1 1
14 -12
13
16
- 13
- 14
15 -15
23 12 11 -16

FIGURE 1: TOUCH-TONE
RELAY CONTROLLER SCHEMATIC
A Touch-Tone Relay Controller for Special Effects Steven E. Monsey

PARTS LIST

All components are commonly available at local electronics supply stores.

TP5089
Teltone M-958
CMOS 4514
x1, x2: 3.58 MHz Crystal (color-burst type)
c1: 0.01 yF Capacitor
R1: 1 MQ Resistor

SYSTEM OPERATION

The operator pushes a single key on a telephone keypad, sending a standard touch-tone signal
backstage where it is received and processed by a series of three integrated-circuit chips. The result
of the processing is an electronic signal large enough to trigger a transistor and activate a relay-
controlled effect. Because the range of relay and transistor types required for different effects is so
wide, this article will not address the means of selecting them.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

THE KEYPAD
Keypads can be purchased in twelve-key and sixteen-key models. The former is more readily avail-
able, b u t the latter can control four more effects since each cue is executed by pushing a single key.
Sixteen-key keypads are available through electronics mail order suppliers and at electronics sur-
plus stores. The author recommends that, whatever its number of keys, the keypad be powered by
an independent power supply like the ones used for calculators.

THEINTEGRATEDCIRCUIT
CHIPS
1. TP5089 (The touch-tone encoder). This chip translates the touch-tone signal into audio sig-
nal.
2. M-958 (The touch-tone decoder). This chip receives the audio signal, which it converts into
binary code.
3. 4514 (the 4-bit to 16-bit decoder). This chip receives and converts the binary code signal into
a 25-milliamp, 0.5-volt signal capable of triggering transistors.

ASSEMBLY AND CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The device can be easily assembled, but builders should provide both the keypad and the decoder
chips with sturdy housings to prevent against accidental damage. Finally, fitting both the keypad
housing and relays to be driven by this controller with plug-type connections will facilitate trans-
portation, installation, and interconnection with a wide number of effects.
John Huntington III Programmable Logic Controllers

A Yale Repertory Theatre production of Kiss of the Spider Woman had a large, 2500-pound wagon
that needed to be automated. Our usual drive method - a floor-mounted winch frame and a maze
of muling blocks - was ruled out because of the shortness of the load-in time in touring. To meet
these constraints, we built a unit whose self-contained drive consisted of a speed-controlled motor
and a horizontal loop of roller chain, and whose stop points would be set by adjustable-position
limit switches mounted in slots milled into the unit’s frame.

In place of a system of relays, we decided to use our Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) to con-
trol this system. Even though this particular application is almost too simple for a PLC, its use
saved us assembly and troubleshooting time, and it offered many features a relay controller lacked,
e.g., multiple operating modes and safety interlocks.

WHAT I S A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER?

A PLC is essentially a low-cost, heavy-duty industrial computer with pre-wired optically isolated
inputs and either relay, transistor, or solid-state relay outputs. Originally designed to substitute
for relay-logic control systems such as those found in elevator control panels and other large
machinery, PLCs have lately become remarkably sophisticated. They have been used extensively in
automated factories for some time and, because they are re-programmable, have more recently
been used in Broadway shows. A system useful for all but the most demanding theatrical applica-
tions can be had for around $600, and yet, because of its re-programmability, the same system
could be used to control motorized wagons, turntables, elevators, special effects, or - with the
addition of electrically controlled valves - pneumatic or hydraulic devices.

FIGURE
1

181
Programmable Logic Controllers John Hzlntiizgton 111

HOW DO THEY WORK?

In a typical application, the inputs of the PLC are connected to control or limit switches, and the
outputs are connected to motors, solenoid valves, contactors, or other devices that need to be con-
trolled by the computer. The PLC reads the condition of the inputs, and the internal program eval-
uates and executes the output states.

HOW ARE THEY PROGRAMMED?

The program for each application is written in ladder logic, a sort of sequentially executed relay logic
schematic. Graphically, the program looks something like a ladder, hence the name. Programming
is done using various types of “elements” that are analogous to relay contacts and coils. The pro-
gram is stored in battery-backed RAM in the PLC, or in a detachable non-volatile ROM module. The
program can be entered into the PLC either through the use of a small programming panel or, with
the addition of special software, through an interface with a PC. The PLC itself possesses no means
for entering a program, so one or the other of the above interfaces must be used.

WHAT APPLICATIONS ARE POSSIBLE?

PLC applications are essentially limited only by the programmer’s imagination and budget. In the
Broadway production of Phantom of the Opera, a single assembly-line-grade Allen-Bradley PLC con-
trols 54 automated scenic units. This system has a custom full-color cuing interface and several
levels of control redundancy and backup, but the heart of the system is the PLC running a program
in ladder logic. The road companies of Les Miserables similarly used PLC systems to control large
turntables. The Metropolitan Opera installed a large PLC to control their permanent turntable.

WHAT ARE THE WEAKNESSES OF A SMALL PLC?

Cueing input and sequential go-button operation like that of a lighting console is difficult to imple-
ment in a small PLC-based system. This is true primarily because, even though the units are
designed to perform sequential tasks, the sequence of those tasks must be set in the PLC’s inter-
nal program and, as such, is not easily changed by a non-programmer. This facet of the PLC’s
design would also make it difficult for an operator to skip forward or backward through cues if
something unexpected happened during a performance. The smaller PLCs are more suited to oper-
ation where, for each cue, the operator selects a target position from all of the positions available
for the show, and sends the scenic unit to that destination. Since many theatrical applications
require only two destinations (e.g., the up and down limits for a n elevator), the PLC’s design is
appropriate, especially since it allows for sequences such as decelerating and creeping into select-
ed target positions. While the ladder logic used by PLCs is very powerful, it is a low-level language
and not intuitively understood. First-time users will need to spend time in experimenting with the
language, while those who have previously dealt with relay logic circuits will find the transition to
PLCs less difficult. Obtaining one of the PC-interface programs will also ease the learning process
because these programs are self-documented and provide immediate graphic representation.
Jobn Huntington III Programmable Logic Controllers

HOW IS A PLC BETTER THAN STRAIGHT RELAY LOGIC?

Given the tight schedules of the entertainment industry, the primary advantage in using a PLC is
that the PLC simplifies the development and troubleshooting of control systems. Older systems -
a maze of wires and relays - can be replaced by easily annotated and understood software.
Consequently, programs can be changed with a few button presses rather than with a pair of wire
strippers and a screwdriver. Further, since the “internal relays” exist only in the digital realm of
the computer, there are no mechanical contacts to wear out. Expensive time-delay relays and other
devices are emulated in software and, therefore, are much more cheaply implemented in a PLC.
Since the primary circuitry of a PLC-based system exists in software, the PLC may be reused sim-
ply by writing a new program for each application.

The newer small PLCs are also amazingly sophisticated, with off-the-shelf fiber optic communica-
tion links, advanced digital-math capabilities, high-speed counters, analog I/Os, and even devices
such as Mitsubishi’s “Positioning Control Module.” This PLC add-on can completely handle all the
intricacies of a singe-axis of motion control including relative quadrature encoder feedback, accel-
eration, and deceleration.

WHERE CAN I GET ONE?

Allen-Bradley, Mitsubishi, Omron, and many other companies manufacture lines of PLCs. Howman
Controls, a Mitsubishi distributor, also markets their own IBM PC interface program for Mitsubishi
PLCs. Grainger sells small Omron PLCs, calling them “Sensor Controllers.”

Allen-Bradley Mitsubishi Electric Sales America

Industrial Control Group Industrial Automation Division
1201 South Second Street 800 Berman Court
Milwaukee, WI 53204 Mt. Prospect, IL 60056

Howman Controls W. Grainger Inc.

12 Garden Street 5959 West Howard Street
Edison, N J 08817 Chicago, IL 60648

SOURCES

Associates and Ferren introduced me to PLCs. Steven E. Monsey provided information about
Phantom of the Opera and Les Miserables. Geoff Webb contributed information about the Metro-
politan Opera’s turntable. The roller-chain drive for the Yale Repertory Theatre’s application was
devised by Alan Hendrickson.
 Scenery Hardware

Floor-Mount Curved Track Using Polyethylene Pipe Mark Sullivan

Underhung Hinge William Buck

Nylon Rollers Ray Forton

Nylon Rollers Modified Thomas G. Bliese

Zero-Throw Casters James Bender

A Simple Flush-Mount Hinge Keno Knox 3

An Elevator Door Hinge Victoria Peterson

Richard Gold
Floor-Mount Curved Track Using Polyethylene Pipe Mark Sullivan

Occasionally, a scenic unit must track along a curved or irregular path. Construction of the track
for such a situation can be expensive, complicated, and time-consuming. For situations in which
the moving unit is relatively light, however, split polyethylene pipe can be used as a quick and inex-
pensive track. Polyethylene pipe is available through hardware stores and plumbing supply outlets
in lengths up to loo', allowing for a seamless track. It is noted for its strength and high wear-resis-
tance, making it durable, quiet, and maintenance free. Finally, the pipe can be worked using con-
ventional hand and power tools. For tracking applications, 1"-diameter Type 1 pipe is best. The
low ratio of wall thickness to pipe diameter provides a good balance between rigidity and flexibility.

1"
3 x 1" Dog II

FIGURE
1: OBLIQUE
VIEWOF THE TRACK
AND DOG

SPLITTING THE PIPE

Cut the pipe to length, adding 2' for waste because the pipe curls at the ends making accurate split-
ting difficult. Use a table saw to split the pipe along one side so that the cross section is a "C"
shape. Construct a sturdy jig to hold the pipe firmly so the blade cuts a straight path down the
center of the pipe. Use a fine-toothed blade to do the cutting. This will assist in making a quiet
and smooth running surface for the guides. While cutting, keep the pipe from rotating in the jig.

LAYING THE TRACK

Trim the extra pipe from the ends and drill &,I
'pilot holes opposite the cut at 1' to 2' intervals to
hold the pipe firmly to the floor at the necessary radius. Make sure that the slot in the pipe runs
along the top as the pipe is laid. Use two small shims to open the slot in the pipe, and screw the
pipe to the deck with #8 pan head screws. These provide the greatest strength with the lowest pro-
file. Washers may be added if desired, but make sure that they do not cause the slot to remain
open after the shims are removed.
Mark SulLvan Floor-Mount Curved Track Using Polyethylene Pipe

DOGS

The most effective dog is a simple knife of $" x 1" mild steel mounted vertically. Mount dogs along
the movable unit as needed, allowing +'' to ride inside the pipe. The polyethylene pipe will close on
the dog and hold the unit firmly in place, limiting side-to-side movement. In situations where the
moving unit will be subject to high speeds or rough treatment that could cause it to jump the track,
bend the end of the dog at a 90" angle as in Figure 1.

This design was used to guide a 25-pound bench a distance of 40' along a track with a 12' radius.
The show ran for forty performances without a mishap.

OTHER NOTES

This article describes the use of polyethylene pipe as a floor-mounted track, but the pipe is equal-
ly appropriate for overhead or vertical use in carefully planned and monitored applications.

It should be noted that the track has a relatively high profile (1")which limits its use to situations
where it can either be masked or incorporated into the design.

Polyethylene pipe comes in coils and is difficult to manipulate when it is cold. Gently warming the
pipe, e.g., by placing it in the sun for a short time, will make it pliable and easy to work.

Polyethylene pipe is black and will not take paint without special chemical treatment. I t is also
resistant to most adhesives but may be heat-bonded.

Polyethylene is flammable, so check local fire regulations and consult the fire department before
use.
Underhung Hinge Willam Buck

To fully conceal a trapdoor in a deck, the hinging mechanism must be hidden. However skillfully
installed, the knuckle of a conventional hinge will protrude above deck level. A hinge developed to
solve this problem can be mounted below the deck and works much like the hinge on a n automo-
bile hood. See Figure 1.

FIGURE
1: S I D E VIEW AND PIVOT DETAIL

HINGE CONSTRUCTION

Dimensions and materials listed were used for a trapdoor in a deck with 9" of clearance below. They
are intended only as a guide and may be adjusted to suit other requirements.

MATERIALS NEEDED PER HINGE (LOWERCASE LETTERS REFER TO FIGURE 1)

a. 1'' x 1'' x 1 steel angle cut to 2'-1"

$'I

b. 2" x 2" x &'Isteel angle cut to 6"

c. 2" x 2" x 6'' steel angle (pivot) cut to 6"
d. 1"x 1" x $" steel angle cut to 8 i "

ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES

1. Bend a to an 8"-radius arc as shown in Figure 1. If appropriate bending tools are not avail-
able, straight pieces may be welded together provided that the arc they describe is big enough
to clear the edge of the platform. If the arcs of paired hinges are not identical, whether bent
or welded, the trapdoor will not open evenly.
2. Weld one end of a at a right angle to b as shown.
3. Weld the other end of a to piece d so that the pivot hole intersects the center of the arc.
188
Willam Buck Underhung Hinge

4. Bolt c to d at the pivot point, placing a washer between the pieces to reduce binding. Double-
nut the bolt to prevent loosening.

INSTALLATION PROCEDURES (REFER TO FIGURE 2)

Note: For accurate placement, the trapdoor will be cut out of the platform after the hinges have
been attached.

1. Align the hinges parallel to each other in place beneath the deck.
2. Bolt the hinges in place with countersunk stove bolts.
3. Cut the trapdoor with a saw set at a 15" bevel so that the trapdoor will not bind on the plat-
form.
2. Frame the trapdoor opening beneath the deck to provide support.

\
\
\
2x4 Stop Bolted - >
toDeck \ &'

Bolted to Trap -2%

FIGURE
2: INSTALLATION

OTHERNOTES

1. Moving the pivot point closer to the trapdoor will allow the trapdoor to open farther, but the
open trapdoor will never lie flat on the stage floor.
2. The hinge will work with irregularly shaped trapdoors.
3. The hinge can also be used to hang concealed doors in vertical panels.
Nylon Rollers Ray Furtun

Using shop-built nylon rollers like those shown in Figures 1 and 2, a low-profile furniture or prop
pallet can be constructed to an overall height of only l$". The pallet itself - an unframed layer of
plywood skinned with
3
t"
Masonitem - makes up more than half of that height. The rollers add
only 4". Supporting a typical 4x8 pallet takes 12 to 15 rollers.

The roller is made of 1" nylon rod with a t"hole for the axle drilled through the center. The nylon
1
rod is available at commercial plastics suppliers and costs about $3.00 to $4.00 per foot. ,"-diam-
eter cold rolled steel rod acts as the axle, and two pieces of $" x 1" x 3" flat steel are the mounting
plates. Two it' washers will fit snugly around the t"
steel rod and act as spacers between the roller
and the mounting plates.

Countersunk
Hole ~-

Nylon 3"
Rod 16 Washer

, I 1"
Weld -/'
I

Bottom View Side View

FIGURE DETAILS,FULLSCALE
1: CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION

1. Using a bandsaw with a fine-toothed blade, cut the nylon rod into 1+'' lengths: sand the ends
of each roller, slightly rounding off the ends for smoother rolling.
2. Drill a i''hole through the center of the rod to accept the axle. It is important to center the
hole exactly so that the roller will spin evenly. Accurate centering can be achieved by mount-
ing a drill chuck in the tail stock of a lathe, clamping the rod in the lathe's head stock, and
feeding a twist drill into the end of the rod. With an appropriate clamping jig, a drill press can
also be used with good results.
3. Drill a hole in each end of the pieces of flat bar: countersink the holes to accept flat head wood
screws.
4. Assemble the rollers as shown in Figure 1, placing the washers on the axles between the nylon
rod and the flat bar. Allow just enough space between the plates for the roller to spin freely.
by Forton Nylon Rollers

5. Spot weld the flat bar to each end of the axles. Be careful: too much heat will melt the nylon.
6. To prepare the plywood to receive the assembled rollers, cut holes which will provide clearance
around the rollers. Screw the plates onto the plywood with flat head wood screws.

1"
MasoniteB - - - ,
5"
3 Plywood -,

FIGURE
2: SIDE VIEW OF PALLET

NOTE

Given their small diameter, the rollers must spin very fast when moving and, thus, are slightly loud-
er than normal casters. The resulting noise is not usually a problem, but its consequences must
be considered.
Nylon Rollers Modified Thomas G. Bliese

The preceding Technical Briefdesign for nylon rollers shows the axle welded in place on the bottom
of the supporting flat bar. If the axle were welded instead to the top of the flat bar as shown in
Figure 1 here, the pallet could be made thinner by $'I.

Those who attempt this second design will need to observe the following points:

1. The loss of $'' between the pallet and the bed on which it rides requires that the bed be cleaned
thoroughly and frequently. Further, deflection of the pallet may require the use of more rollers
in this design than in the original.
2. Adequate clearance between the roller and the Masoniteo skin must be provided by routing a
slight depression into the bottom of the Masonites.
3. The quality of the weld between axle and flat bar is more critical in this design, which adds a
tensile load to the original design's shear load. Since the nylon rod will melt under too long
an exposure to high temperatures, speed and accuracy in welding are essential.

Both the original and modified designs appear below.

