WHAT IF NIXON HAD BEATEN KENNEDY?

REvoLUtiONarY wOMen

THE SPANISH CRUSADER

How a Castilian knight fought

Christians and Muslims alike
to become a national icon

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ISSUE 153

Incredible images capture From the Hanging Discover New York’s Why this ally of Persia
daily life and upheaval Gardens to great kings strangest art scene shocked the Athenians

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 C NTENTS ISSUE 153

ALL ABOUT…
Key Events
12
History of Babylon

Inside History
14
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Anatomy
16
A Babylonian male

Historical Treasures
17
Lion of Babylon

Hall Of Fame
18
The kings of Babylon

Q&A
20
What did the Babylonians ever do for us?
12
Places To Explore
22
Babylonian ruins and museums

FEATURES
26 El Cid: The Spanish Crusader
How Rodrigo Diaz became a national icon

36 Revolutionary Women
Discover remarkable people who stood up for their community

42 Theatre of the Ridiculous

Delve into the mind of Charles Ludlam and his plays

48 Deposed Kings
Find out why these ten monarchs were doomed

52 Artemisia I of Caria
Uncover the life of the queen who commanded ships at Salamis

42
58 Made in China
Amazing inventions that have there origins in the east

REGULARS
Defining Moments
06
Photos with amazing stories

Greatest Battles
64
The Allies make their landing at Sword Beach

What If
70
Nixon had won the 1960 election?

Through History
74
Photographing 80s Britain

Reviews
78
Our verdict on the latest historical books and media
Main image: © Getty Images

History Vs Hollywood
81
Is Gladiator II only here to entertain?
64 Discover our exclusive offer
Recipe
82
How to make arraz con leche for new readers on page 24

4
 How a Castilian knight fought
Christians and Muslims alike
to become a national icon

DEVICE
WALLPAPERS
Download now at
bit.ly/AAH153Gifts
 žĒʱʩ
?ÑɞÊìä

6
 29 February 1940
FIRST AFRICAN-
AMERICAN OSCAR
WINNER
At the 12th Academy Awards,
Hattie McDaniel picked
up the trophy for Best
Supporting Actress for her
role as Mammy, a house
servant, in the film Gone
With The Wind. She was
the first African-American
to win an Oscar, though
at the awards ceremony
McDaniel was made to sit
at a separate table because
the Ambassador Hotel,
where the awards were
held, had a no-Blacks policy
and had granted an exception
© Alamy

for McDaniel to attend.

7
 žĒʱʩ
?ÑɞÊìä

12 February 1924
TUTANKHAMUN’S
SARCOPHAGUS
OPENED
Though archaeologist Howard
Carter and his team had
discovered the tomb of
Tutankhamun in November
1922, it was not until over
a year later that the Egyptian
pharaoh’s coffin was located
inside the burial place. The
magnificent stone casket
was later opened by Carter
in the presence of Egyptian
government officials. They
were all stunned by what was
inside: a two-metre golden
sarcophagus in the shape
of Tutankhamun himself,
containing two more nesting
coffins. The mummified
body of the young pharaoh,
preserved for over 3,000
© Alamy

years, lay inside.

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 Unearth the truth about this legendary ancient city, from its
'ˆÊ©±Ê©ƥ "ˆßšžÊäƥ ìÑƥ äÑɞƥ Ѩƥ 쮞ƥ Ēƥßäìƥ Èýäƥ žüžßƥ ߞ”Ñߚžš

14 16 18 20
Main image: © Shutterstock

INSIDE THE HANGING ANATOMY OF A THE KINGS OF WHAT DID THE BABYLONIANS
GARDENS OF BABYLON BABYLONIAN MALE BABYLON EVER DO FOR US?
Written by Emily Staniforth, Callum McKelvie
11
 Key Events

605 REIGN OF
1792
BCE
HAMMURABI’S CODE BCE
NEBUCHADNEZZAR II
During the reign of Hammurabi Following the death of his father,
he establishes a number of laws, and a Nebuchadnezzar II ascends to
collection of 210 of these are gathered throne. During his reign, the Neo-
in the Code of Hammurabi, a document Babylonian Empire reaches its peak
created in 1792 BCE. It is considered the and he is considered to have been
best collection of laws and legislation its greatest leader. He is also thought
surviving from the Babylonian period. to have been responsible for the
construction of the Hanging Gardens.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE WALLS OF BABYLON TUKULTI-NINURTA I

TOWER OF BABEL C.2200 BCE CONSTRUCTED C.1792 BCE CONQUERS BABYLON 1220 BCE
According to biblical mythology, the Hammurabi builds the first walls Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria successfully
tower of Babel is built around this of Babylon, and in later centuries conquers Babylon. Tukulti-Ninurta is
time. However, many historians believe they are fortified. The walls are then assassinated but over subsequent
the story to be a fable to explain the considered one of the wonders centuries Babylon is again conquered by
origin of multiple languages. of the ancient world. the Assyrians.

1792 1595
BCE BCE

HITTITES SACK BABYLON SENNACHERIB DESTROYS

KING SUMUABUM ESTABLISHES 1595 BCE BABYLON 689 BCE
BABYLON C.1894 BCE Hittite warriors under the rule of Following difficulties attempting
The Amorite King Sumuabum makes the King Mursili I raid and sack Babylon. to rule the city, Assyrian King
small settlement of Babylon the capital of They steal the statues of the city’s Sennacherib destroys Babylon,
the Kingdom of Mesopotamia and the areas deity Marduk but do not occupy the flooding the streets and looting
of Assyria under his control. capital for long. the capital’s temples.

HANGING
Despite
1595 THE MIDDLE C.600 numerous
BCE
BABYLONIAN
In Kassite
art dogs are GARDENS OF
BCE accounts there
is little evidence

PERIOD BEGINS
associated with
the goddess
BABYLON CONSTRUCTED the gardens
existed.
Gula. Nebuchadnezzar II purportedly
Following the Hittite raid, Babylon enters
builds a luxurious series of
a dark age about which little is known.
gardens, 23m in height, for
However, during this time the Kassites,
his wife. The gardens are
a people from the Zargos Mountains,
said to have had a number
come to rule in Bablyon. Eventually
of waterfalls and fountains,
they are able to conquer the Sealand
which would have required
dynasty and unify Mesopotamia.
a complex system of
engineering and irrigation.

12
 331 ALEXANDER THE GREAT BABYLON
BCE
ENTERS BABYLON
The Macedonian King Alexander the
Great enters the city and claims it as
the centre of his empire. He orders the
crumbling temples to be restored to
their original glory. He rules for eight
years and dies in the city in 323 BCE.

Alexander the
Great passed away
at the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar
in 323 BCE.

WALLS OF BABYLON SIEGE OF TYRE 586 BCE ALEXANDER THE GREAT MEETS
FORTIFIED C.642 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II begins
a 13-year siege of the city of
THE CELTIC DELEGATIONS 323 BCE
As part of a number of The Macedonian King Alexander the Great meets
Tyre, a main stronghold for
improvements to the city, a delegation from the Celtic tribes in the great
the Assyrians. The siege is
Nebuchadnezzar II constructs city. At his previous meeting they informed him
unsuccessful and Tyre manages
a much larger and impressively of an omen that the sky would fall.
to hold off the Babylonians.
fortified wall around the city.

605
BCE
C.600
BCE
597
BCE
593
BCE
331
BCE

NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIRE BABYLONIAN REVOLTS SELEUCID DYNASTY

FOUNDED 627 BCE 485 BCE RULES BABYLON 312 BCE
King Nabopolassar destroys the Assyrian The Persian King Xerxes, enraged The Macedonian General Seleucus
Empire and crowns himself king of after two attempts by Babylon seizes the city of Babylon and
Babylonia. This cuneiform tablet (left) is to free itself, attacks the city, establishes the Seleucid dynasty.
from Assyrian King Sin-sharra-ishkun to destroying its temples and the statue After this, Babylon gradually
Nabopolassar, begging to retain his kingdom. of the Babylonian god Marduk. fades in importance.