I I I /

Original Design Modified Design

FIGURE HEIGHTCOMPARISON
1: PALLET
James Bender Zero-Throw Casters

Most commonly, technicians see fixed and swivel casters as the only alternatives for rolling a plat-
form across the stage. Even the more versatile of these, the swivel caster, has limitations when a
change of direction is required. In reversing directions, the swivel caster tends to pivot around its
point of contact with the floor, causing a familiar and unwelcome lurch.

The problem is avoidable, however. The solution lies in the use of the zero-throw caster, which
allows a platform to move easily in any direction without the “throw” of the standard swivel caster.
See Figures 1A through 1C.

1A: Top View 1C: Bottom View

1B: Side View

FIGURE
1: THE ZERO-THROW CASTER

DESCRIPTION AND FABRICATION

In a zero-throw caster, three casters are attached to the bottom of a steel caster plate. The caster
plate is then attached to the platform by way of a thrust bearing and a steel mounting plate which
allows the caster plate to swivel independently of the platform.

Cut a $I1 steel caster plate big enough to permit the casters to swivel freely. Though Figure 1 shows
the caster plate as an equilateral triangle with the vertices cut off, the shape is optional. Drill & ‘ I -
diameter holes in the mounting plate for attachment to the platform. Make certain they are near
enough the outside of the mounting plate to permit tightening the bolts after the whole caster unit
is together. Drill 12 holes in the caster plate for mounting the casters, as well as a hole in the cen-
ter to receive a shoulder washer through which a a l l steel pivot rod will pass. Attach the casters to
193
Zero-Throw Casters James Bender

Mounting Plate

e
L 7Thrust Bearing: Stock Drive Products
Catalog Number 727-050

Shoulder Washer
I 1
Caster Plate
1=>I
-
-
Q
I
I
I
/
1
1
--
I I
Pin for Pivot Rod

FIGURE
2: COMPONENTS

the caster plate and insert the shoulder washer in the caster plate's central hole. Cut a steel
pivot rod to a length of 2" and drill a hole through one end to receive a cotter pin that will be $"
below the caster plate after assembly. Weld the other end of the pivot rod to the center of the
mounting plate. Slide first the thrust bearing and then the caster plate (with the shoulder washer)
over the pivot rod, and secure all three pieces together with a cotter pin. The components and
assembly are shown in Figure 2.

NOTES

1. This zero-throw caster can carry three times as much weight as any one of its swivel casters
and is, therefore, quite useful in high-load applications.
2. The larger a zero-throw's footprint is, the more easily it will turn. On the other hand, the larg-
er it is, the heavier and more awkward it is to handle and store.
3. Platforms that ride on zero-throw casters cannot be framed in the familiar 2x4-perimeter fash-
ion. Platform framing designs must transfer loads to the zero-throw casters' central pivots and
must accommodate their mounting plates.
Kerro Knox 3 A Simple Flush-Mount Hinge

Many sets require concealed or semi-concealed hinge joints for trapdoors or secret wall panels. But
scene shops often lack the time or resources to provide the elaborate and sometimes costly hard-
ware often used to accomplish such joints. The alternative described here is a n easily made, inex-
pensive hinge which can fold flat against itself and yet be entirely concealed.

I FIGURE 1: T H E SIMPLE FLUSH-MOUNT

HINGE

As Figure 1 illustrates, the leaves of this hinge are the female leaves taken from a pair of identical
stock hinges. An appropriate diameter steel rod bent into a “U” forms a double pin connecting the
leaves. This pin allows the leaves to fold flat against each other when the trapdoor is open, and
keeps the hinge barrels from protruding above the surface when it is closed. The two positions are
shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Trapdoor Flush-Mount Hinge

/ F Trapdoor
~

I Note that the Plug’s framing

is offset to support
the Hinge

2:
FIGURE T H E HINGE, -DOOR CLOSED
A Simple Flush-Mount Hinge Kerro Knox 3

Trapdoor

Flush-Mount Hinge

---’ I j I--,
- - ---I I--,
--
--
‘-1
I- ,-
I --I
I- ,-
I

When the trapdoor is open, ~

the Plug’s framing extends

into the opening.

I FIGURE
3: THE HINGE,TRAPDOOR OPEN

NOTES

1. Since the hinge is installed face down, i.e., with the barrels extending into the work, a groove
for their barrels must be routed into the work.
2. In many installations, the groove itself may serve to keep the pin from sliding out of the bar-
rels: but to hold the pin securely in the hinge, bend, weld, or cotter pin the protruding ends to
close the loop.
3. To make the hinge completely flush, it is mortised into the work and the bolt holes are coun-
terbored to accommodate nuts and washers.
Victorid Peterson An Elevator Door Hinge

At times, the simple solution is the most enjoyable. I developed a number of ideas for the con-
struction of a hinge for a two-panel elevator door, all of which relied upon the principles of geome-
try and many of which were quite elaborate. We adopted the simplest of these and were quite
pleased with the results. In our production both panels of an elevator door retracted simultane-
ously into a pocket in the wall stage left of the door. The panels, which covered a 4'-wide opening,
were built as hard-covered 1"-tube-steel frames, designed to overlap each other by 3" at the center.
In order to complete their travel simultaneously, the SR panel had to move twice the distance cov-
ered by the SL panel. A pantograph hinge allowed us to accomplish this movement.

Wall Flat (2'-3")

* -

SR Panel -
,- I-
13'-.1"1

\a I I,b
Door Opening
(4'-0")

Point a is fuced to
Wall Flat; Point b, to
the SR Panel: and I '
Point c , to the S L
Panel.

FIGURE
1: PLAN AND NEARLYOPENPANELS
AND REAR VIEWOF CLOSED

For a hinge like this to work, pivot points a, b, and c (Figure 1) must lie on a line parallel to the
panels' line of travel. Working on an elevation showing the panels completely open, draw line ab
between the farthest two pivot points and erect its perpendicular bisector. The intersection of those
two lines indicates the location of pivot point c. Next, from pivot point a,draw a line downward and
across the perpendicular bisector. This line must be longer than the distance between a and c or
the panels won't close completely - and it must cross the bisector above the floor line or they won't
open completely. The intersection of this line and the perpendicular bisector of ab indicates the
location of pivot point c'. Pivot point d will be found halfway between a and c'; pivot point d',
halfway between b and c'.

In our application, arms made of 1" x $" steel bar stock flexed easily enough to permit snug bolt-
ing at the pivot points, and once they had been joined, they were sturdy enough to move the pan-
els without bending. The addition of a counterweight to the offstage arm kept the panels closed.

DESIGNED WITH

Alan Hendrickson.
Toggle-Clamp Locks Rzcbard Gold

Handle-action toggle clamps provide a sure and inexpensive means of securing trapdoors in plat-
forms and stage floors. Such clamps are basically locking levers, which require very little effort to
open or close and yet offer substantial holding force when they have locked into their closed posi-
tion.

By attachment to a low-pressure double-acting pneumatic cylinder with a 5" to 8" piston throw, an
inexpensive, manually operative toggle clamp can be converted into a remote-controlled trapdoor
lock. The toggle clamp is easily modified by drilling a hole through the handle and pinning the pis-
ton to the handle using a female rod-clevis assembly available from pneumatics suppliers. In-shop
modification for pneumatic operation costs far less than the $80.00 that commercially produced
pneumatic toggle clamps cost. It also offers the additional advantages of manual override in case
the pneumatic system fails and reusability of component parts after disassembly. Figures 1
through 3 illustrate the clamps and show their use as toggle-clamp locks.

Vertical-Style Horizontal-Style
Toggle Clamp Toggle Clamp

FIGURE 1: THE TWO TYPES OF TOGGLE

CLAMPS
&chard Gold Toggle-Clamp Locks

MODIFICATION AND OPERATION

Vertical toggle clamps are generally simpler to modify but require considerably more lateral operat-
ing space than their horizontal style counterparts. When horizontal toggle clamps are to be used,
care must be taken in the placement of the holes in the handle. The travel of the horizontal clamp’s
handle describes an S-shaped path, and if the hole is not properly located, the cylinder will not open
and close the clamp.

I Trap Cover

‘L
!j
\-
Vertical Style Pneumatic
Clamp Cylinder

Vertical Style Clamp Lock: Closed

Vertical Style Clamp Lock: Open

FIGURE CLAMP
2: VERTICAL LOCKCLOSEDAND OPEN

Operation of the clamp-lock system is simple, as one four-way switch will control a lock or several
locks plumbed in parallel. Visible and audible indicators of closure are available. Consideration
should be made in advance for the noise the pneumatics will make. There are two primary causes
of noise in the system: the clamp hitting the trapdoor during engagement, and the exhaust of the
cylinder when releasing the lock. The construction of the trapdoor will determine how loud the
sound of engagement will be. Cylinder exhaust noise may be overcome by installing a muffler on
the exhaust line and running the exhaust line as far from the audience as possible.
Toggle-Clamp Locks &chard Gold

Horizontal Style Clamp Lock: Horizontal Style Clamp Lock:

Closed Open

3: HORIZONTAL
FIGURE CLAMP LOCK CLOSED AND OPEN

Toggle clamps can be purchased from McMaster-Carr, and pneumatic cylinders and supplies from
Clippard-Minimatic, Inc.
C. Ken Cole A Quick-Locking Jack

For a production of Moon Ouer Miami a t the Yale Repertory Theatre, we devised a special stage jack
to support an 8' flat sitting on the back of a 4' x 8' oval wagon. See Figure 1 . As seen from the
side, the unit was an unsupported "L" and had to be secured so that the flat would not move when
actors walked on the wagon. This meant that the jack had to lock into place in a plane that was
perpendicular to the plane of the flat. In addition, limited backstage space made it essential that
the jack be either removable or able to fold away so that the unit could store u p against a wall.

-
1"
3 Schedule 40 7,
Black Pipe

I
1"
5 Rod

2" x 4
Flat Bar
1"
'L'
- 1" Square Base Plate
Tube Steel Jack
in Stored Position

-
1"
,,- 4" x4
Flat Bar -\-----~ 1" Square
\
Tube Steel Jack
1" x 3" in Playing Position

on
Tube Steel

0 C

1A: Front View

of Base Plate
~
1
1B: Side View - Base Plate
and Stored Jack
1C: Side View - Base Plate
and Jack in Playing Position

1: JACK
FIGURE AND BASEPLATEIN STORED
POSITION
A Quick-Locking Jack C. Ken Cole

Jacks and stage braces have been around a long time. Our problem was to make one that locked
into playing position quickly - and could be struck just as quickly. Several different options were
considered, and we finally chose the pivoting steel-frame design, because of its simplicity. The jack
is a two-part system: the jack itself and its base plate.

THE JACK

Except for two 3"-sections of $" pipe welded to its upright, the jack is a typical assembly of 1"
square tube steel. A $'' hole through the foot of the jack accepts a threaded pin that secures the
jack to the stage floor. The pieces of $" pipe act as hinge barrels that let the jack swing back and
forth from storage to playing position.

THE BASE PLATE

The base plate is constructed of steel rod, flat bar, and 1" x 3" tube steel. See Figure 1. An upright
of 2" x +'' steel plate and two short sections of 1" x 3" tube steel separated by a 1$" gap are weld-
ed to a short length of 4" x 6" x $" flat bar. The pieces of tube steel lock the jack into playing posi-
tion. The long upright of 2" x f "flat bar above these pieces carries two bent pieces of $" steel rod
that act as hinge pins for the jack. Located about 1' from the top and bottom of the base plate, the
bent-rod pins must extend far enough from the base plate to allow the jack to swing freely.

ASSEMBLY AND OPERATION NOTES

After the completed base plate has been bolted to a unit, the jacks hinge barrels are lowered onto
the bent-rod pins. When the jack swings perpendicular to the flat, it slips into position between the
two pieces of 1" x 3" tube steel and locks into place. Lifting up on the jack unlocks it, allowing it
to swing to either side for storage. Greasing the hinge parts helps assure smooth and quiet move-
ment. In its storage position, the jack can be held in place with a simple hook and eye latch.

This design can be modified very easily to fit a variety of flats. Careful construction will result in
tolerances tight enough to move smoothly without rattling.
Corrugated (Kraft)Cardboard as a Scenic Material John Robert Hood

Corrugated cardboard has been used occasionally as a scenic covering and profile material. As
commercially available, this material is a marginal substitute for conventional scenic materials. A
critical disadvantage in scenic use is the high degree of flammability: because of the nature of the
materials and construction, conventional flame-retarding treatments are not successful when
applied to corrugated cardboard. This material should not be used where fire and safety code lim-
itations require flame-resistant characteristics, nor should it be used where burning materials
would create a fire safety hazard.

“Three-plycorrugated craft” is the form that has been most successfully applied. This material may
be procured from manufacturers of corrugated shipping boxes or distributors of packaging materi-
als; occasionally, “second”or “reject” sheets are available at little or no cost. Sheet sizes vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer, but generally fall within the 4’ x 8’to 5’x 10’range. Waterproof (oil-
or wax-treated) forms should be avoided, as painting is difficult and flammability is increased.

This material may be cut with conventional scenic tools, such as matte knives, Cutawlso, and table
saws. Cutting blades should be of a fine-toothed or knife form to avoid tearing and “chewing”the
fragile paper surfaces. The bonding glues used in the manufacture of cardboard are usually abra-
sive and tend to dull cutting tools quickly. The material is easily damaged by crushing - exercise
care in handling.

Cutting and profiling should be completed before the cardboard is attached to a frame. The side
with the finer corrugations should be used as the finished surface. Use large-headed nails to secure
the material to framing members: avoid “dimpling” the material by driving the nail too deep.
Carpenter’s glue or white glue may be used to attach the cardboard to the framing. Even pressure
must be applied to hold the joint while the glue sets - without pressure, the cardboard will tend
to warp away from the frame. Scenic elements can be fabricated without wooden framing by fold-
ing and gluing the cardboard into box-like structures; reinforcements and stiffeners can be formed
by laminating strips of cardboard. Visible seams can be dutchmanned with Krafto paper tape or
with gauze and wheat paste. Edges should be covered to prevent tearing and to conceal the ragged
corrugations.

Painting techniques must be adjusted to the material, as it warps and bows readily when surfaces
are moistened. Also, the water-soluble glues used in manufacture soften, and the corrugations
delaminate when wetted. Generally, “puddling”should be avoided; paint should be mixed thin and
applied quickly. If over-painting is necessary, allow sufficient drying time so that moisture does not
penetrate the glue bond. Framing and reinforcement should be placed to avoid large unsupported
areas. The material should be back-painted first, then quickly turned and front-painted: the
simultaneous wetting and drying of both surfaces creates opposing bowing and warping stresses,
providing the moisture does not penetrate and loosen the glue bonds.

While corrugated cardboard offers advantages of cost, weight, and time, its disadvantages require
more care in handling and painting, and shop techniques must be adjusted to achieve satisfactory
results. This material should not be used if flame-retardancy or long-term durability is required.
Anne Lacourt Scenic Uses for Double-Stick Foam Tape

Having become used to working with a variety of standard mastics and adhesives, theatre techni-
cians are prone to overlook double-stick foam tape as a useful construction material. Such tape
can create a quick, tight seal between surfaces and can be used almost anywhere that more tradi-
tional bonding materials may be difficult or impossible to use.

APPLICATIONS

Double-stick foam tape can eliminate many of the squeaks in wood-framed, plywood-covered plat-
forms. Before attaching the plywood, simply apply double-stick tape to the top edges of the frame
so that it acts as a gasket, preventing the cover from moving against the frame. In building steel-
framed, Plexiglas@-coveredplatforms, use of the tape eliminates the cracks and crazing that result
from the use of screws. In this application, the tape has the added advantage of allowing the
Plexiglasm to expand and contract as necessary.

Double-stick tape is useful in other Plexiglas@applications as well. For example, laying the tape
along the back edge of a window frame and simply pressing a pane of Plexiglas@in place finishes a
window very quickly. Similarly, the foam tape can be used to apply wood mouldings to Plexiglas@
surfaces. The quality of the bond between Plexiglas@and other materials can be easily checked by
inspecting the appearance of the applied tape: wherever it appears compressed, the bond is sound.

Finally, double-stick foam tape has few equals in attaching Ethafoamm rod and Styrofoam@to
scenery and is especially useful in attaching anything that has to conform to a curve, since it imme-
diately achieves flexible adhesion without the use of clamps.

One note of caution: foam tape will hold approximately lpsi in tension. Thus, though it is useful
in resisting either compression or shear forces, it should not be used to attach objects to ceilings
or in other tensile applications.

HANDLING

1. The presence of dirt poses the greatest difficulty in the use of this product. All surfaces to be
taped must be clean - wood surfaces must be free of dust; metal surfaces, free of greasy dirt.
2. As a rule, the rougher the surface to be taped, the thicker the tape must be. Tape k'' thick is
recommended for use with wood.
3. Normally, applying small pieces of tape at evenly spaced intervals provides the required hold-
ing force. When using a continuous strip to satisfy visual demands or to form gaskets, how-
ever, roll out a three-foot section and press it firmly into place before moving on.
4. The best "strike" approach to separating pieces that have been taped together is to split the
foam with a razor blade. The remaining tape can be scraped or rubbed off any hard surfaces.

PRODUCT INFORMATION

Double-stick foam tape is made by several manufacturers, 3 M being the largest. It is commercial-
ly available in thicknesses of &'I, A", 1
and 8". Though commonly available in widths ranging from
i''to 2", it is manufactured in widths up to 54".

Foam tapes for general use are made from polyethylene foam and coated with either rubber or
acrylic adhesive. The rubber adhesive, typically found on tapes available from art and office sup-
Scenic Uses for Double-Stick Foam Tape Anne LdCozlrt

ply stores, picture framing shops, and department stores, sets up quickly and cannot be pulled up
and relaid once it has been pressed into place. The acrylic adhesive, which can be obtained in large
quantities from bulk paper and industrial tape suppliers, takes longer to reach full bond strength
and can be taken up and relaid for up to twenty-four hours after application. Both adhesives stick
to wood, plastic, metal, and plastered or painted surfaces.

206
Micbael E. Boyle & Ray Forton A Curved Handrail of WEP

A cross section like that shown in Figure 1 poses no problems for the set builder - as long as it
represents a straight piece. But the staircase and handrail that appeared in a Yale Repertory
Theatre production of A Play of Giants were not straight: the 5’-wide unit ran through two differ-
ent curves over its 8’rise. Thus, we had to find either a way to bend strong but normally straight
materials into a compound curve or some sort of casting material that would develop the necessary
strength.

-1“ X
8

I 1: HANDRAIL
FIGURE SECTION

Discarding the former approach as too time-intensive, we turned to the use of “Water Extended
Polyester” (WEP #662P). WEP is sold as an emulsion-catalyst casting mix. Once cured, its tensile
strength is comparable to that of #2 pine at around 145Opsi; it machines well: it accepts nails and
screws with proper pilot holes: it sands easily to a smooth surface: and it takes most paints. But
its greatest advantage lies in the fact that, as WEP cures, there is a short period within which a
still-pliable casting can be pulled from its mold and formed into curves while retaining its cross-
sectional shape. By following the process described below, we were able to cast the handrail in an
easily built straight mold and then bend the straight casting into the required curve.

THE MOLDS

We built two molds - a 2’-long control mold and a 16’-long production mold - having the cross
section shown in Figure 2. We used the control mold in determining the proper emulsion-to-cata-
lyst ratio and batch timing. We made the production mold as long as practicable and yet short
enough to keep the casting from becoming unwieldy during bending.

Aware of WEPs machinability, we decided to round the bottom edges of the handrail by sanding the
cured casting rather than to complicate the molding process. The form for the gentle swell on the
top of the handrail was made of plasticene shaped with a template and smoothed with a heat gun.
A hand-rubbed coat of paste wax served as a mold release.
207
A Curved Handrail of WEP Michael E.Boyle e9 Ray Forton

Plasticene ~

Wood Spacer

2:
FIGURE THE MOLD

TESTING, CASTING, AND FOLLOW-UP

As the mixture set up, the casting temperature approached 200"F, necessitating gloves for han-
dling. Five to six minutes after we had poured the evenly mixed WEP into the control mold, we were
able to press a flat centerline trough into the bottom of the handrail casting. The trough helped
locate the handrail on its structural support - a curved length of steel bar welded to the tops of
the tube-steel balusters, which were already in place on the staircase unit.

At carefully timed intervals after each successive test pour, we pulled test castings out of the mold.
Those pulled too soon broke because the resin had not yet developed enough tensile strength.
Those left in the control mold too long proved too stiff to bend. By keeping careful records of each
control casting, we were able to discover the right molding time and batch proportions.

Once we had established a successful process, we began production casting. As each of these
longer sections set up, we pulled it from the mold, supporting it at 2' to 3' intervals, and carried it
to the balustrade as a straight piece. Then, having positioned one end of the casting's trough on
its steel-bar base, we easily bent the casting into its final shape. We found that, after another thir-
ty minutes, we could remove the few clamps we had used to hold the handrail in place, and that,
after waiting twenty-four hours, we could machine the casting.

PROPERTIES AND COST

Instructions for mixing and using WEP appear on the side of the five-gallon pails in which it is sold.
When ordering WEP #662P from its manufacturer, Ashland Chemicals, ask for all the available
product information - not just the mixing instructions. A number of important variables involved
in such unorthodox WEP uses as this can become clear only with hands-on experience. The 1%
shrinkage that occurs during the curing process, for instance, could be a critical factor in deciding
whether WEP is an appropriate choice for a different theatrical application.

Unlike other polyester resins that are used full strength, WEP's volume is extended by the addition
of water. Adding water, of course, decreases the cost: a five-gallon pail of WEP and a pint of cata-
lyst makes approximately seventy feet of the handrail shown, and costs about $70.00.
Micbael E.Byle e3+ Rdy Forton A Curved Handrail of WEP

WARNING NOTES

The ingredients in WEP - as in any polyester resin - are extremely dangerous and must be han-
dled intelligently. Familiarize yourself with the potential hazards and the necessary precautions.
The resin itself contains styrene, which produces explosive vapors at room temperature. Use pos-
itive general ventilation and, if you stir with an electric drill, use a paint mixer blade with a long
shaft to avoid setting off an explosion. The catalyst contains methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide, which
contains enough free oxygen to become explosive if heated or left in bright sunlight. If the catalyst
were accidentally mixed with acetone, a common polyester solvent, it would form an even more
explosive mixture. Keep acetone out of the WEP work area, where it could be used by mistake.
Never use acetone for cleaning MEK peroxide or catalyzed emulsion from any surface.

These chemicals also present serious health hazards ranging from blindness on contact to liver
damage. Never reuse empty WEP containers for any purpose: process them as Hazardous Waste.

Despite its potential for harm, WEP can be used safely by those who wear splashproof goggles,
gloves, and protective skin cream, and who frequently change the organic vapor cartridges in their
respirators.

For additional information, consult the following sources:

Ashland Chemical Company Industrial Arts Supply Co.

Polyester Division 1408 West Lake Street
P.O. Box 2219 Minneapolis, MN 55408
Columbus, OH 43216 AlTN: Michael J. Raymond
(manufacturer) (distributor)

Reichold Chemicals Artist Beware

525 North Broadway Dr. Michael McCann, author
White Plains, NY 10603 Watson-Guptill Publications
(MEK peroxide) (health hazards)

209
Comparing Four Plastics as Scenery Glides

Plastic glides are often used instead of casters as aides in shifting scenery, especially when casters
would be aesthetically objectionable. But not all plastics work equally well as glides.

This article presents a ranking of four plastics - Nylon, Delrina, Nylatron GS@,and Virgin Teflon@
- as glide materials. The four were chosen for a variety of reasons: Nylon, because it is often used
as glide material: Teflona, because it is often assumed to be more effective than Nylon; and Delrino
and Nylatron GSB, because local distributors suggested them as possible substitutes. The four
materials are compared in terms of their cost, workability, and coefficients of friction.

The first two of these points of comparison are almost self-explanatory: cost rankings were deter-
mined by averaging price quotes from local suppliers: and workability rankings, by observing how
easily the materials could be cut and drilled. The third point of comparison, coefficients of friction,
is discussed below.

COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

Coefficients of friction are indicators of relative slipperiness. The formula for static friction is F, =
pN, where
F, = the amount of force required to overcome static friction, i.e., to cause move-
ment to start,
N (Normal force) = the weight of the object being tested, and
p = the coefficient of static friction.

In general, the lower its coefficient of static friction, the more easily one material will begin to slide
across another. Further information about coefficients of friction can be found in Machinery’s
Handbook and other standard references.

THE TEST

Figure 1 illustrates the test setup. For the test, 1”-diameter rods of the plastics to be tested were
bandsawn into half-rounds and cut into 3” lengths. Two countersunk holes drilled through each
glide permitted its attachment to a plywood test bed by means of drywall screws. Figure 2 illus-
trates a finished glide.

The test bed was placed glide-down on a level test surface, and weight W1 was placed on the test
bed. Next, the test bed was joined to hanging weight W2 by a length of manila rope. In order to
keep the rope’s strands from catching on the edge of the table and interfering with the results, the
rope was passed over a pipe fastened to the edge of the table.

Testing consisted of gradually increasing weight W2 until W1 and the test bed began to slide across
the test surface. Movement began when the weight of W2 was equal to F,, the force needed to over-
come static friction.

Finally, a coefficient of static friction for each combination of glide material and test surface was
determined by rearranging the static friction formula and substituting the empirically derived val-
ues for W2 and W1. Thus, the coefficients were derived using the formula p = W2/W,.

Each set of glides was tested on three different test surfaces: lauan, painted Masoniteo, and dirt-
covered Masonitem.
Edmund B. Fider Comparing Four Plastics as Scenery Glides

Plywood Test Bed

Test Surface -’
(lauan, MasoniteB, ”\
w
or dirt-covered Mason

FIGURE OF THE TESTSETUP

1: SCHEMATIC

CONCLUSIONS

Table 1 presents the derived coefficient of static

friction and comparative ranking for each glide
material. Table 2 summarizes the friction, cost,
and workability rankings and averages them in
an overall ranking.

The results of the tests on Nylatron GS@were

disappointing, as the table reveals. Surprisingly,
Teflon@came in a distant third. I t readily picked
up damaging particles (especially metal) in the
shop, and therefore performed poorly in the dirt
test. Nylon performed second-best overall,
though its performance vaned significantly from
one test surface t.o another. In terms of cost,
FIGURE
2: A TYPICALTESTGLIDE workability, and coefficient of friction, DelrinB
was the clear winner.

211
Comparing Four Plastics as Scenery Glides Edmund B. FiJber

Material Lauan Dirt Masonitem Average Rankmg

Virgin Teflonm 0.373 0.556 0.679 0.536 3

Delrinm 0.317 0.489 0.528 0.445 1

Nylon 0.339 0.500 0.755 0.531 2

Nylatron GS@ 0.469 0.556 0.604 0.543 5

TABLE1 : STATIC-FRICTION-TEST
RESULTS

Work-
Material Friction Cost
ability Overall

Virgin Teflon@ 3 4 2 3

Delrin@ 1 2 1 1

Nylon 2 1 3 2

Nylatron GS@ 4 3 4 5

A FINAL WORD

Insufficient trials were conducted to evaluate these plastics’ durability. Subjectively, however,
Nylatron GS@seemed toughest, followed by Nylon and Delrina. Teflon@seemed the most fragile.

These plastics seem to be the most commonly available choices, but are by no means a n exhaus-
tive sample of the thousands of possible glide materials. Individual users are encouraged to per-
form their own tests.

TEST MATERIALS

Nylon 101 (MilSpec L-P-4lOa).

Nylatron GS@(MilSpec L-P-41Oa).
Delrins (FedSpec L-P-392A, Type 2, and/or ASTMspec D2133-64T, grade 2).
Virgin Teflon@(MilSpec Mil-P 19468).

2 12
Kdrl Ruling & Scott Werbin Plastic Glides: A Second Look

Mr. Edmund Fisher’s Technical Brief article, “Comparing Four Plastics as Scenery Glides” inspired
the technical staff at Wilkes College to try plastic glides. At our local plastics distributor’s sugges-
tion, we used ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) in place of Mr. Fisher’s “clear
winner,” Delrins. The UHMWPE glides worked so well for us that they warranted further scrutiny.
This article reports the results of our investigations.

Mr. Fisher’s test sought to compare the coefficients of static friction of four plastics on three fairly
standard deck materials. We wanted to test the coefficients of kinetic friction of plastics we are like-
ly to use. While the coefficient of static friction indicates how much effort is required to induce two
materials to begin sliding past each other, the generally lower coefficient of kinetic friction indicates
how much effort is required to sustain movement once it has begun. Our experience in pushing
scenery suggests that a stagehand who can’t necessarily start a wagon moving can often keep it
moving once it is under way. Technically stated, it is harder to overcome static friction than kinet-
ic friction.

Dial-Reading
Sash Pulley Spring Balance can of
Water

1
#4 Line

Test Surface 4” x 4” Plastic Glides

(Lauan, Masonitea’,or

FIGURE
1: SCHEMATIC OF THE TEST S E T U P

OUR TEST

Though interested in comparing UHMWPE to Mr. Fisher’s “clear winner,” we did not test Delrino.
Instead of E. I. Du Pont De Nemours and Company’s acetal, Delrins, our plastics supplier stocks
the Polymer Corporation’s acetal, Polypencorn. For practicality, we used Polypencos instead of
Delrins. The plastics were tested on clean lauan, clean tempered Masonites, and fir plywood paint-
ed with Para-Caseins Raw Umber and Burnt Umber.

213
Plastic Glides: A Second Look Karl Ruling & Scott Werbin

Figure 1 shows our test rig, which differed from Mr. Fisher’s in one respect. Mr. Fisher passed the
rope joining his test sled and weight “over a pipe fastened at the edge of the test bench.” Thus, his
data includes not only the friction between his tested materials, but also the friction between mani-
la rope and steel pipe. We used a sash pulley in place of the pipe to reduce extraneous friction, and
we took our measurements at the sled.

Our test sled was a 12-inch piece of 1x6 weighted with a can of water and a spring balance. Two
four-inch squares of the plastic being tested were screwed to the bottom of the 1x6. The screws
were countersunk and the edges of the squares were chamfered. The test sled weighed 1720 grams
for the Polypencoo acetal, and 1680 grams for the UHMWPE.

Our procedure was to put weight in the suspended bucket to tension the sash cord and gently tap
the sled to get it to move without accelerating visibly. If the sled didn’t keep moving, we added a
little weight and tried again. We found that the sash-cord tension needed to keep the sled moving
was remarkably consistent. Variation from trial to trial was less than the resolution of the spring
balance.

The coefficient of kinetic friction was determined by dividing the weight of the test sled into the ten-
sion needed to keep it moving. The same spring balance was used in all the measurements, so that
the absolute accuracy of the balance would not affect the results.

OUR TEST RESULTS

Table I presents our test results.

Painted
Material

PolypencoO acetal 0.22 0.20 0.34

UHMWPE 0.22 0.17 0.33

1 TABLE
I: KINETIC-FRICTION-TEST
RESULTS

CONCLUSIONS

There seems to be no significant difference between UHMWPE and Polypencos in terms of coeffi-
cients of kinetic friction, and only minor differences in their other physical properties. Both plas-
tics can be worked with standard tools in the scene shop. UHMWPE has a low melting point, and
will melt if dull cutting tools are used, while dull tools seem to cause fewer problems with Poly-
pencon, which has a much higher melting point. At least locally, however, there is a significant dif-
ference in price. Pena-Plas of Scranton, PA, charges $143.04 ($4.47 per square foot) for a full 4’ x
8’ sheet of $” UHMWPE, and $137.60 ($17.20 per square foot) for a full 2’ x 4’ sheet of
PolypencoB. Less than full-sheet quantities cost 50% more per square foot, but even at that high-
er price, UHMWPE is much less expensive than Polypencoo acetal. Thus, though both plastics are
effective as scenery glides, UHMWPE is a bargain.
A n d i Lyons Structural Fiberglass and Its Applications

Structural fiberglass consists of glass fibers and polyester resins combined in a variety of cross-sec-
tional shapes once available only in steel or aluminum. The available shapes include round and
square tube, I-beam, angle, channel, rod, bar, and flat sheet. For most theatrical needs, the stan-
dard series 500 is sufficient. Although this series is not inherently fire-retardant, it can be treated
in the same manner as lumber to achieve flame retardancy. If flame retardancy is critical, the more
expensive series 525 possesses the same physical properties as the standard series.

The most immediately obvious advantage of structural fiberglass is its relative weight: it is almost
80% lighter than steel and over 30% lighter than aluminum. As one of our major concerns often
centers on making scenery as lightweight as possible, this material offers a most favorable alter-
native.

Structural fiberglass was developed originally for use in corrosive environments: therefore, it will
not rot or absorb moisture. It cannot rust, and it provides excellent electrical insulation, due to its
non-conductive properties. These factors combine to make it an ideal choice for outdoor structures,
as well as more traditional scenic uses.

The cost of structural fiberglass falls somewhere between steel and aluminum for most shapes and
sizes. In several instances, such as small angles and wide-flange I-beams, the fiberglass alterna-
tives are slightly more expensive than aluminum. Round tube, however, is consistently less expen-
sive than either steel or aluminum.

The single most important advantage in working with structural fiberglass is that it requires no spe-
cial tools. Construction can be accomplished with a hacksaw, drill, and all other standard wood-
shop tools. The only necessary precaution regarding power tools is to be certain that the fiberglass
dust is cleaned out after use, since the abrasive glass particles could damage moving parts.

Fiberglass shapes can be joined to themselves or other materials with mechanical or adhesive con-
nections. For permanent joints, a combination of methods will provide the greatest strength.
Depending on the intended use, reusability concerns, and the sections to be joined, joints can be
fastened by bolts, screws, rivets, nails, epoxies, or panel adhesives. Obviously, as with any con-
nection, the amount and type of stress to be placed on the joint must be considered.

Latex, vinyl, and casein paints are all compatible with structural fiberglass. Use of a universal col-
orant in polyester resin will produce a very hard and shiny finish. Additionally, most common tex-
turing materials adhere securely to the surface of the fiberglass.

The only significant disadvantage of fiberglass is that it cannot be bent and is not, therefore, appro-
priate for curved surfaces. Although this limits its usefulness, structural fiberglass is often ideal
for straight line work.