597 BABYLONIAN 593 FALL OF BABYLON

CAPTIVITY
BCE
BCE
The Achaemenid
King Jehoiachin of Judah is Empire, led by Cyrus the
deposed by Nebuchadnezzar Great, conquers Babylon.
II. As a result large numbers Following his victory, he
of Jewish people are allows the banished Jews to
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

forcibly sent to Babylonia. return home. His triumph

This is the first of several effectively marks the end of
deportations, which only Babylonia as the city becomes
end during the Persian part of the Persian Empire
victory in 593 BCE. and later comes under the
rule of Alexander the Great.

13
 THE ROYAL PALACE
Inside History Most classical sources presume that the Hanging Gardens were built
either within the walls or very near the royal palace of Babylon. Seeing
as it was assumed the gardens were constructed for Queen Amytis,

THE HANGING
and that similar great gardens in other cultures from the same time
were usually connected to royal palaces, it would make sense that the
Hanging Gardens were built for the monarchy.

GARDENS OF BABYLON
Babylon, Mesopotamia
c.600 BCE – unknown

A REGAL GIFT
According to many ancient
sources, the Hanging

A
Gardens were commissioned
and constructed by
rguably the most famous location the Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar II as a
in the ancient city of Babylon, the
gift for his wife, Amytis,
Hanging Gardens are synonymous who missed her green and
with the grandeur, extravagance and beauty mountainous homeland
of the Babylonian era. When ancient writers such of Media (in modern-day
Iran). Nebuchadnezzar was
as the historian Herodotus began to make lists
known to have built other
of the most wonderful monuments and places to great monuments in Babylon
visit, Babylon’s famed gardens were often included. during his reign, including
In fact, they were one of the seven original the city’s North Palace and
ancient Wonders of the World, standing alongside the famed Ishtar Gate.
destinations such as the Great Pyramid of Giza,
the Colossus of Rhodes and the Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus. But there is one big difference
between the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and their
fellow wonders: we have definite evidence of the
other six. Babylon’s famous gardens, if they ever
existed, left no trace in what remains of Babylon,
located in modern-day Iraq.
Most of what we know about the Hanging
Gardens is taken from accounts written by
historians and chroniclers writing many years
after the gardens were supposedly built by
King Nebuchadnezzar II (who reigned from 605
BCE to 562 BCE). It is not known when, or how,
the gardens eventually disappeared. The first
description of them was recorded in the writings
of Berossus of Kos, a priest originally from
Babylon. Written around 290 BCE, his account of MESOPOTAMIAN GARDENS
the magnificent gardens no longer survives but is Gardens such as those described in Babylon were
quoted by many historians who came after him. It a common feature of many Mesopotamian cities.
was Berossus who first attributed the building of Different cultures in Mesopotamia, such as the
Sumerians and Assyrians, are known to have taken
WATER SYSTEM
the gardens to Nebuchadnezzar II and described Given the hot, dry climate of the Babylonian
advantage of the rich soils in the Fertile Crescent (an
their high vaulted terraces. Empire, maintaining the Hanging Gardens
area stretching from the Persian Gulf to Egypt) to create
as an oasis of greenery would have required
Later descriptions of the Hanging Gardens all gardens. Whether they were on the same magnificent
a great feat of engineering. According to
have their own slightly different versions of how, scale as those recorded at Babylon is unclear.
ancient sources, an aqueduct system was
when, where and why they were constructed, constructed to carry water around the
making the task of historians and archaeologists gardens. It is possible that an early version
of the Archimedes screw was used as part
hunting the wonder incredibly difficult. Several
of the irrigation system, and that water
theories have been put forward by experts, was carried up from the Euphrates or Tigris
and a recent study posits that Babylon’s lavish rivers, depending on where the gardens
gardens may actually have been located in the were located.
nearby city of Nineveh.

14
 BABYLON

HANGING GARDENS
OF SEMIRAMIS?
A second traditional story about the building
of the Hanging Gardens attributes their
construction to the semi-legendary Assyrian
Queen Semiramis. Semiramis was the real wife
of King Shamshi-Adad V (who reigned from 824
BCE to 811 BCE) but little is known about her
life and many myths surround her. It’s said she
rebuilt much of Babylon, including the gardens.

GARDEN MOUNTAIN
Most descriptions of the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon paint a picture
of tiered vaulted terraces, almost
pyramid-like in shape. Berossus of
Kos mentions how this layout made
the gardens look like a mountain.
The height of the structure and the
way the greenery was planted on
it presumably gave the impression
that the plants were ‘hanging’,
hence the name. The pyramid shape
would have also aided irrigation.

LUSCIOUS GREENERY
We can only speculate as to the kinds
of plants and trees that may have
populated the Hanging Gardens,
but the environment of the area and
Babylonian literature can give us some
insight. Olive, fig and pomegranate trees
are all possible inclusions, as are date
palms, which are commonly depicted in
recreations of the Hanging Gardens.

PILLARS
As well as having vaulted terraces, it is possible that pillars
served as an important part of the Hanging Gardens’
imposing structure. Roman historian Flavius Josephus
described stone pillars supporting the walls of the garden
and Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned similar pillars.

BABYLONIAN SOURCES
One of the most important pieces of
evidence that suggests the Hanging HANGING GARDENS OF NINEVEH?
Gardens were actually a fictional No archaeological evidence has been found in the remains
invention, or were at least built of Babylon, and some scholars argue that the gardens may
Illustration: Adrian Mann

somewhere other than Babylon, is the have existed elsewhere. One possible location is Nineveh,
fact that historians haven’t found any a city 480km away that at some point was referred to as ‘Old
mention of the gardens in Babylonian Babylon’. Historical sources and archaeological evidence
sources from the era. All accounts of point to the existence of grand gardens in Nineveh, built by
their existence are in the works of later the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Could these be the elusive
historians who likely would never Hanging Gardens of Babylon?
have seen them.
15
 Anatomy

BABYLONIAN MALE
HEADWEAR
All Babylonian men wore hats as part of
their everyday outfits, and many images
left behind on artefacts depict a wide
range of elaborate hats and headpieces.

Babylon, Mesopotamia
Common headwear for men included
a fez-like hat made from materials like

c.1792 BCE - c.539 BCE

wool, leather or felt. Metal or fabric circlets
placed on the head were also popular.

HAIRSTYLES
MAKE-UP
Hair was an important element
of Babylonian fashion. Women
would arrange their hair in
Much like the ancient Egyptians,
elaborate styles, and men focussed
Babylonian men and women
on caring for and styling their
wore black liner around their
magnificent curled beards. Longer
eyes. The eyeliner was made
hair was preferred for both men
from kohl and, as well as being
and women, and men often dyed
a cosmetic and fashionable
their hair black.
choice, the black colour helped
protect the wearer’s eyes from
the glare of the bright sun.

CYLINDER SEAL
First seen in wider Mesopotamia, the cylinder
seals used by the Babylonians served as a
means of identification. Each individual seal

LAYERS
was unique in its design and specific to its
owner, and was used to stamp and secure
legal documents. Cylinder seals were such an While the tunic formed the base
important piece of property that they were layer of a Babylonian outfit, other
often attached to a person’s clothes. pieces of clothing worn were
important in signifying social rank.
The higher class a person belonged
to, the more layers of clothing
they would wear, as they could
afford more. A fringed shawl was
a common second layer of dress.

TUNIC
The universal item of Babylonian
clothing, tunics were worn by men
and women alike, from the lowest
classes to royalty. This simple garment
formed the basis of all outfits but was,
nevertheless, used to indicate social
status. The longer the tunic, the richer
its wearer. The upper classes’ tunics
were made from expensive linen,
while the lower classes used wool.

BRIGHT PATTERNS
Clothing was often made in rich colours,
and garments were also frequently
adorned with bright geometric patterns.
These could decorate an entire piece
Illustration: Kevin McGivern

of clothing but were also used to create

borders. The patterns were made using
embroidery or printing.