As with any material, certain safety precautions must be observed. Safety goggles and dust masks
should be worn when cutting, drilling, sanding, or machining structural fiberglass because the dust
produced can easily damage the eyes, nose, and lungs. To protect the skin, latex or vinyl gloves,
long-sleeved shirts, and jeans are recommended. The gloves will also protect your hands from most
of the chemicals used in connection with fiberglass resins. Whenever your work involves the use
of polyester resins, which contain styrene and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, a NIOSH-approved
organic vapor respirator should be worn with a dust/mist prefilter attached. Respirators are
absolutely vital where there is inadequate ventilation - a condition existing in many scene shops.
A few relatively simple safety precautions will insure the health of all persons working in the shop
while the structural fiberglass is in use.

215
Structural Fiberglass and I t s Applications AndiLyons

I have found structural fiberglass extremely useful in a variety of applications. The following
describes two of the many uses to which we have put fiberglass shapes in the past several years.

Our mainstage floor has several significant warps that lift parts of wagons off the floor at various
points in their travel. We have been faced with the problem of tracking wagons directly on our stage
floor, so that they will run as precisely and quietly as possible. For one production, fiberglass angle
fins were substituted for the more common steel fins on three of six wagons, which vaned in height
from 8" to 3'-3", and in footprint from 8' x 8' to 12' x 24'. The fiberglass fins were set at the appro-
priate angle for each wagon and bolted into place, as were their steel counterparts. Each fin was
as long as possible to provide the maximum amount of contact with the plywood tracks. The fiber-
glass fins were noticeably quieter along the tracks. The use of wax in the tracks further improved
the ride, as did treating the tracks with a silicone spray. The fiberglass fins remained significantly
less noisy than the steel fins of the control group throughout the run of the production. As a result,
since the test, we have used fiberglass angles for all our wagons.

The director of another production requested two firepoles for actor entrances. In searching for the
most cost-effective response to that request, we found a n 18'-long 3"-diameter aluminum tube
priced at $115.38 - and same-size tube in structural fiberglass at $86.58. Considering the sav-
ings, we opted for the fiberglass. A black universal colorant added to polyester resin and painted
onto each pole provided the shiny black finish the designer required. The technique offered the
bonus of being especially resistant to chipping and abrasion, and actually made the poles easier to
slide down while providing the desired high-gloss look.

Though structural fiberglass may not be the panacea for all theatrical construction problems, it
does merit serious consideration. Although it cannot be bent or reshaped, the simplicity of con-
struction and its excellent strength-to-weight ratio give it the potential for becoming as popular as
aluminum and steel for many applications. To date, I have used fiberglass I-beams as carrying
members for spans, square tube for platforms and flats, round tube for columns and beams, and
angle for flats and wagon fins. It appears that for times when weight is a critical factor, for outdoor
events, for wet situations such as ice shows, and for a variety of other usual and unusual prob-
lems, structural fiberglass shapes may well offer workable solutions in terms of time and money.

MAJOR DISTRIBUTORS OF STRUCTURAL FIBERGLASS

Ain Plastics, Inc. Joseph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc.

249 East Sandford Blvd. Plastics Division
Mount Vernon, NY 10550 (Check Yellow Pages for nearest service center.)
(914) 668-6800
 Scenery Mechanics

Basic Hydraulics Alan Hendrickson

Low-Pressure Air Casters David Kriebs

Shop-Built Pneumatic Cylinders Mich~elBianco

Pneumatic Door Stabilizer Jefl Dennstaedt

A Simple Lift Jack Mark Stevens

Basic Hydraulics Alan Hendnkkson

Since hydraulic systems excel in moving heavy objects with virtually no noise, they can be found
driving lifts, wagons, and turntables in many theatres. A small hydraulic system is not too diffi-
cult to assemble, and will find repeated use. While a full description of every part in a hydraulic
system would be very long, a brief overview can provide a useful amount of information about these
systems. Every hydraulic system will contain components from each of the six categories described
below: Pumps, Actuators, Valves, Fluid Conductors, Fluid, Storage.

PUMPS

Pumps convert the mechanical power provided by a n electric motor into hydraulic power. They are
rated in terms of nominal flow rate, maximum operating pressure, and input shaft speed. Manu-
facturers supply pressure/volume curves that express the characteristics of a given pump.

Many different types of pumps are available, but for theatre - where price and simplicity are more
important than long-term efficiency - gear or vane type pumps are most common. The hydraulic
power provided by a pump can be calculated from:
where: W = power (hp)
QP
w=- 9 = flow rate (gpm)
1714
P = pressure (psi)

As a guideline, the smallest capacity pump that should be considered for general purpose use in
theatre would be one that puts out about 7gpm at 8OOpsi, or about 3hp. Pumps create high levels
of noise and must be isolated from the stage in a distant room or surrounded with a soundproof
box.

ACTUATORS

Actuators convert fluid power to mechanical power. For linear motion, the hydraulic cylinder is ele-
gantly simple. A long rod attaches to a piston that moves inside a tube. Ports at either end of the
tube allow oil to flow in or out. Cylinders are rated in terms of bore (the diameter of the piston),
stroke (how far the piston moves), rod size, and maximum operating pressure. The pressure sup-
plied by the pump acts on the piston area to create a force. The pulling and pushing forces differ
because the input pressure acts on the full area of the piston when it is extending the rod, but while
retracting, the pressure acts on only that part of the piston not covered by the rod.
Fpush = PP$iston where: FpWh = pushing force (lbs.)

Fp, = P(P$iston - bod)

F,, = pulling force (lbs.)
P = pressure (psi)
histon = area of the piston (sq. in.)
b o d = area of the rod (sq. in.)

Cylinder speed is a function of flow rate and cylinder dimensions:

.3208Q where: V = speed of the rod end (ft./sec.)
V= Q = flow rate (gpm)
A
A = area of piston during extension or area of piston
minus area of rod during retraction (sq. in.)
Alan Hendickson Basic Hydraulics