16
 BABYLON
Historical Treasures

LION OF BABYLON
This mysterious monument has
”ÑɞƦìÑƥߞÜߞäžÊìƥ쮞ƥˆÊ”±žÊìƥ”±ìą
Babylon, Iraq, c.1595 BCE

T he Lion of Babylon is one of the

most striking relics uncovered
from the ancient city. Rediscovered
in the 19th century, the imposing statue is
2.6 metres long and 1.95 metres high (not
Though many of the features of the
magnificent basalt statue have been lost
over the centuries, it’s still apparent that
the lion is not alone on its plinth – it’s
trampling upon an unfortunate human
Since its rediscovery, the Lion of Babylon
has become an enduring symbol of the city
and has attracted many visitors over the
years. Before stricter conservation rules
were implemented, it was not uncommon for
including its podium) and can be found in its victim. An emblem of Babylon, the lion people to climb onto the ancient sculpture,
original location near the ruins of Babylon’s appears as a motif on many of the city’s potentially adding to the damage it had
Northern Palace (in modern-day Iraq). ancient artefacts, including on some of already sustained over the years. In 2012 the
It’s believed that the statue dates back the remaining brick walls. The fearsome Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage
2,600 years, and while some historians creatures were seen as a representation of asked the World Monuments Fund to help
originally thought it may have been power and strength and also had strong preserve the lion, and the statue underwent
constructed by Babylon’s ‘great builder’ King associations with royalty, as well as the a programme of restoration, reinforcement
Nebuchadnezzar II, it is now more widely Mesopotamian female deity Ishtar, who and stabilisation. Thanks to this work,
accepted that it was actually built by the played a significant role in Babylonian the Lion of Babylon remains as one of the
Hittites, who invaded southern Mesopotamia culture as the most important goddess in ancient city’s last remaining artefacts to
and sacked Babylon in 1595 BCE. their religious pantheon. stand in its original site.

THE GODDESS ISHTAR

Archaeologists have identified the
remains of a saddle on the back of
the lion. It’s believed that, originally,
a statue of the goddess Ishtar sat
astride the lion. In Mesopotamian
culture, Ishtar was the goddess of
love, fertility and war.

EMBLEM OF IRAQ
As well as a symbol of Babylon,
the lion has come to be seen as
an emblem of modern Iraq. The
image of the sculpture has been
used by government agencies and This photo, taken around 1914, shows
the Iraqi Football Association, as the condition of the monument before
well as on company logos, tourist preservation efforts were made
information and some of the
country’s banknotes.

LAMASSU
The Lamassu was a legendary
human-bird-lion hybrid creature that
RESTORATION was sometimes carved into stone
as a symbol of protection during
All Images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

When the World Monuments Fund

the Assyrian period. The Lion of
began work to reinforce and protect
Babylon, however, shows no signs
the Lion of Babylon, concrete was
of having had wings carved and it
removed from the base of the statue
is thought to have been intended as
to reveal the original masonry. The
a lion rather than a Lamassu.
base was stabilised and a railing was
erected to protect the monument from
further damage.

17
 Hall of Fame

THE KINGS OF BABYLON

Meet some of the ancient city’s most
ýžÃÃDžÀÊÑýÊƥˆÊšƥ±ÊēƥñžÊ챈ÃƥßñÞßä

TIGLATH-PILESER
NEO-ASSYRIAN, 729 BCE – 727 BCE
III Belshazzar
King of Assyria
Tiglath-
Neo-Babylonian,
Pileser III c.550 BCE – 539 BCE
amalgamated
Assyria and Mistakenly referred to in
Babylonia in the Bible’s Book of Daniel as
729 BCE having the son of Nebuchadnezzar
spent his early II, Belshazzar was actually
reign (745 the son of Nabonidus.
BCE onwards) Although never the king of
expanding Babylon in his own right,
the Assyrian he was appointed co-regent
Empire across Mesopotamia and the Levant. by his father and played
Before his conquest of Babylon, a vassal king a part in ruling Babylonia
(subordinate to the Assyrians) had been ruling. until the invasion of Cyrus
Upon the vassal king’s death a Babylonian the Great. During this time
revolt saw Tiglath-Pileser III step in, march he used the title ‘the crown
on Babylon and declare himself king. Shortly prince’. He is arguably most
afterwards he presided over Babylon’s sacred known for the biblical story
New Year celebrations. Belshazzar’s Feast.

Cyrus
SENNACHERIB
NEO-ASSYRIAN, 705 BCE – 689 BCE
the Great Sennacherib inherited the title of king of Babylon
upon the death of his father, Sargon II, in 705
Achaemenid, BCE. At this time, Babylonia was ruled by the
Assyrians, though tribal leaders in Babylon had
539 BCE – 530 BCE been vying for control of the city. Shortly after
Sennacherib’s accession, Merodach-Baladan, who
Cyrus the Great was the legendary had been allowed to live by Sennacherib’s
Persian king who founded the father, reclaimed the Babylonian throne.
Achaemenid Empire, which covered Sennacherib had to reassert control
much of west and central Asia until and, though he regained the
its dissolution in 330 BCE. In 539 BCE throne, continuous military
Cyrus, who originally hailed from campaigns against the
Persis in modern-day Iran, invaded troublesome Babylonians
the city of Babylon. The conquest was peppered his reign
achieved quickly as the Babylonians until 689 BCE when
had grown tired of their king Sennacherib decided
Nabonidus. Cyrus, who became the to destroy Babylon.
Cyrus the Great next king of Babylon and the leader Some historians have
worshipped the of all Mesopotamia as a result of his attributed the razing
Babylonian deity victory, was said to be a popular and
Marduk to ingratiate of Babylon as the
tolerant ruler. He is also said to have motivation behind
himself with his
new citizens. freed captive Jews in Babylon. the Assyrian king’s
assassination in
681 BCE.

18
 BABYLON

Nebuchadnezzar II
Neo-Babylonian,
605 BCE – 562 BCE
Arguably Babylon’s most famous ruler, Nebuchadnezzar
II was the longest-reigning Babylonian king. During
his rule, he continued the conquests of his father and

NABOPOLASSAR
consolidated his territory. He also carried out many
building projects in Babylon and was responsible
for the construction of the Ishtar Gate,
NEO-BABYLONIAN, 626 BCE – 605 BCE
the Processional Way and allegedly the
The father of the great
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which Under King king Nebuchadnezzar
he is said to have built for his wife Nebuchadnezzar’s
II, Nabopolassar was
Amytis. Nebuchadnezzar is perhaps rule, Babylon became
the most magnificent the founder of the Neo-
most well-known for his appearances
and powerful city in Babylonian Empire and had
in the Bible, as he is featured in the
the world. claimed the title of king
Book of Daniel and Book of Jeremiah
of Babylon after leading a
as a tyrannical king who does not
successful campaign against
recognise the power of God.
the Assyrians. As king,
Nabopolassar later joined
forces with the Medes (from
ancient Iran) and together

SARGON II they conquered Assyria at

NEO-ASSYRIAN,
710 BCE - 705 BCE
Hammurabi the Battle of Nineveh in 612
BCE. The Assyrians were

Sargon II was the Amorite, then incorporated into the

Neo-Babylonian Empire.
younger son of
Tiglath-Pileser III
c.1792 BCE – c.1750 BCE Nabopolassar subsequently
spent many years fighting
and acceded to the Hammurabi was the sixth monarch of the Amorite the Egyptians, whom he also
Assyrian throne dynasty and is credited with the expansion of Amorite defeated. Arguably, without
after the death of territory across Mesopotamia. He inherited the throne in the success of Nabopolassar’s
his older brother around 1792 BCE when his father, Sin-Muballit, abdicated military campaigns his son
King Shalmaneser V in 722 BCE. Though his in favour of him. Upon becoming king, Hammurabi set would not have inherited a
father had conquered Babylon during his about restoring religious temples in Babylon and forgiving stable and powerful Babylon.
reign, by the time of Sargon’s rule Babylonia the debts of his citizens. Later
had been taken back by tribal leader in his reign, he set out
Merodach-Baladan. In 710 BCE, Sargon to conquer Babylon’s

LABASHI-
decided to reconquer Babylon and marched neighbours and by
on the southeast of the city. Merodach- the end of his rule
Baladan fled and Sargon was crowned king. had brought
much of
Mesopotamia
MARDUK
NEO-BABYLONIAN, 556 BCE
NABONIDUS
NEO-BABYLONIAN, 556 BCE - 539 BCE
under his
control.
One of the shortest reigns
of all the kings of Babylon,
Labashi-Marduk only served
He is most
The last ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire famous for as the Babylonian ruler
and the ultimate native king of Babylon, introducing for around three months,
Nabonidus’ reign ended in 539 BCE with a set of between April and June 556
the conquest by Cyrus the Great. During laws known BCE. There is little evidence
his reign, Nabonidus had spent around 10 as the Code of about Labashi-Marduk’s life,
years in Arabia, leaving Hammurabi. though some sources suggest
his son Belshazzar as he was still very young when
co-regent of Babylon he came to power. A coup led
in his stead. He was by Belshazzar saw Labashi-
notable for attempting Hammurabi was Marduk murdered shortly
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

to replace the city’s commemorated by after his accession, reputedly

later Babylonians as
chief god Marduk with due to the fact he was ill-
a model king.
the moon god Sin, and suited to kingship. He was
has been described by succeeded by Nabonidus.
historians as the world’s
first archaeologist.

19
 Q&A

WHAT DID THE BABYLONIANS

EVER DO FOR US?
Professor Marc Van De Mieroop discusses the legacy
of ancient Babylon, from cuneiform to culture

How advanced and sophisticated was Cuneiform is considered the earliest Marc Van De Mieroop what was accounted for (for example, two
the Babylonian civilisation compared known system of writing, can you tell is Miriam Champion litres of milk); and words, which indicated
to other ancient societies? us a little about its origins? Professor of History at what transaction was involved (a receipt or
Columbia University. He
Comparing how advanced civilisations are The invention of the cuneiform script a distribution) and the names of the people
focuses on the history
assumes that history is progress, which is happened sometime in the last centuries of the Ancient Near involved. All of these were symbols the
no longer a sentiment many historians, and of the fourth millennium BCE. From all the East until the time of meaning of which the users had to agree
other academics, share. But if we take the evidence we have today it was accomplished Alexander the Great. He is upon. Thus, a drawing resembling a fish
appearance of certain human innovations by people from the city of Uruk in the very also the author of Before indicated fish, an oxhead, an ox, which
and After Babel: Writing
and inventions as markers of civilisation, we south of modern Iraq, perhaps even a single as Resistance in Ancient
seems easy to agree upon. But for abstract
can say that the Babylonians or, better, the person. Because Uruk was the first city in Near Eastern Empires words a symbol had to be invented and
people who lived in the region of southern world history [predating the city of Babylon, (2023), among a number scholars think that this was mostly done on
Iraq which we call Babylonia, were ahead of but later becoming part of the Babylonian of other titles. the basis of the so-called rebus principle:
others in many respects. state], its economic transactions were so because the word for ‘to return’ sounded like
For example, they were the first in world complex that they required some system the word for ‘reed’, the drawing of a reed was
history to invent writing, slightly before the of accounting that would enable people not BELOW used to indicate the verb.
Created in the city
ancient Egyptians; they formed political present to know what had happened. of Uruk, cuneiform
entities we categorise as states; they created The earliest documents we know are was developed over How did cuneiform further develop in
genres of literature, such as epics. Many small pillow-shaped clay tablets onto which 3,000 years. This Babylonian society?
example lists various
other aspects of culture are first attested in someone traced two types of signs: numbers, construction activities Because the language spoken at that time
the Babylonian world. which not only indicated amounts but also of Nebuchadezzar II in Uruk was Sumerian, the Sumerian words
gave meaning to the signs. In the initial
system each cuneiform sign indicated an
entire word, but over time individual signs
were used to render only parts of words –
syllables – based on their sounds. This made
it possible to write many other languages,
including Babylonian, using these signs.
The script was in use for over 3,000 years
and there were many developments, but
the basic principles remained the same:
a sign could render an entire word, for
example ‘sky’, which was pronounced ‘an’
in Sumerian and ‘šamû’ in Babylonian; or
Headshot: © Zainab Bahrani

it could render a syllable. Thus the ‘sky’

sign could be used to write out the word
‘hazannu’ (mayor) in the sequence ‘ha-za-
an-nu’. While this may seem confusing to
people who use the alphabet with only

20
 BABYLON

BEFORE AND AFTER

BABEL: WRITING
AS RESISTANCE
“Why does a circle have 360 degrees? The IN ANCIENT NEAR
measurement of angles uses a system the Babylonians EASTERN EMPIRES
invented IS OUT NOW FROM OXFORD
Babylonians established thousands of years ago” civilisation.
UNIVERSITY PRESS
26 letters, it is a system that can be learned them must have spoken it. The cuneiform In your personal ABOVE
relatively easily and in theory can be used to material shows us, for example, that the opinion, what is the Many of what we
write down any language. Hittites used an Indo-European language greatest legacy of Babylonia? consider the most
important aspects
long before we have written evidence of The greatest Babylonian legacy is in its of modern culture
How crucial is cuneiform to our such languages elsewhere. We know that mathematical practices. Although they did were created in
understanding of language in the the Babylonian language was already in use not use the decimal system that dominates ancient Babylon
Middle East? around 2400 BCE, and we can study how today, their sexagesimal system in which
Cuneiform has been crucial for our its grammar, vocabulary and so on relates the number 60 is as central as 10 is in the
understanding of the history of language to more recent Semitic languages such as decimal still informs how we think of many
use in the region of the Middle East. Arabic and Hebrew. practical elements in our daily life. Why are
Because the system was used all over that there 60 minutes in an hour? We rarely if
region, we know what languages people What are some inventions we still ever ask that question, but it could easily
wrote in different parts. I say wrote rather use today which we can credit to have been 100. Likewise, why does a circle
than spoke, because it is clear that not all the Babylonians? have 360 degrees? Most people probably
spoken languages are written down, while Many of the elements of culture we take don’t measure angles that often, but
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

people often write in languages that they for granted today were first developed those who do may not be aware that they
do not speak. In the centuries between in Babylonia: writing, cities, laws, time are using a system that the Babylonians
1400 BCE and 1200 BCE, for example, the reckoning and others. Our definition of established thousands of years ago. These
kings of Egypt and of the Hittites wrote to civilisation includes so many practices are not elements given by nature, but
each other (or, better, their scribes did) in that appear first in Babylonia that creations by humans and those humans
the Babylonian language. Neither one of one could hyperbolically say that the were Babylonians.

21
 Places to Explore

BABYLONIAN RUINS AND MUSEUMS

From the museums of Paris to the ancient ruins of Iraq,
Babylonian treasures can be found across the globe
1 LOUVRE 3

PARIS, FRANCE 1
Among the many treasures to be found in the Louvre
museum are a number of items dating from ancient
Babylonia. Perhaps the most famous piece in the collection
is the legendary Code of Hammurabi. Created during the
rule of King Hammurabi around 3,800 years ago, the code
is a series of 282 laws and is considered one of the earliest
written legal texts in the world. The code was discovered in
1901 by Jean-Vincent Scheil and has been in the collections 4 5
of the Louvre for many years.
Tourists with an interest in Babylonia should also seek out
the lion frieze that once decorated the walls of the palace 2
of Nebuchadnezzar II. The lion is a symbol often associated
with ancient Babylon (hence the famous Lion of Babylon
statue) and the kingdom is even described as a lion in the
bible’s Book of Jeremiah and Book of Daniel.

The Louvre museum is open 9am to 6pm, Monday,

Thursday, Saturday and Sunday. It is open 9am to 9pm
Wednesday and Friday. General admission is $22.

The famous Code of Hammurabi

is displayed in the Louvre

The Ennigaldi-Nanna
Museum is located
southeast to the
Ziggurat of Ur
2 ENNIGALDI-NANNA MUSEUM
MAHATT UR, IRAQ
The Babylonians are credited with many inventions that still shape our modern
world, and one of them is the museum. The remains of the world’s oldest can be
found in modern-day Iraq. It was owned and curated by Ennigaldi-Nanna, the
daughter of Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian empire, and was located
This frieze of a lion adorned within the grounds of his palace.
Nebuchadnezzar’s palace Despite its location in the palace grounds it is believed the museum may have
been used by the wider public as well as royalty. Numerous ancient artefact labels
have been discovered that are written in three different languages, indicating the
museum was intended for a wide audience.
The museum was uncovered in 1925 by British archaeologist Leonard Woolley,
who was taken aback when he found artefacts relating to different time periods and
locations. Now, little remains of Ennigaldi-Nanna’s museum, but intrepid visitors to
the site can explore the ruins.

The British Foreign Office advises against all but essential travel to Iraq.