For example, assume a pump provides 1Ogpm at 8OOpsi at a 2.5”-bore, 1”-rod,2’-stroke cylinder.
On extension, the cylinder could provide:
Fpush = Pbiston .3208Q
= 8oopSi X (Z(1.25 in.)’) = 3927 lbs.
FpuSh =
A
.3208 (1Ogpm)
v= K(l.25 in.)”
~~~ = 0.654 ft./sec.

Hydraulic motors are also available to provide rotary output, but their complexity precludes further
discussion here.

VALVES

Valves control the direction, volume, pressure, and distribution of flow. Only the relief valve and 4-
way valve are worth mentioning in this overview. Many types of pumps have no inherent limit to
their output pressure, though manufacturers’ specifications require that a rated maximum pres-
sure never be exceeded. A relief valve will keep the output pressure of a pump from exceeding some
set value by venting oil back to the reservoir when the pump pressure begins to exceed the relief
pressure. This valve is built into some pumps.

The 4-way valve is the most common device used to control the movement of actuators. The “way”
refers to the number of ports on the valve: one high-pressure inlet, one return to the reservoir, and
two ports that go to the “in”and “out” of a motor or one to each end of a cylinder. These ports usu-
ally come with female threads in standard nominal pipe sizes.

Valves are rated by the maximum pressure they can withstand and the pressure drop across them
as a given amount of oil flows through.

A 2-position valve will not allow a cylinder to be stopped mid-stroke or a motor to be stopped at all,
so 3-position valves are most common in theatre. In their center position, these “closed-center”
valves prevent the movement of fluid and, hence, any movement of the actuator. Some 3-position
valves have detents that hold them open in forward, reverse, or neutral, while others are spring-
centered and act as dead-man controls.

Four-way valves can be controlled manually (with hand levers, pushbuttons, or footpedals), elec-
trically (with solenoids), or by hydraulic or pneumatic pressures fed to them from other valves.

A representative full specification for a typical valve would therefore be a “4-way, 3-position, closed
center, +“-port, hand-lever-actuated, spring-centered valve.”

FLUID CONDUCTORS

Fluid conductors convey fluid from one part of a system to another. This plumbing is usually done
with standard steel pipe, rubber hydraulic hose, or steel tubing. Pipe is best for long, straight, per-
manent runs; hose, for hookup to valves and actuators in temporary setups; and tubing, for intri-
cate bends and connections in locations that offer protection from physical abuse. It is very impor-
tant to size conductors so that a minimal amount of system pressure is lost pushing oil through
the plumbing. For typical theatre systems, it is best to limit the speed of oil through the plumbing
to 15 feet per second (fps), thereby limiting pressure loss.
Basic Hydraulics Alan Hendrickson

The formula below is used to determine plumbing diameter given this 15fps limit.
d=2(- where: d = the fluid conductor's inside diameter (in.)
Q = flow rate (gpm)

What size conductor would be needed to adequately deal with a flow rate of 15gpm?
d= .\I.0272(15gpm) = 0.638 in.

Pipe comes in nominal sizes with varying inner diameters depending on the schedule. Hose is sized
by inner diameter: and tubing, by outer diameter and wall thickness. Therefore, a 15gpm flow
would efficiently pass through a +'' schedule 40 black pipe, a hose, or :' x 0.058" wall tubing.
This simplified approach to conductor sizing works well if plumbing runs do not exceed about 50
feet.

FLUID

The fluid in a hydraulic system is usually oil. Oils can be refined to different thicknesses, or vis-
cosities. Pump specs determine what viscosity oil should be used in a system, but a commonly
used oil viscosity is 200 SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal), which is similar in thickness to 10-weight
motor oil. Motor oil should not be used in hydraulic systems because it contains additives incom-
patible with the seals used in most hydraulic devices.

The viscosity and chemical makeup of an oil can change significantly when heated excessively, so
the oil must be kept cool. Above 140" F, hydraulic oil quickly undergoes permanent damage.

STORAGE

Storage of oil in reservoirs is essential for cooling, and for supplying oil to cylinders. (The volume
of oil in a fully extended cylinder is greater than in a fully retracted one.) A reservoir should have
a capacity at least 3 times the flow rate of the pump, e.g., a 15gpm pump should sit over a 45-gal-
lon reservoir. Conditioning equipment includes filters that clean the oil and oil coolers.

Assembling a hydraulic system to meet exact performance specifications is extremely difficult.

Hydraulic systems are relatively inefficient, and losses can crop u p in many places not easily pre-
dicted without a thorough engineering analysis. It is always best to design systems to perform 30%
to 50% above known needs.

REFERENCE

Industrial Fluid Power; Volumes 1, 2, & 3

Womack Educational Publications
P.O. Box 35027
Dallas, TX 75235
David K ~ e h Low-Pressure Air Casters

Air casters powered by a large volume of low-pressure air from a vacuum cleaner can be con-
structed in any woodworking shop. Most vacuum cleaners will supply sufficient air for two 12"-
radius casters, and a typical system using two vacuum cleaners and four 12"-radius casters can
move over one ton. The following design and construction procedures work for casters with radii
between 9" and 12". Sealing the gaskets of larger casters becomes difficult.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

1. Determine the pressure generated by a given vacuum cleaner with the following formula:
P = w/W where: P = pressure (psi)
W = maximum weight that can be lifted (lbs.)
r = radius of the vacuum cleaner nozzle (in.)

Find W by holding the nozzle vertically, covering it with a piece of $" plywood, and adding
weight until air can no longer escape.
2. Calculate the radius of the air casters needed by applying the following formula:
R =W d x m where: R = required radius of the air casters (in.)
L = load to be supported by one caster (lbs.)
P = pressure supplied by the vacuum cleaner (psi)

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

1. The most sophisticated part of the air caster is the gasket, which is cut from an inner tube.
The outside radius of the inner tube should be equal to R when inflated but not stretched. The
inside radius should be 4" less than R. One inner tube is required for each air caster. See
Figure 1 for instructions on cutting the gasket from the tube.

2R ~

F - Cut around tube and discard lower portion.

L FIGURE THROUGH INNERTUBE

1: SECTION
Low-Pressure Air Casters D a d Krieh

Y ,/' y

Top View

$ Ply Main Disc Markings Bottom View

Bolt locations marked with "+"

E ~ G U R EDETAILS
~:

Inlet Pipe -,

Stiffener 7 Main Disc 7

I
I \

--'\
Small Ring
Large Ring Base Disc Air Hole -'
I
Gasket
\

FIGURE THROUGH AIR CASTER

3: SECTION

222
David Kriebs Low-Pressure Air Casters

2. Cut the main disc and mark the location of all components on it. The 2x2 stiffeners and the
bolt locations are marked on the "D" side of the plywood. The stiffeners should be perpendi-
cular to the plywood grain. Draw the gasket lines, on the " A side. See Figure 2.
3. Cut the hole for the inlet pipe, which will be press-fitted after the caster is complete.
4. Glue and screw the stiffeners to the main disc.
5. Staple the outer circumference of the gasket to the bottom of the main disc on 1" centers.
6. Place the large ring over the gasket and bolt the ring to the main disc. Use twelve 2"x &" flat
head stove bolts. Countersink the bolts. See Figure 3.
7 . Install the small ring inside the gasket, pressed against the outer ring. To install the ring, cut
it in half, then cut an additional from one section. Attach the halves one at a time using
glue and nails.
8. Staple the inner circumference of the gasket on 1" centers.
9. Attach the base disc as in step 6 above, using eight 2" x &" bolts.
10. Punch four $" air holes in the gasket. The holes should be one inch from the base disc, even-
ly spaced around the gasket, and offset from the inlet pipe.
11. Press-fit the inlet pipe into the caster until it is flush with the bottom of the main disc, then
seal with a bead of glue. The vacuum cleaner can be connected to the caster with 2" flexible
hosing and PVC connectors.

With all air casters, a smooth, non-porous floor is required for proper operation. Also, the noise of
the vacuum cleaners in this system may make it impractical for some uses.

***

223
Shop-Built Pneumatic Cylinders Michael Bianco

Light-duty pneumatic cylinders can be constructed in almost any shop. They are economical and
relatively maintenance free, and they provide a push or pull force that can be remotely controlled.
All materials can be purchased from plumbing and steel supply companies. The 6'-0"-long2"-diam-
eter cylinder described here costs about $100.00. Smaller or larger cylinders are possible.

PRINCIPLE OF PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS

See Figure 1. A rod connects the piston and the work to be moved. A pressurized gas (air, C02, or
nitrogen) forces a piston through a cylinder. The greater the pressure, the greater the force that
moves the piston. The force (lbs.) can be calculated by multiplying the surface area (sq. in.) being
acted upon by the air pressure (psi).

./T- Hoses

Cylinder 1 '- Piston and Piston Rod 1 ' L S t o p stop

Pull Force
Push Force

~~ ~~~~~ ~~

FIGURE
1: SYSTEM
SCHEMATIC

THE SYSTEM

The system is controlled by valves that connect the cylinder to the pressurized air supply and the
exhaust. Air forced in one side moves the piston and forces air out the other side to the exhaust.
When the pressures are reversed, the piston moves in the opposite direction. Given constant air
pressure, a pull force is smaller than the push force because the rod takes up a certain amount of
surface area on the pull side. See Figure 1. The cylinder should be securely mounted, and the
work should have built-in stops to limit its movements. Lubricate the system periodically.

CAUTION

Much of the safety and dependability of this device depends on accurate shop procedures. Be sure
to observe the following guidelines for safe work:
1. Test the cylinder before installation: start with low pressures and work up.
2. The cylinder can explode if too great a pressure is used, or if the cement doesn't bond proper-
ly. Do not exceed 1OOpsi of pressure.
3. Never stand in front of either end of the cylinder.
4. Never use compressed oxygen.
Michael Bianco Shop-Built Pneumatic Cylinders

!"-DIAMETERPNEUMATIC CYLINDER PARTS LIST AND

IONSTRUCTION NOTES - SEE FIGURE 2

1. Rod: cold-rolled steel, threaded at both ends -

(Length = stroke + approximately 8")
2. Stop Washer: washer drilled to f " I.D. - brazed
to rod, 1" from part 3
3. Retaining Washer: washer drilled to $" I.D. -
brazed to rod; seal between parts 3 and 4 with sili-
cone caulking
4. Piston: birch or oak, 2" long - lathe-turned for
loose fit in cylinder, with grooves for O-rings and
sealed with Varathane
5. Two O-rings: &I1 cross section, 1S'' I.D.
6. Forward Retainer Assembly:
O-ring: $" X-section, I.D. $'I

a''washer drilled to +'' I.D.

Z'' $"lock washer
TWO nuts
7. Cylinder: 2" schedule 40 PVC (280 psi)
8. 2" schedule 40 PVC end cap
9. 2" schedule 40 PVC coupler
10. 2" to SS PVC bushing
11. ST PVC adapter
12. $" EMT (conduit): long - cut with pipe cutter to
flare ends in
13. O-ring: $" cross section, $I' I.D.
14. i''to PVC bushing
15. Two +'' male air quick connects (NFTM).

ASSEMBLY PLAN

First, assemble parts 1 through 6. Lubricate the cylinder

(with silicone-based O-ring lube only). Test that the 0-
rings maintain an airtight fit in the cylinder.

FIGURE
2 Second, assemble parts 7 through1 1 using Weld-On P-70@
Primer and Weld-On Cement #705@.

225
Pneumatic Door Stabilizer ]$f Dennstaedt

THE PROBLEM

Doors (particularly lightweight doors) that bounce open when they are slammed.

THE DESIGN GOALS

Develop a door-stabilizing mechanism that will allow a door to be closed gently or slammed shut
and remain closed; work on all types of doors, including lightweight doors; automatically reset itself;
and be visually acceptable, quiet, and reliable.

Optional Flow-Control Valve

r\ n 4 I
Spring-Return
Cylinder
v v
I-----
I
I
I
Pulse I Cam-Operated
Valve I Three-Way
I 1
v
Valve
I

I
-
1
I
41
Inlet

L Exhaust

1
I

226
Jeff Dennstaedt Pneumatic Door Stabilizer

THE SOLUTION PRINCIPLE

The impact of slamming a door is often too great to be absorbed by a normal door latch or magnetic
catch. The result is that the door bounces back open. Our solution to this problem includes a mag-
netic door catch to hold the door in place - not to stop it. To stop the door, we are using a minia-
ture pneumatic cylinder (plumbed as shown in Figure 1) whose piston extends into the door when
the door is slammed. Once the door is stabilized by the cylinder’s piston rod, the magnetic catch
holds the door. The piston rod automatically retracts half a second later.

SYSTEM OPERATION

The key to the system’s operation is a special one-shot pulse valve manufactured by Fabco-Air.
When pressure is applied to the valve’s inlet, a short pulse of air (one-half to three-quarters of a
second) is released. The valve then shuts off and will not fire again until the system pressure has
been removed and reapplied. In this way the door can begin closed, with the single-acting, spring-
return cylinder’s piston retracted, at which time the 3-way normally closed valve is open. A s the
door is opened, the 3-way valve returns to its closed position, stopping pressure to the pulse valve
and allowing the pressure in it to be exhausted, thus resetting the valve. As the door is closed, the
3-way valve is opened and sends a short pulse of air to the cylinder, causing the piston rod to
extend into the steel-reinforced edge of the door, stabilizing the door. At the end of the pulse, pres-
sure stops flowing to the cylinder, the pressure in the cylinder is exhausted, the internal piston
spring retracts the rod into the cylinder, and the entire system is restored to its initial state.

COMMENTS ON SYSTEM OPERATION

In trying to make the mechanism suitable for the widest range of closing forces, we discovered the
extension speed of the piston to be a limiting factor. Regardless of the pressure, a very slight but
potentially significant time delay occurs between the 3-way valve’s activation and the extension of
the piston rod. A delay of only a few milliseconds is enough to allow the door to travel some dis-
tance. When the door is closed gently it travels only a slight distance. However, when the door is
slammed, it can travel a considerable distance before the piston can fully extend. In fact, in some
tests it was possible to slam the door hard enough that the door activated the valve, hit the door
stop, and bounced back beyond the piston before the piston could extend into the door.

In order to remedy this situation, we increased the extension speed by switching to a smaller diam-
eter cylinder, thus reducing the chamber volume to be filled. This helped significantly, but some
experimentation with the placement of the piston relative to the activation point of the 3-way valve
was necessary to accommodate a wide range of closing forces. To accommodate a greater range
would require larger valving and tubing to increase the flow rate to the cylinder and thus increase
the piston speed. Clippard Minimatic manufactures smaller diameter cylinders, but we would cau-
tion choosing any smaller than ours because the piston rod is subjected to side loading, and rods
of less than $’’ diameter may become bent and unusable.

227
Pneumatic Door Stabilizer J e f f Dennstaedt
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~

PARTS AND FITTINGS

Except as noted, all of the parts and fittings below are manufactured by Clippard Minimatic.

Unit Extended
Part Description Part Number Quan
Price Price
3-Way Valve Fv-3 1 8.80 8.80
Flow-Control Valve Mvc-2 1 5.45 5.45
Pulse Valve' 0s-1 1 17.90 17.90
Muffler 15070 1 1.55 1.55
1" Spring-Return Cylinder H9S- 1S 1 11.65 11.65
Mini-Cam Follower 11925 1 1.70 1.70
Cylinder Mounting Bracket 15018-2 1 1.05 1.05
FFT Female P l u g 2x170 1 .92 .92
t''NPT to 10/32 15006-3 1 3.80 3.80
$" NFT to $" Hose Barb 11924-1 3 1.06 3.20
10/32 to $" Hose Barb 11752-3 9 .31 2.80
X- Fitting 15002-4 1 4.90 4.90
Female Hex Connector 15004 1 2.05 2.05
Screw Plug 11755 1 1.20 1.20
$" NPT to 10/32 15006-1 1 2.90 2.90
Gasket 11761-2 1 2.40 2.40
$" ID hose (50') 3814-1 1 7.00 7.00
77.27

'Fabco-Air, Inc.
2
W. W. Grainger, Inc.

SUPPLIERS

Clippard Inst. Lab., Inc.

7390 Colerain Rd.
Cincinnati, OH 45239
(513) 521-4261

Fabco-Air, Inc.
3718 N.E. 49th Rd.
Gainesville, FL 3260 1
(904)373-3578

W. W. Grainger, Iric.
Distribution Group General Office
5959 West Howard St.
Chicago, IL 60648
(312)647-8900
Mark Stevens A Simple Lift Jack

A problem often faced in scene shifts is how to lock rolling scenery in its playing position quickly.
Rather than using drop pins for a Pennsylvania Center Stage production of Peter Pan, we devised
the lift jack described below, which raised the back casters off the deck, thereby preventing the wag-
ons from moving and eliminating the problem of finding holes in the dark.

This particular design proved itself superior to more familiar lift jacks in a number of ways. The
simplicity of the design makes it exceptionally easy and inexpensive to construct. The ease of oper-
ation makes it quick and very efficient. And most importantly, its reusability makes it a conven-
ient device to have on hand as stock hardware.

MATERIALS

6" piece of 1f " schedule 40 black pipe

4" piece of 2" schedule 40 black pipe
5" piece of$" x 1$" piece of flat stock
$" x 6" hex head bolt

DESCRIPTION

The lift jack, shown in Figure 1, is a 6"-long

piece of 1$" schedule 40 black pipe sleeved
into a 4"-long piece of 2" schedule 40 black
pipe. Using a metal chop saw, we cut a 30"
slot at the midway point in the 2" pipe, wide
enough to accommodate the shaft of a $" x
6" hex head bolt. At each end of the slot we
filed a small detent so that the bolt would Mounting Plate
lock the jack in either the playing or travel- 3"
ing position. We next drilled and tapped a 5 x 6"Hex Head
/
series of holes along the side of the 1 f " Bolt Handle
pipe spaced at i'' O.C. to give the jack +'I-

increment height adjustment. At the top of

the 2" pipe, we welded a f " x l$" x 5" plate
pre-drilled for four$I' bolts for mounting to
the platform. The $" x 6" hex head bolt

-
which we later inserted into one of the 2" Schedule 40 Black Pipe
tapped holes served as a handle and held the 1"
jack assembly together. If there is difficulty lq Schedule 40 Black Pipe
in positioning the lever arm a piece of 1" pipe
can be fitted over the end of the hex head
bolt to provide any necessary mechanical FIGURE
I
advantage.

SOURCE

Tim Irish.
 Scenery Tools

Styrofoam@Moulding Cutter Rob Chase

A Jig for Installing Rot0 Locks* in Platform Decks Patrick Markle

Homasotem Brick Facings for the Stage Don Harvey

A Pantograph Moulding Jig Jefl Dennstaedt

A System for Duplicating Tube Steel Frames Geo_DF-eyWebb

Door Vises for Edge Mortising Victoria Peterson

A Simple Cut-Off Jig Karl Ruling

Styrofoam@Moulding Cutter Rob Chase

Pictured below is a wood lathe attachment for producing Styrofoam@moulding. This low-cost
attachment is easy to construct and can be adapted for a variety of moulding shapes and sizes. It
consists of three basic components: cutter, cutter housing, and clamping board. See Figure 1.
Like any router blade, the cutter is a double-faced "negative" of the moulding it will produce. The
cutter housing both guides the Styrofoam@past the cutter and collects the chips produced by its
operation. The clamping board holds the attachment securely in place on the lathe bed.

~ ~

1: STYROFOAM@
FIGURE MOULDING
CUTTERPOSITIONED
ON LATHE

CONSTRUCTING THE CUTTER

1.
and +"
To make a pattern for the cutter, fold a piece of paper in half. Draw a line parallel to the fold
away from it. See Figure 2. Working between that line and the edge of the paper, lay
out the moulding profile you wish to produce. At the ends of the moulding profile line, draw