22
 BABYLON

5 THE RUINS OF BABYLON

HILLAH, IRAQ
Of course, the must-see attraction for
any would-be Babylonian tourist are the
remains of Babylon itself, 85km south of
Baghdad in modern-day Iraq. Tourists
can see such wonders as the city ruins,
the remains of the famous walls and the
Lion of Babylon. Possibly constructed
during a Hittitie occupation of the city,
the statue has become an important
national symbol of Iraq.
Despite its gargantuan size, the An example of the continuing legacy of
replica Ishtar Gate is not complete
Babylon is the emphasis placed on the lost
kingdom by 20th century Iraqi dictator

3 ISHTAR GATE – PERGAMON MUSEUM Saddam Hussein. Formally taking control

of Iraq in 1979, Hussein wanted to draw

BERLIN, GERMANY comparisons between his reign and that

of Nebuchadnezzar II. Over the years he
spent huge sums restoring the ancient
In June 1887, German archaeologist Robert with the second in Iraq – originally built by
city and building replicas of its most
Koldewey travelled to the ruins of ancient dictator Saddam Hussein. The Ishtar Gate is
famous sites. He also had a lavish summer
Babylon. He observed the partially exposed also one of a number of cultural antiquities,
palace constructed on a hill overlooking the
remains of a structure that intrigued him and including the famous Elgin Marbles, taken from
ruins, supposedly demolishing an entire
two years later he returned with his colleague their country of origin and placed in a foreign
village in the process.
Walter Andrae for a fuller excavation. Between museum which their country of origin now
Visitors will notice that both the
1902 and 1904 they were able to fully uncover seeks to be returned. Since the 1990s Iraq has
palace and restorative work undertaken
what remained of the famous Ishtar Gate, vocally requested the Ishtar Gate fragments be
by Hussein can still be seen today.
which was first constructed during the reign returned to them, but this has yet to occur.
Immediately following the American
of Nebuchadnezzar II. As recently as 2018 only one part of the
invasion of Iraq in 2003, troops occupied
From 1928 onwards Andrae worked for gate was fully on display at the Pergamon
Hillah and it was used as a military base.
many years to rebuild as much of the structure Museum, with the second, larger, part in
When troops left in September of that
as possible, yet what we see today at Berlin’s storage. At the present time, unfortunately, the
year it was discovered they had caused
Pergamon Museum is only a fraction of what Pergamon Museum is closed for renovations,
irreparable damage to the ancient site.
would have been visible during the peak of with plans to open again in spring 2027.
In 2019 the ruins were designated
Babylon’s majesty.
a UNESCO World Heritage site and a great
The partially reconstructed Ishtar Gate at the The Pergamon Museum is currently closed for
deal of work has been undertaken by the
Pergamon Museum is one of two in existence, renovations. Check its website for further details
World Monuments Fund in recent years
to restore and protect the ancient site for
generations to come.
4 BABYLONIAN JEWRY
HERITAGE CENTER The British Foreign Office advises against all
but essential travel to Iraq.
OR YEHUDA, ISRAEL
The Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center explores the history of the
Jewish population of Iraq, stretching back thousands of years to the
time of ancient Babylon. The museum contains a large number of
artefacts and exhibitions and provides guided tours to visitors.
The exterior of the Babylonian
Jewry Heritage Center in Israel
The highlights for any tourist seeking to learn more about
ancient Babylon are the sections which focus on the Babylonian
Captivity, during which the armies of Nebuchadnezzar II forced the migration of swathes of the Jewish
population from Jerusalem to Babylon. Many of those taken to Babylon established a new way of life
and the exhibition explores what it was like for them when they were allowed to return in 538 BCE.
As well as its exhibits on the lives of Babylonian Jews, the Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center has
All images: © Alamy, © Shutterstock

displays examining all aspects of Iraqi Jewish history, including the 1941 pogroms which took place
against the Jewish community in Baghdad. One of the highlights is a facsimile of a traditional alley in
Baghdad’s Jewish quarter that would have existed several centuries ago.

The museum is open Monday and Wednesday , 9am to 3pm; Thursday, 9am to 7pm; Friday from 9am to 1pm.
One of the highlights of
Please check online for entry fees. the ruins of Babylon is the
famous lion statue

23
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26
 How a Castilian knight fought Christians and
Muslims alike to become a national icon
Written by Edoardo Albert

“
Y
our Majesty, I have brought a deserter from the enemy. He The king gestured towards the city. “Don Vellido says that there
has much to tell of the situation within Zamora.” is a lightly guarded gate through which we may enter the city. I have
The king, Sancho II, ruler of Castile and Léon, looked asked him to show it to me, that I may judge the truth of his claim and
up from the table where he was taking his lunch in give him right reward.”
a tent, while outside his soldiers continued the siege of “My lord, wait until I have finished this business and I will
the city of Zamora. accompany you,” replied Diaz.
“Don Rodrigo.” The king smiled. “My champion.” He looked to the The king laughed. “What do you think he will do? Don Vellido has
man standing beside Rodrigo Diaz, the king’s standard-bearer and no sword whereas I…” The king lay his hand upon the sword that
commander of the royal troops. “Who are you?” hung from his waist. “Follow when you are done.”
The man glanced to Diaz. “May I speak?” Diaz turned his attention back to the messenger but, nevertheless,
Diaz nodded. “Speak.” some doubt gnawed at his breast and, finishing the dealings
“I am Vellido Adolfo, Your Majesty. Queen Urraca has insulted my quickly, he hurried after the king and Don Vellido. He hurried, but
honour and I can no longer serve her. I come to offer you my sword.” not fast enough.
The king looked questioningly at Diaz. As the king and Vellido approached the walls of Zamora, Diaz saw
“I have taken Don Vellido’s sword from him, until you give word that Vellido point towards a postern gate set low in the wall and, as the
I may return it.” king moved for a better view, Vellido reached out to grab a javelin
“That is well.” As the king spoke, a messenger entered the tent and from one of the piles left ready for the king’s men should they need
signalled to Diaz for his attention. to repel a sally from the postern gate.
“See to the messenger,” instructed the king. “I will hear what Don “No!” Diaz yelled and ran, but it was too late.
Vellido has to say.” Vellido thrust the javelin with all his strength into the king’s
Diaz bowed and, following the messenger, left the tent. The unprotected back. Sancho turned, wrenching the javelin from the
walls of Zamora – tall, proud and defiant – stood before them. hands of his assassin, and Diaz saw the point of the javelin sticking
The city had held out against the besieging forces of the king out from the king’s chest, such was the power of the strike. The king
for seven months now. Zamora alone defied Sancho. With fell to his knees, hands grappling futilely with the spear, and then he
the city under his control, Sancho would be king of all the toppled forward onto his face.
Christian realms of Spain, and then might truly turn his “No!”
attention to the long task of the Reconquista, the capture Diaz ran but already the assassin was rushing to the postern gate
of the vast areas of Spain that had fallen under the that now was swinging open. He chased after the fleeing assassin,
Illustration by: © Kevin McGivern

control of the advancing armies of Islam. but it was too late. Vellido had too great a lead. The gate shut behind
As Diaz spoke to the messenger, he saw the flaps of the him and Diaz, standard bearer to the murdered king, beat upon it to
tent open and the king emerge with Don Vellido. no avail. The king was dead.
“My lord, where are you going?” Diaz asked. He had failed.

27
 The battle for control of the Iberian Peninsula

711
Iberian Peninsula
conquered by
the Umayyad

721
Caliphate.

The Battle of Toulouse

sees the Umayyad
Caliphate held from

722
advancing into
France.

Visigoth forces under

Pelagius win at the
Battle of Covadonga
over the Umayyads,

791
going on to found
ABOVE A depiction of RIGHT The 1961 film El Cid
the Kingdom of one legend of El Cid, accurately portrays the vivid
Asturias. killing Don Gomez, his colours in which medieval
soon-to-be father in law armies arrayed themselves
King Alfonso II
becomes king of
Asturias, establishing A Land Divided the Straits of Gibraltar, devastating the
Christian control in In a life so full of adventures and battles Visigothic kingdom of Spain and all but

920
the region. that it seems impossible one man could overwhelming it: the Christians were
have done so much, this was the pivot. reduced to ruling a thin strip of land across
The Emirate of Cordoba His failure to prevent the assassination the north of the Iberian peninsula. The
defeats the armies of of King Sancho II was the turning point Emirate of Cordoba, which was renamed
Leon and Navarre in the life of Rodrigo Diaz. After this, the Caliphate of Cordoba in 929, endured
at the Battle of everything changed. But to understand for three centuries, controlling the greater
Valdejunquera. how it changed, we have to look at the part of the Iberian peninsula for all that

924
world into which Diaz was born and time. It produced one of the peaks of
where he lived and fought. Islamic civilisation (although not quite a

"THE KING WAS DEAD. DIAZ HAD FAILED"

The capital of
Navarre, Pamplona,
is sacked by Abd
al-Rahmān.