lines perpendicular to the fold and to the edge of the paper. The length of the line perpendi-
cular to the fold equals moulding depth (md)plus +'I. The length of the line perpendicular to
the edge of the paper equals moulding height (mh).
2. Trace the pattern's outline on a piece of +"
shape's axis of symmetry and then draw a pair of lines parallel to the centerline and +"
plywood. Draw a centerline along the resulting
away
from it. Cut along the outline of the cutter. Bevel the leading edge 30". See Figure 3 .
3. Notch a 1" hardwood dowel (the cutter shaft) as deep as the cutter's shape will allow without
letting the dowel interfere with the cutting action.
4. Center the dowel on the centerline (see Step 2) and drill two &" holes through the shaft and
cutter. Bolt the shaft and cutter together with &" x 1 round head stove bolts.
Rob Chase Styrofoam@Moulding Cutter

I \ \

-
' -
-Styrofoam@ Layup Profile
Rough-Cut Profile
-Profile Made by Cutter
/
Finished (Trimmedl Profile
1" Cutter
Shaft

Styrofoam@Layup Profile ~-
Rough-Cut Profile
Profile Made by Cutter ?
f
/
'
-
~

Finished (Trimmed) Profile

/
Paper Pattern's Edge (Inside Perimeter of Cutter Housing) -/'

2: CUTTERAND STYROFOAM@
FIGURE PROCESSING
DETAIL

CONSTRUCTING THE HOUSING

1. To make the housing base, rip a 2'-0" long

piece of +'I plywood to 1;'' wider than mh.
See Figure 2. Glue and staple a clamping
board of %" plywood 18" long to the under- / I ' $ ,
side and at right angles to the base, and Direction
centered on it. On the clamping board cen- of
terline, drill two & ' I holes about 12" apart. Rotation
The clamping board will later be bolted to
the lathe bed with two &'I hex head bolts,
each of which passes through a piece of $I'

bar stock long enough to span the bottom of FIGURE

3 : CUTTERBEVELDETAIL
the lathe bed.
2. Cut two pieces of plywood to 2'-0" for the housing walls. Draw a line on the face of each
$I'

piece at a distance of moulding depth md from a 2'-0" side. At the center of the moulding
depth line on each piece, draw an arch with a radius of md + l$" at the center of the wall
height line. See Figure 2. Cut out the walls.
3. In one of the walls cut a l$"-diameter hole a t the center of the wall height line to allow for
insertion of the cutter shaft through the wall and into the lathe chuck.
4. Glue and staple the housing walls to the pre-assembled base and clamping board, being care-
ful to keep the distance between the walls mh + h". See Figure 2.

233
Styrofoam@Moulding Cutter Rob Cbase

5. Cut two strips of k"-thick Teflon@2'-3"long. Make one of them wide enough to cover the inside
of the housing base: the other, wide enough to cover the inside of the housing wall. Place these
pieces in position and staple the ends to the outside of the housing. See Figure 1.
6. Clamp the clamping board and housing in position on the lathe bed and secure the cutter in
the chuck.
7. Cut two pieces of Masonites at least 6" long and wide enough to span the housing walls. Bevel
one end of each piece and then attach these hold-downs on top of the housing, butted to the
arch with the beveled edges toward the in-feed end.
8. Cut a housing cover out of a piece of cardboard wide enough to span the housing walls and
long enough to cover the arch. If you plan to attach the cutter to a shop-vac, cut a hole to
receive the shop-vac hose in the in-feed side of the housing cover.

FINE-TUNING THE CUTTER

1 Rough-cut the Styrofoam@stock on the bandsaw to approximate the finished moulding shape.
2. Make sure the housing is tightly clamped to the lathe bed. Hand turn the spindle to check for
clearance. Turn on the lathe at a low FWM and feed the Styrofoam@into the housing, cutting
several inches to shape. Turn off the lathe.
3. Without removing the cutter from the chuck, compare each cutter edge to the finished cut and
sand the cutter edges as needed.
4. When the cutter has been fine-tuned, place the housing cover in place over the arch, and tape
the optional shop-vac hose in place.
5. Turn the spindle by hand to check clearance. Turn on the lathe at a low FWM. Experiment
with RPM and feed speed to achieve the best cut.
6. After you have shaped the moulding face, cut the moulding to the desired depth and height.
 A Jig for Installing Rot0 Locks@in Platform Decks

Rot0 Locks@or "coffin locks" are common stage hardware used for locking platform decks together.
Presented here is a shop-built jig used to install Rot0 Locks@quickly in either of two differently con-
structed decks. In both cases the locking hardware is installed after the deck has been built.

1"
4" x 4" x 3 Plate 7

I- - -- - -------
10
I
Centering Notch
~-

'
I
1"
4 Bolt Hole
I
I 0 0
L -___-_-_-__ a-
\
/ Carpet-Tack Spurs
I !9

FIGURE 1: THE JIG

THE JIG

The jig is constructed of a piece of 4" x 4" x $" steel with four it' and one +'' hole drilled into it.
These holes correspond to the Rot0 Locks'@four bolt holes and keyhole. In addition, a small notch
is cut in each side of the jig at the center. These notches will serve to locate the jig accurately when
k''
drilling into the platform lid. It is important to locate each half of a Rot0 Lock@ from the edge of
the platform deck so that the Rot0 Lock@can pull the platforms together tightly. To build this it'
gap into the jig, mark the centers of the keyhole and the bolt holes for each half of the Rot0 Lock@
k'' farther from the centerline of the 4" plate before drilling the holes in the jig.
To insure that the jig can be held firmly in place while drilling into the deck, drill four additional
holes, one at each corner of the jig, just large enough to accept a $" carpet tack. Spot-weld these
tacks into the jig so they will act as spurs that hold the jig in place.

INSTALLATION IN STANDARD CONSTRUCTION PLATFORMS

For platforms constructed with 1x6 stringers on the outside edge, use the jig to install the Rot0
Locks@in the following manner. See Figure 2.

1. With the pre-built deck assembled on the shop floor, place the jig on the deck at the location
of each Rot0 Locks. Drill through all 5 holes with a +'' drill bit. Repeat this process for all the
Rot0 Locks@being installed, taking care not to place a Rot0 Lock@where there is either an inte-
rior stringer or a nail in the lid.
A Jig for Installing Rot0 Locks@in Platform Decks P a t ~ c kMarkle

______
F F I F I I------ I
I I I F I
I I
F M F M IF MI IF MI
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
F M F M IF MI IF MI
I I I I
I I
M M I M I

1"
16 Gap
Hole in Stringer

FIGURE
2: STANDARD-CONSTRUCTION
LAYOUT 3:
FIGURE OVERHANG-CONSTRUCTION LAYOUT

2. Lift each platform onto sawhorses and enlarge the keyhole with a +'' twist drill bit.
3. Use the $" twist drill bit to drill a hole in the side stringer at each Rot0 Locks@location.
Enlarge the hole in the stringer with a saber saw to accept a Rot0 Lock@.
4. Install the Rot0 Locks@underneath the lid using i''
flat head stove bolts.
5. Do a trial assembly after all the platforms have been equipped with Rot0 Locks@.

INSTALLATION REQUIRING SPECIAL PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION

Build each platform with a 2" overhang on all four sides. See Figure 3. Locate the Rot0 Locks@
along the platforms' edges in a uniform fashion so that the platforms remain interchangeable. This
approach works well on stressed-skin panels and is ideal for making stock platforms.

1. Laying each platform in turn on a work table, mark each platform where the Rot0 Locks@are
to be placed. Note on the platform the location of male and female Rot0 Lock@halves.
2. Place the appropriate half of the jig on the platform and drill the holes.
3. Install the Rot0 Locks@using flat head stove bolts.
4. Do a trial assembly.

236
Don Harvgy HornasoteB Brick Facings for the Stage

$" Homasoteo which has been sheared in two along its edge is an attractive alternative to d" ply-
wood as a material for use in making brick facings for the stage. For one thing, each 4x8 sheet
yields up to 64 square feet of bricks, making the cost quite attractive. For another, the sheared sur-
face requires little further treatment to achieve a rough, brick-like quality. Finally, installation can
be quickly and easily accomplished by use of a matte knife, glue, and a stapler.

Base riare
/Spring-Loaded Hinge
HomasoteB Blank
?\
----

Clamp\J
\

1: THEBRICK
FIGURE SPLI~ER

Figure 1 illustrates a shop-built tool for splitting brick-size Homasotea blanks into finished brick
facings. Essentially, the splitter consists of a clamp, a blade, and a base plate. During operation,
the user inserts each blank in turn into the clamp, forces the blade through the blank, and then
removes the finished pair of bricks. Few if any of the dimensions or materials to be used in mak-
ing the brick tool are truly essential, but a few suggestions are in order.

1. Providing mounting holes in the corners of the steel base plate insures stability during its use.
2. The use of a spring-loaded hinge on one side of the clamp allows for ease of Homasotea inser-
tion and removal and also eases the passage of the blade through the Homasoteo.
3. The distance between the sides of the clamp should be a little greater than 4'' at the base plate,
though the hinged side of the clamp should be designed to lean in toward the blade to insure
a snug fit around the uncut blank.
4. A draw-shave makes a fairly good blade, though a blade made of sharpened &" flat steel and
fitted with a handle would probably also work.
5. The blade's pivot should be located in such a manner above the base plate as to allow the
entire edge of the blade to come into contact with the base plate at the completion of each pass.

Using this splitter, a carpenter can quickly turn out inexpensive brick facings that are very easy to
attach to hard-covered flats and platforms and that have the advantage of requiring much less fin-
ishing time in the hands of the paint shop.

***
237
A Pantograph Moulding Jig J e f f Denmtaedt

Usually, the process of mitering mouldings requires measuring an angle, dividing it by two, and set-
ting a saw to the desired cutting angle. This time-consuming task can be accomplished more quick-
ly and accurately with the shop-built jig shown in Figure 1. This pantograph jig transfers angles
by means of a set of interconnected, pivoting arms.

1
- Slot for

Plywood
BaseE ~ 1

FIGURE
1: THEPANTOGRAPH JIG
MOULDING

OPERATION

First, set a bevel gauge at the angle between the walls that are to receive moulding. Then, loosen
the wingnut on the jig's bolt L and spread arms C and D wide enough that the gauge can lie between
them. Finally, carefully slide bolt L forward, snugging arms C and D against the gauge, and tight-
en the wingnut. Completing a mitered corner requires two passes on the table saw. Set the jig's
guide strip F in the saw's right-hand groove, and place a piece of moulding against arm A,so that
it lies across slot M. Start the saw, and complete the cut by sliding the jig and moulding forward.
To cut the companion piece, place the jig's guide strip in the saw's left-hand groove, place the piece
of moulding against arm B,so that it lies across slot N, and repeat the sequence.

MATERIALS

Base E is a piece of plywood measuring about 1'-6"x 3'-6"- maneuverable and yet large enough
to obtain a fairly wide range of angles. Guide strip F and the stop blocks can be made of pine or of
hardwood. The jig also incorporates about 3' of angle iron and about 1'-6" of flat stock. Arms A,
B,and C are made of $" or 1" angle iron. Arm D,which must be the same width as the angle iron
arms, is made of flat stock to avoid interfering with the vertical wall of arm C .
Jeff Dennstaedt A Pantograph Moulding Jig

CONSTRUCTION

1. Drill a hole for flat head bolt K in the center of the plywood base. The hole should fit the bolt
snugly and be countersunk on the bottom of the base.
2. Cut the slot for bolt L in two router passes. First, using a straight bit slightly larger in diam-
eter than bolt L, cut a slot through the base starting behind bolt K and extending rearward.
Next, with a still larger bit, rout the bottom of the base to permit recessing the head of bolt L.
3. Cut guide strip F. The guide strip should be as long as the jig's base, narrow enough to slide
easily in the groove of the table saw, and thin enough to allow the jig to lie flat.
4. Attach the guide strip to the bottom of the base parallel to the centerline of the plywood base
and adjacent to the slot for the sliding bolt L,with countersunk wood screws.
5. Cut slots M and N. Place the guide strip in one groove of the table saw and cut a slot starting
at the front of the base and extending halfway into the base. Repeat this process using the
saw's other groove.
6. Cut the arms. Arms A and B should be about 9" long. Arms C and D should be left as long
as practicable.
7. Drill a bolt hole near each end of arm A and near one end of arms B,C , and D. Using the dis-
tance between the pair of bolt holes in A as a reference, locate and drill a second bolt hole in
each of the other arms. NOTE: This jig will not work if these four pairs of holes are not pre-
cisely the same distance apart.
8. Round off both ends of arms A and B and the bolt-hole end of arm C .
9. Provide wingnut clearance. Remove about 2" of the vertical wall near the bolt hole in the mid-
dle of arm C.

ASSEMBLY

1. Bolt A and C together with bolt J;and B and D together with bolt I. The arms should be snug
but still able to move smoothly.
2. Insert bolt K through the hole in the base and attach arms A and B to bolt K.
3. Line up the remaining bolt holes in arms C and D, insert bolt L up through the slot in the base,
and attach the arms to bolt L with a wingnut.
4. Attach the stop blocks to the bottom of the base. To determine their correct location, move the
arms into their forwardmost position and tighten the wingnut. Place the jig on the saw, guid-
ed by either of the saw's grooves. Raise the saw blade to its maximum height, and without
starting the saw, slide the jig forward until the blade nearly touches the jig's arm. With the jig
in this location, hold the stop blocks against the rear edge of the saw's table and clamp them
securely to the jig's base. Turn the jig over and screw the stop blocks to the base.

CONCLUSION

This jig is inexpensive and fairly easy to build. Moreover, the simplicity and accuracy of its opera-
tion make it quite useful, particularly on those shows that require miles and miles of moulding.

239
A System for Duplicating Tube Steel Frames Geoffrgy Webb

A problem often encountered while building scenery is the duplication of frames for identical units.
Welding duplicate tube steel frames is doubly tricky because the distortion that occurs a s the welds
cool can easily pull a joint out of true. Single-purpose jigs like those typically nailed to a workbench
do address the problem, of course; but they are not often intended to be reusable, and, once they’re
installed, space on the workbench is frequently unavailable for other projects. The use of dupli-
cating clamps like the one illustrated in Figure 1 offers a better solution.

CONSTRUCTION AND U S E
1
2“ x g
/h- Steel Bar These clamps can be made quickly, easily, and
economically from three pieces of 2” x 2” x
\
steel bar stock brazed together in an “H” section.
As illustrated, two thumbscrews fit into
threaded holes on one side of each clamp.

After laying the frame to be copied on a bench or

table, place clamps a t various points along the
members of this “master frame.” Each member
will require a t least two clamps, and long mem-
bers may require three or more. I have found it
best to position the clamps 6” from the joints to
be welded, to prevent their being covered with
spatter and becoming hot enough to burn. In
setting up, keep the thumbscrews conveniently
out of your way on the inside of the master
FIGURE
1: THEDUPLICATING
CLMP frame, and secure the clamps to the frame with
finger pressure.

Now it is a simple process to lay precut lengths of tube steel in the clamps and tighten the remain-
ing thumbscrews to hold all members securely in position during the welding and cooling of dupli-
cate frames. After the accessible welds have cooled, the new frame can be unclamped, turned over,
and re-secured in the clamps to permit the remaining welds to be made.

Such a clamp system provides a scenery maker with a versatile, portable, and economical tool.
These simple clamps can be used in duplicating frames of virtually any shape or size and accom-
modate the most commonly used sizes of tube steel. Other sizes can be quickly manufactured a s
needed, of course, as can special-purpose clamps, such a s those which might be of use in aligning
chair legs to a chair base. The time spent constructing a series of clamps will be compensated for
many times over in time saved setting u p and adjusting.
Victoria Peterson Door Vises for Edge Mortising

When a design called for ten swinging doors, the vises described below (common in the construc-
tion industry) enabled us to hold the doors on edge securely while quickly mortising them for hinges
and strike plates. The vises' operation principle is simple: the weight of a door laid on edge on the
ledger strip (G in the illustration below) activates a clamping action that holds the door firmly
between movable jaw F and fixed jaw C as illustrated in Figure 1.

MATERIALS FOR A SINGLE VISE

One 2'-O"-long 2x4: base A

Two 1'-7+"-long; 1x4s nailing strip B: fixed jaw C
Two lt-7+"-long2x4s: movable jaw F and movable jaw support E
One 3+"-long 1x4; ledger strip G
Four 3+"-long pieces of $" x 3" steel strap: hinge H (two on each side)
Two 3" x spiral springs J (one on each side)
One 1'-4"-long piece of l x ripped to l + "wide: base stabilizer K
Four $" plywood corner blocks with legs at 9+" and 1'-9" D

G- F

-K

I FIGURE VIEWOF THE VISE WITH FRONT

1: FRONT CORNER
PLATES
REMOVED
Door Vises for Edge Mortising Victoria Peterson

CONSTRUCTION NOTES (BUILD TWO)

It is useful to have a fairly heavy base for the vise - a 2x4 is appropriate. The 1x4 nailing strip
and fuced jaw are held in position by the four +"-plywood corner blocks. The 2x4 movable jaw sup-
port reinforces the nailing strips, adds more mass to stabilize the unit, and provides a more con-
venient attachment point for one end of each of the +'' strap steel hinges.

Each hinge measures $'' x 3+" and has a screw hole drilled at either end. One end of each hinge
is screwed to the side of the movable jaw support: the other, to the movable jaw itself. The mov-
able jaw's lower end is capped with a 1x4 ledger strip on which the door rests during use, causing
the vise to close.

While many of the dimensions and particulars of construction of these vises can be modified to suit
an individual shop's needs, it is important to insure that the hinges remain parallel to each other,
with their pivot points aligned along the same vertical axes. Oversizing the holes drilled in the ends
of the hinges will help insure proper alignment. During assembly, with the movable jaw held
against its 2x4 support and 2" above the top surface of the base of the vise, attach the hinge plates
at a 60" angle to the plane of the base. This, the jaw's open position, is maintained by two spiral
springs, one mounted on each side of the movable jaw at 90" to the hinge plates. The springs reset
the vise when the door is removed.

The final construction step is to add a l$"-wide piece of l x cut to a length of 1'-4" to one end of
each base, perpendicular to the axis of the base. This base stabilizer will prevent the vise from tip-
ping while in use.
 Karl Ruling A Simple Cut-Off Jig

Building scenery outdoors can be fun, but it has its problems. One of them is that it's usually not
practical to drag the table saw or radial arm saw out of the shop, so one is stuck with using a
portable circular saw to cut lumber to length. The cut-off jig shown in Figure 1 was used recently
to help construct a setting that had to be built almost entirely on-site outdoors. I t worked so well
that it has been saved to be used on our main season indoors.
I

3"
j+j Plywood Guide

FIGURE
1: THE CUT-OFF JIG

The jig is constructed from a piece of 1x12 approximately 6' long. A 2x4 the same length is ripped
in half to yield two 2x2s that are actually 1 x 1$". These are attached to the top surface of the
1x12 parallel to each other, with their l + " faces on the 1x12. The bridge across the channel
between the 2x2s is constructed from $" tempered hardboard. A strip of 6'' or t''
plywood is
attached to the top of the hardboard and acts as a guide for the edge of the sole plate of a circular
saw. Care must be taken to ensure that the guide is mounted perpendicular to the 2x2s so that
the jig will cut square. Two pieces of 1x3 are attached to the underside to stiffen the jig.

In use the jig is placed on two sawhorses or any other convenient support. The piece of lumber to
be cut is first measured and marked with a small check, and then slid into position under the
bridge of the jig. The circular saw is supported by the bridge and guided by the plywood strip as it
cuts through the lumber.

The jig is almost as accurate as a radial arm saw for simple perpendicular cut-off work. The saw is
easy to control so one hand can be used to hold the lumber in place. Unless the piece of lumber
being cut is very long, the jig will adequately support the lumber so that no part breaks off or pops
up a s the cut is completed. The only problems with its use are that one must slide the lumber
under the bridge from the end, and the space under the bridge is only l$": a warped 2x4 won't fit.
The jig could be built with a larger space there, but a portable saw larger than 7" would have to be
used. Even with these problems, it certainly beats the alternative of jostling sawhorses into posi-
tion, kneeling on the board, and coaxing the saw to follow a pencil line.

243
An Inexpensive Pipe-Clamp Bench Vise Patnkia Bennett

While working on the setup of a new scene shop, our carpentry staff decided that a bench vise
would be a useful addition to each carpenter's work station. The Technical Director and Assistant
Technical Director priced various bench vises, all with 6" jaw widths, and discovered that they
ranged from $75.00 to $150.00 each. An inexpensive and temporary alternative needed to be found
until additional money became available for standard vises.

Workbench ~

3"
4 Schedule40
Black Pipe and Flange
Pipe Clamp Hea

FIGURE 1

The problem was solved by the Shop Foreman, who showed us a n inexpensive way to construct a
bench vise of pipe clamps. Building the vise shown in Figure 1 requires only a workbench with a
strong frame, a short piece of p" schedule 40 black pipe threaded at one end, a pipe flange, a ply-
wood spacer ring, four bolts with washers, and a standard Pony@No. 56 pipe clamp head, the type
of head that contains the extended multiple-disc clutch. The No. 56 head can be slid along the pipe,
extending the length of the vise's throat to accommodate a range of widths. The total cost of the
hardware is less than $20.00 per unit.

To construct the vise, drill a hole the same diameter as the pipe through the side frame of the work-
bench. Then thread the pipe into the flange and place the plywood spacer ring on top of the flange.
Finally, slide this assembly through the hole from the inside of the table, and bolt it in place.

If long scenic units need to be clamped, such vises can be installed at both ends of the workbench.
If heavy units are to be clamped, consider mounting the pipe flange on the inside of the opposite
framing member and letting the pipe extend from the flange, across the width of the table, and
through the hole in the vise-side framing member.
Mark Shanda An EthafoarnB Rod Splitter

One of the most versatile scenic, property, and costume construction products currently used in
our industry is EthafoamB rod. Uses for EthafoamB rod are as numerous as the variety of designs
presented onstage. Uses at Ohio State have included the crown piece for a dragon head, half-
round moulding at the top of a MasoniteB baseboard, +'' leading for a prop stained-glass window,
and simulated carvings on some chair backs. Available in diameter sizes from to 2" and beyond
$'I

from both theatrical and commercial building suppliers, EthafoamB has certainly proved its use-
fulness.

One problem often encountered when working with Ethafoams is the need to split the round rod
into half-rounds and quarter -rounds. When I first used Ethafoams in properties construction at
Iowa State, I used the rip fence of a standing bandsaw as a guide to split the rod. Control was dif-
ficult and safety was always a strong consideration. I had the good fortune of inheriting the
Ethafoams rod splitter described in this paper when I became the Technical Director at Ohio State.
I wish I could take credit for its invention, but I cannot. I do wish to share the design of the mar-
velously simple device so that others do not have to reinvent the wheel.

The splitter is made from a 2" x 2" x 12" block of hardwood for the base, two 9" x $" x 11$" keep-
er blocks, 4 round head wood screws, and 5 standard utility knife blades. The version shown in
Figure 1 has holes for +'I,%I1,p", l",and l + " rod.

Rear Keeper

\'
Matte-Knife Blade -
\ , ~

in Kerf
I

FIGURE RODSPLITTER
1: REARISOMETRICOF ETHAFOAMB

Begin construction of the base by drawing a centerline down one face of the hardwood block. Then,
using spade bits, drill appropriately sized holes on 2" centers along that center line. Next use a cop-
ing or band saw to cut a saw kerf along the center of each of the drilled holes. The kerfs, which
will serve as slots for holding matte knife blades in place in the holes, should start at the rear of
the base and extend forward at about 45" for good results. See Figure 2.

Once all the kerfs have been cut, the keeper blocks should be placed as indicated in the drawing.
Pre-drill the holes for the hold down screws and carve away the small portions of the rear keeper
block that interfere with any of the holes.

245
An Ethafoams Rod Splitter Mark Shanda

The last step in making the splitter is to install the utility knife blades in the saw kerfs and screw
the keeper blocks in place.

P-Top
I Keeper Block

Kerf

Base Block

2: SECTION
FIGURE A-A

Pulling the Ethafoams rod through the appropriate hole and across the utility knife blade produces
half-round stock. For quarter-rounds, pull the rod through the splitter a second time. For some
of the smaller diameters, start the split using a blade in one of the larger holes, then feed the stock
through the appropriate hole. Dry lubricant can aid in the smooth operation of the EthafoamB split-
ter when making large quantities of stock.
 Sound

Using a Piano to Create a Reverberation Effect Serge Ossorguine

A Versatile Audio Power Meter Steven E. Monsey
Notes on Designing and Building a Concussion Mortar David C . Bell

An Inexpensive Monitor Microphone Karl Ruling

A Simple Audio Compressor/Umiter Jamie C . Anderson

Horn-Hat Mics for Sound Reinforcement Tien-Tsung M a

Jim van Bergen
Using a Piano to Create a Reverberation Effect Serge Ossargmhe

The technique described here provides the Sound Designer with an alternative means of creating a
reverberation effect. This technique utilizes the phenomenon of sympathetic vibrations induced by
sound waves traveling across the strings of a piano. This phenomenon can be demonstrated by
depressing the sustain pedal of a piano and speaking loudly (or making any loud noise) into the
strings of the piano. The strings will respond by vibrating at the frequencies of the source sound.
The effect is an apparent reverberation of the source sound in a large concert hall. The reverbera-
tion time, depending on the amplitude of the source sound, can be up to four seconds.

Provided there is a piano available in an acoustically isolated room, the cost of assembling this
device is considerably less than any commercially available reverberation device of reasonable qual-
ity. Besides economy, the technique described here offers a wide range of both tonal and rever-
beration time control.

SETUP

In order to set up a system where you can feed a variety of source signals into the strings and mon-
itor the reverberant signal, you will need the following items:

Piano (any size)

Full-range loudspeaker with amplifier
Contact microphone (one or more)
Multichannel audio mixer (minimum 2 channel)
Block of wood

1. Block the sustain pedal (the one on the right) in the open position by depressing the pedal and
placing the block of wood underneath the push-rod.
2. Place the speaker facing the strings of the piano. As a general rule, the speaker should be
placed so as to optimize the strings, sympathetic vibration. On a grand piano, open the lid
and point the speaker perpendicular to the length of the strings. On an upright, open the lid
underneath the keyboard and point the speaker directly at the strings.
3. Place the contact microphone(s) on the soundboard (the wooden panel behind the strings) near
the higher registers. When using more than one mic, space out the placement on the sound-
board. Keep in mind that once into the tone selection procedures (see below), the mic place-
ment may need to change.
4. Make connections a s shown in Figure 1.
Serge Ossorgzline Using a Piano to Create a Reverberation Effect

Strings

Contact

0 Source

In

(or Monitor System)

ADJUSTMENT

Once all the connections are made, you may want to adjust the system. As in any reverberation
device, the ability to control the amount of reverberation time and a means of selecting a tonal qual-
ity are essential in rendering this system useful to the Sound Designer. There are basically two
ways one can adjust the reverberation time of this device. The simpler way is to mix the source sig-
nal higher than the reverberant signal. The subtler way is to place pieces of cloth on the strings.
As for tonal quality, one can explore the variety of harmonic qualities of the source sound as it trav-
els across the body of the piano by moving the mic(s) to different areas of the piano. For example,
by placing the mic on the steel frame rather than the soundboard, the resulting reverberant signal
will be completely different.

CONCLUSION

The piano is a musical instrument. Using a piano to create a reverberation effect is simply anoth-
er way of playing it. J u s t as there are many interpretations of a Beethoven sonata, there are many
ways of arranging this system to create reverb. One needn’t wear a tuxedo, but donning the
patience and ear of a musician is helpful in working with this system.

***
A Versatile Audio Power Meter Steven E. Mom-9

Many plays involve the use of practicals like radios and TVs whose speakers must be driven by one
of the theatre’s system amplifiers. This condition poses a problem, for system amplifiers can easi-
ly overdrive and damage speakers that are small enough to be mounted in practicals. And, unfor-
tunately, most theatrical sound systems do not contain a meter that permits a sound board oper-
ator to monitor the health of a given amplifier/speaker combination.

The audio power meter described in this article is designed to fill that gap. Because this unit mon-
itors the interaction between so many amplifier output levels (0.1Wto 400W and speaker sizes (4Q,
8Q, and 16Q), it can be used with a large number of combinations.

DESCRIPTION AND CONSTRUCTION

Any metal or plastic box works nicely as a housing for the unit. Terminals for speaker connections
should be mounted on the outside of the housing to simplify hookup.

As designed, the power meter includes two rotary switches: one to be set at the amplifier’s output
wattage: the other, at the speaker’s load impedance. The unit‘s heart is an integrated-circuit chip
that senses changes in voltage levels and drives a set of ten LEDs, providing a visual display of sys-
tem performance. To permit easy reading of the display, the unit also contains a transistor circuit
that slows down the occurrence of the peak voltages that turn the LEDs on. The meter, powered
by batteries or by a 12V power supply, draws about 2.5W when all the LEDs are lit.

COMPONENTS

Resistors (All are 9.) Other Components

R1: lOKn Q 1: 2N3906 PNP Transistor
R2: 1 m S1: 3-position Rotary Switch
R3: 1 8 0 m D1: 1N194 Diode
R4: 1MQ S2: 6-position Rotary Switch
R5: 2 . 7 m C1, C2: 2.2pF, 16VTantalum
R6: 390Q LEDs: Any commonly available
R7, R9: 3.9KQ LEDs will work.
R8, R10, R12: 1OKQ IC: LM3915 LED Dot/Bar Dis-
R11, R13, R15: 1 8 m play Driver (Additional infor-
R14, R16, R18: 30KQ mation on the LM3915 can
R17, R19, R21: 47KQ be found in the National
R20, R22: 68KQ Semiconductor Linear Hand-
book, 1982 ed.)
R23: 1oom
Steven E.Mom9 A Versatile Audio Power Meter

ASSEMBLY NOTES

1. Use alligator clips as heat sinks during soldering.

2. To dampen objectionable noise from the LM3915, the wires leading to the LEDs should be no
longer than 6", and capacitor C2 should be wired as close to the LEDs as possible.
3. Install the components in the following order: resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and
finally, the integrated chip.
4. Observe polarities in installing all capacitors, diodes, transistors and the chip. Use an IC sock-
et with the chip.
5. If you are using rotary switches, connect the S1 common at Input 1 and the S2 common at
Input 2.
6. Connect the speaker's ground and positive leads to the speaker terminals.
7. Label the LEDs with the appropriate wattage rating.

25 1
A Versatile Audio Power Meter Steven E. Monse_y

OPERATION

Connect the unit parallel with the amp. Set switch S1 at the impedance of the speaker being driv-
en (4R, 8R, or 16R) and switch S2 at the output wattage of the amp (0.1 to 400W), and turn the
unit on. Some of the LEDs should light up whenever the amp is providing a signal. If they do not,
turn the amplifier off, check fuses, and check for correct voltages at the test points shown in Figure
1. Once the system is working properly, the Sound Board Operator protects the speaker by turn-
ing the amplifier output down whenever all the LEDs are lit.
David C. Bell Notes on Designing and Building a Concussion Mortar

Occasionally, a production requires the sound of explosions on or near the stage. Recorded explo-
sions are fairly inexpensive and undoubtedly safe, but a genuine explosion has a greater effect on
an audience because it is experienced firsthand. Using a concussion mortar is one way to produce
a live explosion effect.

A concussion mortar can be purchased from a manufacturer for $60 to $70. For about $15, how-
ever, any technician familiar with a drill press and metal lathe can make the mortar shown in
Figure 1 in about three hours. Further, during manufacture the technician can tailor the mortar
to produce explosions that will meet fairly specific sound design criteria.

0 0
A

t-

2" Cold Rolled Steel

7 Weld

1"
z x 4" Bar Stock

Section A - A

FIGURE
1
Notes on Designing and Building a Concussion Mortar David C. Bell

TAILORING TONAL QUALITY AND VOLUME

A mortar's tonal quality is directly related to the diameter and the depth of its bore. Shallow, nar-
row bores should produce sharp, report-like explosions. The larger the diameter of the bore, the
deeper the pitch: and the deeper the bore, the "hollower" it will sound. The intensity or volume of
the explosion a mortar produces is determined by the size of the charge.

The accompanying drawings illustrate a typical concussion mortar. The model illustrated here was
made of a 6"-long piece of 2" cold rolled bar stock welded to a base plate of f "steel plate. Charged
with one-third ounce of two-component concussive powder, it produced a relatively deep bang.
Quarter-ounce and half-ounce charges resulted in explosions of different volumes but similar tonal
qualities.

CONSTRUCTION

A few cautions and suggestions apply to all mortars:

1. Use cold rolled round steel bar in preference to a piece of schedule 40 or schedule 80 black
pipe. The force of the explosion could rupture a pipe seam, creating a hazardous situation.
2. Make the bore at least 2" deep with a minimum wall thickness of $".
3. The size of electric matches varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Determine the diam-
eter of the match hole by measuring the match to be used.
4. Design the steel base plate so that it provides stability and permits secure attachment to a
floor.

SAFJ3TY NOTE

State and/or local regulations in some areas may prevent anyone other than a licensed pyrotech-
nician from setting off concussion mortars. In any event such devices should be handled careful-
ly, following the most stringent safety precautions.
Karl b l i n g An Inexpensive Monitor Microphone

An inexpensive electret microphone element can make a good substitute for the higher-quality
dynamic microphone usually used as the pickup mic in a stage monitor system. The electret’s sen-
sitivity is excellent, and its noise level low enough that the expensive dynamic mic can be freed for
use elsewhere. Furthermore, if you don’t have your monitor mic caged against theft, use of an elec-
tret like the one described below reduces the probability that a thief will decide to take it.

1: MONITORMICROPHONE
FIGURE CIRCUIT

Figure 1 shows the microphone circuit we used a t Michigan Tech. Bill Isaacson put it together out
of parts on hand, so the cost was very low. The only thing we had to purchase was the Radio Shack
mic element, which cost $2.69. Bill mounted the mic element directly to the cord end of a n A3M
connector with a few turns of electrical tape. The mic dangles just below the catwalk of our black-
box theatre a t the end of a short piece of microphone cable. One h a s to look a t it twice to realize
that there is anything hanging there other than a mic cable.

The mic feeds the microphone input of a McMartin 108C amplifier. The amp’s input is a screw ter-
minal strip designed for a balanced input. We hooked u p the unbalanced output from this micro-
phone by tying one of the balanced input screws on the amp to ground, and we’ve had no problems
from excessive noise pickup with the unbalanced microphone line.

The mic element contains a small pre-amp/impedance converter that needs from 2 to 10 volts to
operate. We used a 9V battery for power because we had them on hand. Our wireless headset sys-
tem eats 9 V batteries, but a battery that will no longer supply the current necessary for a headset
to transmit will still provide the 1mA needed to run the mic element. We always have a good sup-
ply of used batteries that will r u n our monitor mic. A few penlight batteries or a small AC adapter
for a cassette recorder could be used instead.

The omnidirectional pickup pattern of the mic element works well in our black box. A proscenium
theatre will frequently have a cardioid mic mounted in the first beam position and pointed at the
stage for a monitor mic. If you want to replace one of these with a n omnidirectional electret ele-
ment, you may want to move the mic to someplace above the stage to avoid picking u p too much
audience noise. The mic is not likely to be damaged because it is so small, light, and rugged, but
if somehow you manage to completely smash it with flying scenery you won’t have lost much: the
microphone and connector cost less than $6.00.

PARTS LIST
1 9V Battery Connector 1 Electret Mic Element, Radio Shack 270-092
2 lOpF 35V Capacitors 1 A3M Connector
1 SPSTSwitch 1 A3F Connector
Shielded Wire 1 9 V Battery
A Simple Audio Compressor/Limiter Jamie C. Anderson

Frequently, when microphones are used to reinforce stage performances, sudden rises in volume
overdrive audio equipment causing both signal distortion and audience discomfort. In a n instance
such as this, a compressor/limiter may be used to control the output signal level, thereby protect-
ing amplifiers, speakers, and ears. This article details a simple circuit that provides quality audio
compression/limiting at low cost.

COMPRESSION AND LIMITING

An audio compressor is a device that attenuates a signal once it reaches a set threshold voltage
(Vth), in effect turning the gain down automatically when the input signal gets too large. How much
a compressor attenuates a signal is defined by the limiting ratio, i.e., the ratio of the rise in input
level to output level. The higher the limiting ratio, the more the audio signal is compressed. In the
extreme case where the limiting ratio is infinite, the circuit is said to be “hard-limiting’’and there
is no rise in output level past the threshold voltage.

The circuit, shown in Figure 1, can be constructed from parts easily obtainable from any electron-
ics supply store: five resistors (lOOKsz, 100KQ lorn, lOKsz, and 556Q);two 10KQ variable resis-