929
Diaz, the man who would become El multicultural paradise as it is sometimes
Cid, was still young, in his early 20s, when depicted) but in the 11th century it
his king was killed in front of his eyes (we fractured into a number of independent
The Caliphate of do not know his exact date of birth). But Muslim kingdoms, called taifa, that fought
Cordoba, the despite his youth, he had already acquired among each other as much as they fought
second Umayyad sufficient renown to have been appointed the Christian kingdoms to the north.
caliphate, is the king’s standard-bearer as well as the Meanwhile the situation among the

1031
established. commander of the king’s own troops. Christian kingdoms was not much
While Diaz had undoubtedly earned his different. There were four, sometimes
status, friendship had played its part five, different kingdoms: Léon, Castile
The Caliphate of
too: he and Sancho had been friends in (which separated from Léon in 1065 only
Cordoba breaks
childhood and youth. to rejoin it from 1072 to 1157) Navarre,
apart into smaller
The Spain into which Diaz was Aragon and Barcelona.
independent
born was split into many competing King Sancho II’s father, Ferdinand I,
‘taifas’.
kingdoms. Three hundred years earlier, had spent his life bringing most of these
Muslim armies had come pouring over separate kingdoms under his control; by

28
 El Cid

C.1043
Rodrigo Diaz de
Vivar is born
in Vivar, near

1085
Burgos,
Castile.

King Alfonso VI of León

and Castile captures
Toledo, leading to
the occupation

1147
of Madrid.

Lisbon and Almeria

captured by
crusaders during
the Second
Crusade.
1148
Tortosa captured by
crusaders after a
siege led by Count
Raymond Berengar

1195
IV of Barcelona.

The Almohad Caliphate

wins the Battle of
Alarcos, taking Trujillo,
the end of his life he was king of Léon and took Alfonso captive – but at least he was Montánchez, and

1212
Castile, and overlord of Navarre. However, not executed. Like his younger brother, Talavera.
as he lay dying, Ferdinand undid the work Alfonso went into exile in Toledo, one of
of a lifetime in a fit of paternal guilt: rather the Muslim taifa.
than passing the intact kingdom to his Unfortunately for Diaz, Sancho was A Spanish coalition
eldest son, Sancho, he split it into three assassinated 10 months later, leaving defeats the Almohad
so that all his sons would be kings. The no children. The next in line for the Caliphate at the
eldest, Sancho, became king of Castile. throne was his brother, Alfonso. This Battle of Las Navas

1236
Alfonso, the second son, received the put Diaz in a delicate position: servant de Tolosa.
kingdom of Léon, while to ensure the of a king whom he had earlier defeated
youngest, Garcia, got to be a king too, and driven into exile. Cordoba is captured
Ferdinand split Léon in two to create
Campeador or El Cid
during the
the kingdom of Galicia. No chauvinist, Reconquista by
Ferdinand gave his daughters, Elvira and Diaz’s victory over Alfonso at the Battle Ferdinand III, king

1238
Urraca, their own cities: Elvira got Toro of Golpejera was one of many. In fact, of Castile and
and Urraca received Zamora – with fateful in a life of battles, he did not lose one. León.
consequences, as we saw above. So it’s no surprise that he acquired the
James of Aragon takes
In trying to please all his sons, title Campeador during his lifetime. The
Valencia after a lengthy
Ferdinand succeeded only in ensuring that name derives from the Latin, Campidoctor,
campaign, including
they would fight each other after his death. which translates as ‘Teacher of the Field’
the Siege of Burriana
To start with, Sancho and Alfonso ganged but, in this context, means ‘Master of the
and the Battle of
up on Garcia, driving him from Galicia. Battlefield’. The masters of the battlefield

1248
the Puig.
Then Sancho turned on Alfonso. According were those who remained upon it at
to later legend, Sancho’s standard-bearer battle’s end, the victors.
Diaz was a reluctant participant in this As for the name El Cid, that derives
The Siege of Seville,
internecine strife. However, when battle from the Arabic, ‘as-Sayyid’. This translates
having lasted 16
All images: © Alamy, © Shutterstock

was joined, in January 1072, it was Diaz as ‘the Lord’ and was a moniker Diaz
months, ends with
who persuaded the dejected Sancho and probably acquired during his service with
Ferdinand III of
his Castilians, driven from the field, to the Moorish kingdoms of Spain – a service
Castile taking
mount a counterattack. The counterattack, that followed some time after Alfonso’s
the city.
led by Diaz, was so successful that they coronation as king.

29
 Unfortunately for Diaz’s future
prospects, his visit to Seville coincided
with a rather less friendly visit from
the emir of Granada, accompanied by
some Castilian knights – including Diaz’s
arch-enemy, Count García Ordóñez. At
the Battle of Cabra, Diaz led a combined
army of Christians and Muslims against
the army of Granada – which also
included Christian knights. Diaz won a The state of play in 1000
decisive victory and captured Ordóñez,
holding him and the other Castilians
captive for three days before allowing
Sword For hire them to return home. It was when Diaz
Diaz remained in the service of Alfonso was left, once again, as master of the
for nine years. As a proud man, he no battlefield that his Muslim troops first

ATLANTIC
doubt found it difficult to lose his acclaimed him As-Sayyid – El Cid.
position as royal standard-bearer and This victory, and the humiliation

OCEAN
commander of the king’s men. This loss of Count García Ordóñez, intensified
of status was made more pointed by the the hatred with which some in the
man who replaced him: Count García court of King Alfonso regarded Diaz.
Ordóñez, his lifelong foe. The campaign of whispers against
However, Alfonso seems to have made this headstrong knight increased: all
some attempt to bring Diaz fully into his it needed was a single misstep.
service, including arranging marriage That misstep came in 1081 when El Cid
to Alfonso’s niece, Jimena. Diaz and led his men on an expedition into the
Jimena went on to have one son and two Moorish kingdom of Toledo. However, AAL-LIXBUNA
daughters, the son dying in battle in 1097 the emir of Toledo had paid the parias, (LISBON)
fighting the Almoravid invasion from the tribute, to Alfonso, who therefore
North Africa. regarded him as his vassal and under his
Indeed, such was Alfonso’s trust in protection. Enraged, Alfonso exiled El
Diaz that he sent him to the Emirate of Cid from his realm.
Seville, one of the Muslim taifa, to collect
the tribute that the emir owed to Alfonso. A servant of the emir
For at this point, most of the Muslim As an exile, El Cid had a number of
kingdoms paid what were essentially things going for him. His reputation
bribes to the Christian kingdoms to keep as a warrior and a winner of battles
them off their backs. was already considerable. Nor did
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

LEFT The
assassination
of King Sancho
II outside the
walls of Zamora

30
 El Cid

CANTABRIAN SEA K INGDOM

K INGDOM OF OF F RANCE
ASTURIAS
K INGDOM K INGDOM
OF GALICIA OF NAVARRE RIBAGORCA COUNTY OF
K INGDOM BARCELONA
OF LEON
SARAGUSTA
COUNTRY COUNTY (ZARAGOZA)
OF PORTUGAL OF CASTILE LARIDA
AL-TA
(UPPERGRAL-A'LA
(LLEIDA)

MADINAT-SALIM M A R CH )
TURTUXA
KULUMRIYYA (MEDINACELI) (TORTOSA)
(COIMBRA)
L-A DN A TULAYTULAH
AL-TA MARCH)
GR A (TOLEDO)
(LOWER AL-TAGRAL-AWSAT (MIDDLE MARCH)
CALIPHATE OF CORDOBA
BALANSIYA
(LEVL-XARQ
E) (VALENCIA)
AN T
A

BATALYAWS
(BADAJOZ) QURTUBA
AL-
GARB (CÓRDOBA)
MURSIYA MEDITERRANEAN
AL-MAWSA T SEA
SILB (MURCIA)
(SILVES) ISBILIVA BAYYANA
(SEVILLE) (BENAHADUX)

RIGHT Immortalised
in the epic poem
El Cantar de mio
Cid, El Cid became
Spain’s national hero

31
 RIGHT A later
tale states that,
following the
murder of his
brother, King
Alfonso had to
publicly swear
on the Bible
that he had
no knowledge
of the plot to
kill Sancho

BELOW A
statue of El Cid
in Seville, Spain

32
 El Cid

the Almoravids were fresh from the

A note on loyalty desert and as harsh and tough as the
From our vantage point, it seems sands of the Sahara. They swept north
difficult to understand how a Christian and, in 1086, defeated King Alfonso at
knight should end up serving a Muslim the Battle of Sagrajas.
emir. We tend to view the long history Hard pressed by this new threat,
of the Reconquista from the viewpoint Alfonso swallowed his pride and invited El
of its ending, when the Muslim presence Cid back to his court – for there was little
in Spain was banished by Ferdinand doubt that Diaz was the greatest general
and Isabella in the 15th century. And, in the land. El Cid did return, his presence
indeed, it’s true that during the almost at Alfonso’s court being recorded in July
800 years that there were Muslim 1087, but the old rancour died hard, and
kingdoms in Spain, the history is that El Cid did not stay. Both parties decided
of conflict between them and the that his talents were best put to use in
Christian kingdoms. a different way.
However, this was also a time when As for the Almoravids and their ruler,
loyalty was personal and local, rather than Yusuf ibn Tashufin, they had decided that
impersonal and national. As a knight, Diaz the weakness of the Muslim kingdoms
swore an oath to serve a king he knew in Spain was a result of their division. So

"IN A LIFE OF BATTLES,

DIAZ DID NOT LOSE ONE"
personally and followed into battle, a man they set about conquering the various
such as Sancho whom he had known since taifa before turning their men to the
childhood, rather than serving the more north. Which was where El Cid met them,
abstract idea of the crown that designated head to head.

A Christian king
Sancho as king. The same was true on
the Muslim side, particularly after the
Emirate of Cordoba fractured into smaller, of a Muslim kingdom
competing emirates. While King Alfonso guarded Castile,
In such a world, a man’s reputation El Cid had his eyes set on a different
for honesty and fair dealing counted prize: the taifa of Valencia. This emirate,
for more than his religious allegiance centred on the city of Valencia on the
– and that reputation was something Mediterranean coast of Spain, about
that he jealously guarded and defended, 290km southwest of Barcelona, became
for it was his honour. As such, it was the target of El Cid’s strategy.
perfectly possible for a Christian His long service to the emirs of
to serve a Muslim, or vice versa, Zaragoza had taught El Cid much
provided each had a reputation about Islamic law and how he could
MIDDLE-LEFT he go into exile on his own, for his for honesty and honour – and his inspire loyalty among Muslim troops.
The Battle of men accompanied him, a small but co-religionists would not think him While the Almoravids hoovered up
Cuarte was a
decisive victory formidable band of highly skilled a traitor for doing so. the southern taifa, El Cid set about
knights. Nevertheless, when he headed conquering Valencia.
Attack of the
for El Cid.
Afterwards, no east to offer his sword to the count of To do this, he first had
one else dared
attack him Barcelona, the count turned down El Almoravids to persuade the count of
Cid’s offer of service. For the previous 200 years, Barcelona not to pursue his
LEFT A
19th century That meant he had no option but the Christian kingdoms in interests in the region. It
engraving of to turn south, to the Muslim taifa. El the north of the Iberian turned out that defeating
Rodrigo Diaz
de Vivar on his
Cid offered his services to the emirate peninsula had slowly him in Battle at Tébar
deathbed of Zaragoza which, by this point, was expanded south as Muslim in May 1090 was
dangerously exposed to the Christian power waned. But in 1086 an effective way of
RIGHT Urraca,
sister of Sancho kingdoms that abutted it. El Cid led there came a fresh wave putting the count
and Alfonso, was the forces of al-Mu‘tamin, the emir, of Muslim invaders: the off, particularly
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

not implicated in
the assassination of and after al-Mu‘tamin’s death, his son, Almoravids. They were a when the battle
her elder brother. loyally and well for the best part of ten federation of Berber tribes ended, as so
She continued to years. During that time, El Cid defeated from north Africa, driven often with El
rule Zamora when
Alfonso became attacks from the Emirate of Lérida by religious fervour and the Cid’s battles,
king but later retired as well as the Kingdom of Aragon, nomads’ instinctive desire for with his foe his
to a convent
defending his employers against Muslim loot. The Muslims who lived in prisoner. After
and Christian enemies. Iberia had settled and civilised; a few days in captivity, El

33
 Rodrigo Diaz’s most
famous outing

Readers of a certain age will

remember the film El Cid (1961).
Starring Charlton Heston
(below left) at his most
heroic, and the impossibly
beautiful Sophia Loren
(below right), it was a
historical epic straight out
of Hollywood’s Golden Age
– and it was more accurate
historically than many later such
movies. The film simplifies the story
and its final legendary sequence, when a
dying El Cid is strapped to his horse to lead
his men on a final charge, is straight out of
later myth, but the movie is nevertheless a
good overview of El Cid’s life.
It also succeeds in portraying medieval
life far more accurately than modern
movies. For a start, it gets the look
right: the medieval world was brightly
coloured, downright Technicolor in
fact, and not the palette of dirty greys
and muddy browns that you see in
modern films. Secondly, it portrays these
medieval knights as they were: men
primarily concerned with their honour
and maintaining it rather than the amoral
killers we see in some films.

34
 El Cid

ABOVE El Cid’s remains were RIGHT The tomb

moved by his wife from Valencia of El Cid and his
to Burgos Cathedral, where this wife, Jimena, in
painting decorates its museum Burgos Cathedral

Cid released the count of Barcelona, but Yusuf ibn Tashufin, appointed his nephew, men started running. The panic spread
not before suggesting that a good way Muhammad ibn Tashufin, to lead the and the army was routed, with everyone
to ensure harmonious relations between army, which was bolstered by fresh fleeing for their lives, including their
them in the future would be if El Cid’s soldiers from North Africa as well as troops general Muhammad ibn Tashufin.
daughter married the count’s nephew picked up along the way. It was a decisive victory – a victory made
– which duly happened. The Almoravid army camped at all the sweeter by the spoils left behind in
El Cid was cementing his family’s Cuarte, 8km from Valenica, and began a the Almoravid camp.
position among the highest echelons of desultory siege, thinking sheer numbers Such was El Cid’s reputation following
Spanish nobility. He was also cementing would bring them victory. But El Cid this victory that the Almoravids made
his influence over Valencia, but the city had prepared well. First, he waited, and no further attempts to take Valencia.
itself remained under the control of then, when his spies and informers told He ruled Valencia, emir to his Muslim
its emir, Yahya al-Qadir. But then the him that vigilance in the Almoravid subjects and king to his Christian
Almoravids overplayed their hand: they army had slackened off, he acted. El Cid people, until his death from natural
fomented rebellion in the city. The chief marched out, in secret, from Valencia. He causes on 10 July 1099. His wife, Jimena,

"THE ALMORAVIDS
continued to rule Valencia for another

WERE FRESH FROM

two years after El Cid’s death until
increasing Almoravid pressure forced

THE DESERT AND AS HARSH AND

her to withdraw to Castile. She took

TOUGH AS THE SANDS OF THE SAHARA"

her husband’s body with her (it is now
interred in Burgos Cathedral) and with
her went the legend of El Cid.