tors, two standard op-amps, and three diodes. In addition to these elements, a DC voltage supply
of 15V, or the equivalent, is required for power.

-Q Vin - Input

+15V

T R5
10m

R6
1om

pL 1oKQ T

Both Op-Amps Biased

f 15V -
I
h
- 15V

1
FIGURE
]amie C. Anderson A Simple Audio Compressor/Limiter

The variable resistors R1 and R6 are used to set the limiting ratio and the threshold voltage, respec-
tively. The limiting ratio is defined as (R1 + R2)4 R2 : 1. Therefore, if R2 is bypassed, the limiting
ratio becomes infinite and this circuit hard-limits at Vth, the threshold voltage. The threshold volt-
age can be set by measuring Vth with a volt-meter while varying R6. As designed, this circuit's lim-
iting ratio can be varied from 1:1 to 20: 1 (or simply be set to hard-limit) with a Vth that is variable
from OV to 8V.

LEDs may be used for the diodes as long as all three diodes are of the same type (or at least have
the same voltage drop across them.) Also, setting R1 = 0 ties the input directly to the output and
effectively bypasses the circuit.

This compressor/limiter circuit was originally designed and tested by Joseph Rimstidt.

257
Horn-Hat Mics for S o u n d Reinforcement Tien-TmngMa

Sound reinforcement often requires expensive microphones such as PZMs, shotguns, or wireless-
es. Whenever a production’s sound budget does not allow for the purchase or rental of such equip-
ment, the use of a shop-built “horn-hat” microphone can solve the financial problem and will pro-
vide satisfactory results.

Horn-hat mics like that shown in Figure 1 are made by bolting a speaker horn and a microphone
together. Speaker horns, which are designed to diffuse sound waves evenly, work just as effective-
ly as sound-wave collectors. Thus, the addition of a speaker horn “hat” to a microphone allows the
mic to pick up sounds that originate within a broad area, the size of which is dependent on the
sound-diffusing angle of the horn. Though not commercially available, horn-hat mics have been
used for years to pick up vocals onstage. Their use as sound reinforcement tools, however, has only
recently been explored.

n-- denser
/
/-
Speaker Horn
Mounting Plate A
Block of Rubber ~

SpeakerHorn-A \ /

FIGURE
1

CONSTRUCTION

Materials
Speaker Horn
Cardioid Condenser Microphone
Block of Rubber (available from McMaster-Carr and others)
Nuts, Washers, and Bolts

Steps
1. Cut the rubber to 1 thick.
2. Drill a snug-fitting hole through the rubber for the mic.
3. Drill bolt holes through the rubber.
4. Bolt the rubber and the speaker horn together.
5. Insert the cardioid condenser mic into the rubber so that the head of the mic and the bottom
edge of the speaker horn are flush.
Tien-Tstmg Ma Horn-Hat Mics for Sound Reinforcement

COMMENTS

Horn-hat mics are larger and perhaps more awkward to hang than most microphones, but their
sound-capturing qualities are comparable to those that are commercially available and much more
expensive. Both speaker horns and cardioid condenser mics are common equipment in most the-
atres, and assembly costs are minimal. The horn-hat mic is more efficient than most shotgun mics
and regular cardioid mics because of its wider sound-collecting angle: and carefully designed horn-
hat mics can restrict unwanted sound better than PZMs and regular cardioid mics.

NOTES

1. A horn with a wider sound-diffusing angle can cover a larger area than one with a narrow
sound-diffusing angle, but as a guide, the combination of a Beyer M201 mic and an EV HP640
horn has been used to cover a 60' x 40' area onstage with sound loss limited to less than 6dB.
2. A cardioid dynamic transducer can be used in place of a cardioid condenser mic if such a mic
is not available, but such a substitution results in a less efficient device.
3. Like other mics, horn-hats require the use of an equalizer to modulate the frequency response.
4. Different mic/horn combinations will result in different sound characteristics. The frequency
response of the mic and the sound-diffusing angle of the horn are the two factors that deter-
mine the characteristics of any horn-hat mic.
5. One horn-hat mic can cover the same amount of area as several shotgun mics without pro-
ducing phase problems.

259
An Audio Test-Tone Generator Jim van Bergen

Before each performance in a lengthy run or repertory situation, the signals of any microphones to
be used must be set at predetermined levels. Commonly, during this part of the sound check, the
sound operator makes the necessary adjustments at the mixing console while an assistant
approaches each mic in turn and repeats the familiar "Testing: one, two, three." The results of such
mic tests are often unsatisfactory because of inconsistencies in signal gain, distance from the mic,
and the uniqueness of each assistant's voice. Worse yet, damage can occur when a novice assis-
tant resorts to blowing or tapping or scratching on the mics. The test-tone generator illustrated in
Figure 1 eliminates many of the variables in sound checks: it provides common frequencies and a
standard gain every time it is used. The circuit on which it is based appears in Getting Started in
Electronics by Forrest M. Mims, 111, which is available at Radio Shack stores.

TokTR2,)
,%)
135KQ
R32
68m
R5)
1o o m

I have adapted his design by replacing a variable resistor with a three-position tone toggle, and by
adding a DC power supply and a switch to supply discrete and constant tone signals. This efficient
and inexpensive circuit can be built quickly from readily obtained parts. It is compact and will fit
nicely into a 4" x 3" x 1" or smaller project box, depending on the size of the full-range speaker used.
Adding a belt clip or neck cord allows for no-hands operation and lets the assistant watch the sound
operator rather than the mic.

The tone frequency is determined by how fast the capacitor charges through the resistors, and more
experienced circuit builders may want to substitute other resistors for those indicated here. The
recommended 135KQ, 68KQ. and 33KQ resistors, however, adequately simulate the dominant hu-
man speech frequencies for both sexes by producing tones around 600Hz, 1200Hz, and 2400Hz.
respectively.

Using the generator is an easy process. Set the toggle to the correct frequency, hold the generator
about 6" from the microphone to be tested with the generator's speaker aimed at the mic, and
switch the unit on. A novice can easily operate this important instrument, allowing technicians the
luxury of using a different assistant on each check if necessary. Since this device provides identi-
cal sound pressure levels at each of two frequencies each time it is used, its use promises superi-
or results.
 Combined Topical Index: Volumes I and I1

COSTUMES
Collaborating in Metal Costume Construction Deanna Jane Stuart ii:2
Building Authentic Elizabethan Ruffs Robin Hirsch ii:5
A Milliner's Approach to Maskmaking: Part I Jon Cardone 11:8
A Milliner's Approach to Maskmaking: Part I1 Laura G. Brown 11:10
Collapsible Change Booths Cheng Heng Lee 11:13
LIGHTING
Hanging Cardboards Eugene Leitermann 1:2
A System to Facilitate Hanging Lights Jerry Limoncelli 1:4
Another System to Facilitate Hanging Lights Jack D. Sutton 1:5
Computer-Assisted Lighting Design Larry Schwartz 1:6
Acid-Cut Gobos Jaylene Graham 1:9
An Improved Boom-Base Sandbag Jon Lclgerquist 1:11
Easily Concealed Low-Profile Lighting Fixtures Jon Carlson I: 12
Low-Cost ACL Fixtures John Holloway 1:14
Two Devices to Simplify Cable Tracing Steven A. Balk 1:16
Labeling and Storing Electrical Cable Jonet Buchanan 11:16
Extending the Life of Strip-Light Color Media Barbara Mang rum 11: 18
Inexpensive MR16 Lamp Holders William C. Harrison, Jr 11:19
LIGHTING
EFFECTS
Simple Smoke Michael D. Fain 1:20
A Fog Machine Silencer Kenneth Sanders 1:2 1
A Fog Manifold Andy Sharp 1:22
Groundrow Fog Disperser Tim Clinton 1:24
Pyro Stand Michael D. Fain 1:26
A Photographic Aid in the Preparation of Scenic Jon Farley 1:28
Projections
A Fiber-optic Star Drop Billy Woods 1:30
A Television Lighting Effect Michael Van Dyke 1:32
Dancing Light Martin Gwinup 1:34
A Schmitt-Trigger Practical Switch Alan Hendrickson & 11:22
Patrick Seeley
Moving Leaves by the Power of Spring Mark R. Weaver 11:23
A Ground-Fog Generating System Erik Walstad 11:24
A Phase-Changing Moon Box Christopher Jensen 11:26
The World's Brightest Glowing Thing Stuart Wheaton 11:29
Disappearing Footlights Scott L. Silver II:3 1
Modifjrlng Kodak's Fun-Flash@for Theatrical James S. Hill 11:33
Effects

26 1
Simultaneous Realtime Control of Sound and Lee Faulkner II:34
Light with MIDI
A Sure-Shot Fireball Effect Dave King ii:36
A Motorized, Mirrored Rain Effect Adriane M. Levy ii:39
Theatrically Safe Outdoor Bonfires Ashley Elder 11:42
A Free-Falling Ball of Light Donald W Titus 11:44
PAINTING
Theatrical Application of Aniline Dye Theodore G. Oh1 1:36
Metallic Painting Process Judy Zunotti 1:37
Frosting Plexiglas@Windows with Beer and Epsom Curtis Hardison 1:38
Salts
Texture Techniques Using Paper and Flexible Martin Gwinup 1:39
Glue
Photo-Murals for the Stage Christopher H. Barreca 1:41
Painting Photographic Scenery Using Friskets Charles Grammer 1:44
Photocopy Transfers David A. Stach 1:46
Two Periscopes for Full-scale Cartooning Max Leventhal 1:47
Easy Stenciling Technique Tom LeTourneau I: 50
Using Embossed Wallpaper for Low Relief Kelly Dean Allison 11:48
Dyeing Marble Patterns into Fabric Priscilla Putnam 11:49
A Durable, Rough Texture Coating for Scenery Pater Liao 11:51
and Props
Shop-Made Naugahyde April Busch 11:53
Simple and Inexpensive Stained Glass Michael Broh 11:55
Creating an Antique Mirror Effect Michael Broh 11:57
PROPS
Snowballs for the Stage Theodore G. Oh1 1:52
Artificial Canapes Sharon Braunstein 1:53
Stage Blood Randy Fullerton 1:54
A Remote-Controlled Portable Water Source Cosmo Catalano, Jr 1:56
Circuitry for a Remotely Dimmable Portable Donald R. Youngberg I:58
Lighting Practical
Remote-Control Live Fire Chris P. Jaehnig I:59
High-Volume, Low-Cost Modelling Clay Jon Lqerquist 1:61
Gelatin Molds Mark Shanda 1:62
A Remote-Controlled Flash Effect Steven A. Balk 1:63
Growing Flowers Onstage Scott Servheen 1:65
Break-Away Glass: Formula and Process Bill Ellis 1:67
A Butane Torch for Use Onstage Rod Hickey 1:69
A Safe Lamp-Oil Torch Alan Hendrickson 1:71
A Light-Sensitive Portable Practical Tim Fricker I:73
Faking Waterproof Beer Can Labels Chris Higgins I: 74
Quick Casts in Under Two Hours Christopher Sibilia I: 75
Liquefied Auto Body Putty Dr. Ronald Naverson i:77
A Very Useful Snow Machine Richard Gold I: 78
More Stage Blood Ben Thoron 11:60
Low-Tech Ghost Effects: Moving Furniture Scott Werbin II:6 1
Latchless Rotating Shelving Kevin Hines 11:63
Rat Trap Stage Trick Robert C. Cotnoir 11:64
A Flashing Cane for Casting Spells Rich Des ilets 11:65
Building Distorting Mirrors Colin Young 11:66
Pneumatic Debris Cannons Robin M. MacDufli 11:67
A Recycled-Bike Rig for a “Zinging”Puppet Chris Knasiak 11:69
A Simple Approach to Complicated Theatrical Chris Van Alstyne 11:70
Sculpture
Ornate Chandeliers Made Simple Neil Mulligan 11:72
Maskmaking 101 Kathryn Goodman 2% 11:75
Ray Kent
Creating a Glass-Block Effect Jim Bazewicz 11:78
The Cheap, Easy, and Effective Snow Machine Parris Bradley 11:79
RIGGING
HARDWARE
A Hinge Device to Facilitate Hanging Vertical William R. Wyatt, Jr; 1:82
Booms
Sandwich Batten Clamps Jon Lqerquist 1:84
Spider-Cable Clamps Tom Neville 1:86
PVC and Steel Pipe Traveler System David Sword 158
The Internal Expansion Pipe Splice Richard Mone 1:89
A “Bulldog Clip” Quick-Release Rig Scott Robertson 1:91
Phenolic Resin Pulleys: Out of the Skies and into Corky Boyd 1:92
the Future
A Mini-Pinrail for Counterweight Rails Steve Nelson 11:82
Shop-Built Scenery Bumpers & Rollers Tracy K. Lewis 11:83
A Quick Release for Drops Shuen-Cheng Shih 11:85
A Pneumatically Tripped Circular Curtain Kraig Bly the 11:87
A Modular Aluminum Drop Rig Mario Tooch 11:89
A Quiet Glide and Unistruto Traveler System Chuck Adomanis 11:92
Pneumatic Drop Boxes Andrew Plumer 11:94
A Quick-Load Floor Pulley Design Joanne Chang 11:97
 RIGGING TECHNIQUES
Flying Drops in Limited Fly Space Bruce W Bacon 1:96
A Quick and Simple Rigging System Darryl S. Waskow i:99
A Quick and Simple Rigging System: Addendum Jon Lugerquist & i:101
Jamie C. Anderson
A Simultaneous Travel-Fly Rig Don Holder I: 102
A Travel-Fly Rig Modified Paul Carter I: 104
A Quiet Wire-Rope Curtain Track Kieran Kelly I: 105
Automatic Drop Tripping John C. Howard I: 106
Rotating Flats While Flying Jon Lagerquist I: 107
Offset Flying J o h n C. Howard I: 110
A Tracked System for Flying Actors Delbert L. Hall 1:111
A Safe and Sag-Free Cable Curtain Track Ann Johnson I: 113
A Parallel-Guide Rig Magi Oma n I: 115
A Simple Approach to Stretching Drops R a y Inkel 11: 100
Panel-Tipping Rig Eric Weston II:103
Quiet, Heavy-Duty Traveler Track Richard Gold II:105
Self-Trimming Flown Units Michael Patterson 11: 108
A Flying Rig for Low-Ceiling Theaters J i m Lile II:111
Adjustable Scenery Picks of Unistruts Christopher L. Morris 11: 113
An Irising Portal Chuck Adomanis II:115
SAFmy
General Specifications for Stairs and Ladders Theodore G. Oh1 I: 118
Compliance with Fire Safety George Lindsay I: 119
Determining Tension in Bridling Lines Paul Carter I: 121
Allowable Loads on Lumber -Nail Joints J o h n Marean I: 122
A Comparison of Rope-Braking Devices Jon Lugerquist I: 125
Fire Safety Handbook DWPhineas Perkins I: 128
A Stock Safety Rail System Mark Stevens 11: 118
C 0 2 Fire Suppression System for Theatrical Fire J e n s McVoy 11: 120
Effects
SCENERY
Sawdust Street Bricks Douglas L. Rusk I: 132
Decision Trees Walter Williams I: 133
Improved Soft-Covered Stock Masking Units James Hull Miller I: 136
Mass-producing Styrofoam@Balusters J a m e s Brewczy nsk i I: 138
Laying Out Odd-Shaped Raked Decks M. Craig McKenzie 1:141
Free-Standing Curved Staircase Philip Grayson I: 144

264
I-Beam Tracking System Edmund B. Fisher & I: 146
Thomas I? Sullivan
A Measured Approach to Kerfing Daniel J. Culhane I: 148
Alternate Spike Marks Andrew Mudd I: 149
Lightweight Acting Cubes Fritz Schwentker 11: 124
Step Modules for Stock 6: 12 or 8:10 Stairs John D. Ervin 11: 127
Flexi-Pitch Escape Stairs Kevin Hines 11: 129
A No-Weld Spiral Staircase DavidA. Gnflth 11: 132
Pinless (and Painless) Pipe Pockets ElisaR. Griego 11: 134
Spot-Welding Scrim with Sobos Robert Coleman 11: 137
Handrail Armatures for a Grand Staircase Stephen Lars Klein II:140
Tube Steel Perimeter Framing for Flats Robert Duggan 11: 143
Triscuit Cart Scott Braudt 11: 145
A Pre-Cambered Overhanging Ceiling Jason Davis 11: 147
Whalers - Low-Profile Stiffeners for Rob Kovarik 11: 149
Steel-Framed Flats
A Space-Saving Rain Wall Eugene Yang II:151
Fabric Hinges for Space Frame Flats Richard Gold 11: 154
PVC Framing for Non-Weight-Bearing Scenery Owen M. Collins 11: 156
A Modified Parallel Platform Unit for Audience Owen M. Collins 11: 158
Risers
SCENERY
DECKS
Stressed-Skin Platform Units Bronislaw Sammler I: 152
Modular Platform Legging Tony Forman I: 153
Open-Corner Platforms Keith Bangs I: 155
Lap-Joint Decks William Buck I: 157
A Platform System Bronislaw Sammler I: 159
Two Methods of Constructing Terrain Decks David Cunningham I: 162
A Non-Skid Groundcloth Philip E. Hacker I: 164
A Laminated Plywood Turntable Thomas €? Sullivan I: 166
A Plasticene-Styrofoam@Deck Plug David C. Perlman I: 168
The "Perfect" Soft Floor Neil Gluckman I: 169
Bondos Floor Repairs John E. Wainwright 11: 160
The Triscuit-Studwall Deck System Don Harvey II:161
Using Medium-Density Fiberboard as a Deck Lid Eric Weston 11: 164
The Steel-Framed Texas Triscuit Tim Francis 11: 166
A Frameless Turntable Alys Holden 11: 168
Sand on Stage: Minimum Weight, Maximum Jody Kovalick II:171
Effect
 SCENERY
ELECTRONICS
Sliding Electrical Contacts Arthur Oliner I: 172
A Low-Voltage Remote Controller for Special Kenneth J. Lewis I: 174
Effects
Two Simple LED Circuits Tom Neville I: 176
A Touch-Tone Relay Controller for Special Effects Steven E. Monsey I: 179
Programmable Logic Controllers John Huntington I11 I: 181
A Miniature Chase Controller Chih-Lung Liu 11: 174
A Low-Voltage Cue-Light System Geo8Zink 11: 176
Focusable Cue Lights 0-Jin Kwon 11: 179
SCENERY
HARDWARE
Floor-Mount Curved Track Using Polyethylene Mark Sullivan I: 186
Pipe
Underhung Hinge William Buck I: 188
Nylon Rollers Ray Forton I: 190
Nylon Rollers Modified Thomas G. Bliese I: 192
Zero-Throw Casters James Bender I: 193
A Simple Flush-Mount Hinge Kerro Knox 3 I: 195
An Elevator Door Hinge Victoria Peterson I: 197
Toggle-Clamp Locks Richard Gold I: 198
A Quick-Locking Jack C . K e n Cole I:20 1
A Second Drive for Elevator Door Movement Don Harvey 11: 182
A Telescoping Fire Pole Chris Weida 11: 184
A Self-paging Cable Tray Loren Schreiber 11: 186
Nylon Rollers Revisited Jim Ryan 11: 188
A Pipe and Ball-Bearing Pivot Vicky Peterson 11: 190
Weld-on Holes Randy Steffen 11: 193
A Wheel-less Revolve Jim Ryan 11: 194
A Tensioning Sheave for a Deck Winch System Andrew hnzarotta 11: 197
A Spectacular Electrified Fence Ben Sumner 11: 199
SCENERY
MATERIALS
Corrugated (Kraft)Cardboard as a Scenic Material John Robert Hood 1:204
Scenic Uses for Double-Stick Foam Tape Anne hCourt 1:205
A Curved Handrail of WEP Michael E. Boyle & 1:207
Ray Forton
Comparing Four Plastics as Scenery Glides Edmund B. Fisher 1:210
Plastic Glides: A Second Look Karl Ruling & 1:2 13
Scott Werbin
Structural Fiberglass and Its Applications Andi Lyons I:215
 SCENERY
MECHANICS
Basic Hydraulics Alan Hendrickson 1:218
Low-Pressure Air Casters David Kriebs I:22 1
Shop-Built Pneumatic Cylinders Michael Bianco 1:224
Pneumatic Door Stabilizer Jeff Dennstaedt 1:226
A Simple Lift Jack Mark Stevens 1:229
A Pneumatic Floor Lock System Delbert L. Hall, Ph.D. II:202
Tap-Water Hydraulic Power Gregory Bell II:204
A System for Rotating Linked Periaktoi F: Leonard Darby II:207
A Telescope-Stabilized Lift Rig Corin Gutteridge II:2 10
A Spring-Driven Revolve Daniel J. Culhane II:2 13
Single-Orientation Curved Tracking A. D. Carson II:216
Rotating Doors Jim Kempf II:218
A Pneumatic Tab Turner Michael Patterson II:22 1
Roller Chain Turntable Drives Alan Hendrickson II:224
A Hand-Driven Endless-Loop Turntable Drive Alan Hendrickson II:227
A Plausible, Practical Raft Fred Ramage II:230
Flipping Trap Unit Robert Duggan II:233
A Control Rig for a Down-Opening Trapdoor Randy Steffen II:236
Mini Paint Roller Piston Loren Schreiber II:238
SCENERY
TOOLS
Styrofoam Moulding Cutter Rob Chase 1:232
A Jig for Installing Rot0 Locks@in Platform Decks Patrick Markle 1:235
HomasoteB Brickface for the Stage Don Harvey 1:237
A Pantograph Moulding Jig Jeff Dennstaedt 1:238
A System for Duplicating Tube Steel Frames Geoffrey Webb 1:240
Door Vises for Edge Mortising Victoria Peterson I:24 1
A Simple Cut-off Jig Karl Ruling 1:243
An Inexpensive Pipe-Clamp Bench Vise Patricia Bennett 1:244
An Ethafoams Rod Splitter Mark Shanda 1:245
A Swivel Caster Bolt-Hole Jig Bonnie McDonald II:240
A Shop-Built Adjustable Router Fence David Boevers II:24 1
A Tool for Mass-producing Homasotes Brickface Kevin Hines II:243
A Hot-wire Bow for Cutting Blue Foam Doug Harvey II:245
A Shop-Built Circle Guide for Torch-Cutting Jim Larkin II:247
Scene Shop Tuffets Stephen Lars Klein II:249
Improved Scene Shop Tuffets Michael Immenuahr II:250
A 4-Sided Steel-Marking Gauge Barbara J. Wohlsen II:25 1
A Jig for Cutting Ellipses Michael Parrelb II:252

267
 SOUND
Using a Piano to Create a Reverberation Effect Serge Ossorguine i:248
A Versatile Audio Power Meter Steven E. Monsey i:250
Notes on Designing and Building a Concussion David C. Bell i:253
Mortar
An Inexpensive Monitor Microphone Karl Ruling 1:255
A Simple Audio Compressor/Limiter J a m i e C. Anderson 1:256
Horn-Hat Mics for Sound Reinforcement Tien-Tsung M a 1:258
An Audio Test-Tone Generator J i m v a n Bergen 1:260
How to Use Your Headset as a Page Mic Darren Clark II:256
Amplified-to-Line Signal Converter Mark D. Dingley II:257
Two Head Attachment Methods for Wireless Rob Zoland II:258
Microphones
A Device to Determine Sound System Polarity Chris Cronin II:259
Making a Prop Tape Player Cueable Jon Cardone II:262
A Bench-Built XLR Cable Tester Patrick Barrett II:265
Inexpensive Digital Noise Reduction Shane Rettig II:268
Two-Scene Sound Control Brian MacQueen II:270
Recreating an Acoustic Space with Discrete-6 Brian MacQueen II:272
Recording

268