Muslim jurist, the qadi, instigated a revolt

and overthrew Yahya al-Qadir. This gave
stationed his most experienced cavalry in
hiding near the city and then marched to FURTHER READING
SUBSCRIBER
El Cid the excuse to lay siege to the city, within striking distance of the Almoravid
which he duly did. camp, waiting there overnight in anxious

EXCLUSIVE
Although the defenders held out for silence. But the overconfident Almoravids
months, waiting for an Almoravid relief had failed to post sentries.
force, when it arrived El Cid, with his usual As the sun rose, El Cid led the attack
efficiency, defeated it and returned to the on the enemy camp. Having made his
siege. In May 1094 the city fell and Rodrigo presence felt, he then ordered a feigned Read more about the history of Spain
Diaz, Campeador and El Cid, became the retreat. The Almoravids followed in
ruler of Valencia, nominally as a vassal hot pursuit. At the same time, the
in issue 109 via our digital archive
SCAN HERE
to King Alfonso but to all intents and Almoravid forces investing the city,
purposes an independent ruler. hearing the sounds of battle behind
As ruler of Valencia, El Cid enlisted both their lines, turned in panic – leaving
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

Muslims and Christians in his army, while themselves open to the attack of the
also acting as the chief Islamic jurist, the cavalry El Cid had left hidden near
qadi, for his Muslim subjects. the city walls.
For the Almoravids, it seemed that
The Final Battle they were being attacked from all
When news of the fall of Valencia reached sides. Surely a relief force from King
the Almoravids, they acted. The emir, Alfonso had arrived. Panic ensued, and

35
36
© Alamy
 Written by Emily Staniforth

Discover some
of history’s most
extraordinary female
rebels and freedom fighters

evolt and rebellion have

been a catalyst for change
in nations and cultures for
thousands of years, and
studying these seismic
events is a vital part of exploring
the societies that have come
before us. When? Where? Why?
These are all essential questions
to ask when studying rebellions.
But much of the time, the most
interesting and often most
important question to ask is who?
Who were the people who felt so
moved by their circumstances that
they felt they had to revolt, often
violently, against authority? ‘Who?’
is certainly the most important
question to keep in mind as we
delve into the details of some of
history’s female revolutionaries,
many of whom have been forgotten
or remain largely unknown despite
the extraordinary actions they took
to fight for what they believed in.

37
 BOudICca C.30 CE - C.61 CE
ROmaN bRItaIN
Boudicca was a Celtic queen living in East Anglia from around
30 CE. She presided over the Iceni tribe alongside her husband King
Prasutagus who, despite the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 CE,
had been allowed to continue ruling his kingdom. Historians know
little about Boudicca’s life prior to the death of Prasutagus, which
is believed to have occurred some time between 60 CE and 61 CE.
Upon his demise, the Iceni people were plunged into chaos when
the Romans laid waste to their land. During his lifetime, Prasutagus
had appointed Emperor Nero as his heir, along with his own
daughters, in the hope of preserving his kingdom from Roman
attack. However, the Romans had other ideas and decided to
claim the land as their own.
The Iceni were terrorised by the Romans, and Boudicca
and her children suffered a terrible fate: the queen was
publicly flogged and her daughters were raped. But if
the Romans thought they could humiliate the Iceni into
submission, they were sorely mistaken. Boudicca’s spirit
would not be broken and her rage fuelled her as she raised
a rebellion to fight back. Joined by other Celtic tribes,
Boudicca and her forces fought the Romans at London,
St Albans and Colchester, killing an estimated 70,000 of
them and defeating the Roman 9th Legion. Eventually,
the Iceni lost their final battle against the occupiers and
Boudicca poisoned herself rather than be taken captive.
In the centuries following her death Boudicca has become
a symbol of female resistance and still holds an important
place in Britain’s history. A statue commemorating her and
her daughters is located near the Houses
of Parliament in London.

NAnNy OF tHE maROonS C.1686 - 1760

JAmaICa
Nanny of the Maroons, also known as Queen Nanny, Granny Nanny and
Grandy Nanny, was the leader of a group of formerly enslaved people living
in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica in the 18th century. There are a number
of conflicting stories about Nanny’s early life: some say she was born as a
member of the Ashanti tribe (in modern-day Ghana), sold into slavery and
transported to Jamaica as a young woman; others purport that she was born
and raised in the Blue Mountains as a descendant of former slaves originally
from Ghana. Either way, she became a figurehead for those who had
escaped from slavery and wanted to protect their freedoms, helping them
to fight back against British oppressors.
The Windward Maroons community, of whom Nanny was at the head,
were strategically based in the village of Nanny Town high up in the
mountains. Their location was hard to reach and the Maroons could
evade attacks from the British. Nanny led her people in guerilla warfare
against the colonial authorities from 1728, attacking British troops and
conducting raids on plantations to free enslaved workers. She trained
the Maroons in guerilla military tactics as well as supposedly providing
spiritual and supernatural leadership.
By 1740, the British realised they could not defeat Nanny and the
Maroons and instead decided to make peace. Signing a treaty with the
Windward Maroons, the British accepted their freedom and autonomy and
granted the community 500 acres of land. A portrait of Nanny on the $500
Jamaican banknote commemorates her legacy.

38
 Revolutionary Women

EMilIa PlATer 1806-31

POlaNd ANd LItHuAniA
Born in Vilnius, present-day Lithuania, Countess Emilia Plater
was a member of a noble family residing in the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. Her strong sense of patriotism inspired
her to join the 1830 November Uprising against
the Russian Empire, along with a number of other
female insurgents. As a child, Plater had excelled in
marksmanship and equestrianism, making her well-
equipped to fight in the rebellion. She cut her hair,
wore a male uniform and raised a group of volunteers, leading
her unit into a number of military engagements.
Plater was quickly promoted to the rank of captain and was
determined to fight until victory was achieved. However, towards the
end of 1831 Russian forces overwhelmed the Polish, who retreated into
Prussia. Plater refused to do the same and insisted on fighting on, but
the uprising ended in October and shortly after she became seriously
ill. She died on 23 December, but her legacy lived on in Poland and
Lithuania, where she is remembered as a national heroine.

’
ThE TruNg SIsTerS VIetNAm
C.14 CE - C.43 CE
In 111 BCE, the Chinese Han Dynasty invaded and occupied what is now
modern-day Vietnam, and after decades of increasingly harsh rule the people
began to make plans to rebel. In 39 CE, a Vietnamese general called Thi Sach
was summarily executed for his role in a revolutionary plot against the Chinese.
His wife Trung Trac took up her husband’s cause, with the help of her sister
Trung Nhi, and called upon the Vietnamese people to rise up. Their army
would eventually grow to around 80,000 troops, many of whom were women,
including 36 female generals. After pushing the Chinese out of their village,
the Trung sisters then led their insurgency in an uprising that drove the Han
Dynasty out of wider Vietnam. In 40 CE, Trung Trac and Trung Nhi were

QIu JIn 1875 - 1907 appointed as joint queens of a new autonomous region.
Unfortunately for the sisters, their victory did not last long. In 43 CE, Chinese
ChINa forces defeated them near Hanoi, with some historical sources reporting that
the sisters drowned themselves, and others stating they were captured and
Born in 1875 in Qing dynasty China, Qiu Jin grew up fascinated executed. Though their reign was short, their legacy has stretched nearly 2,000
by poetry about female heroes from Chinese history, and years to the present day. In Vietnam, an annual celebration is held to pay
penned her own verses about those she particularly admired. tribute to the Trung sisters and their remarkable achievements.
Having married and had children, according to the societal
expectations of the time and her traditional family’s wishes,
Qiu Jin longed for something more. After moving to Beijing
with her husband in 1903 and being inspired by feminist texts,
Qiu Jin decided to pursue her literary ambitions and travelled
to Japan, leaving her family behind. She studied, wrote poetry
and advocated for women’s rights, before returning to
China in 1905. While in Japan, her mind had been opened
to new possibilities and upon her return she joined anti-
Qing dynasty organisations and began to plan uprisings
against the imperial government.
Qiu Jin founded the Chinese Women’s Journal for
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

nationalist and feminist writing and led the Datong

School, where revolutionaries were recruited and
trained. She became known for unbinding her feet (in
defiance of Chinese tradition), dressing as a man and
for her sword-fighting and bomb-making skills. Her
revolutionary activities eventually saw her arrested,
tortured and beheaded in 1907. Her brutal death
shocked many and she became a martyr and national
hero, remembered by many as China’s Joan of Arc.

39
 Surrounded by the influential and powerful men of Ancient Rome, Fulvia held her
own at the centre of Roman politics. She played a significant role in the ruling Second
Triumvirate, formed by her third husband Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus after
the assassination of Julius Caesar, with many historians crediting Fulvia as Antony’s
partner and advisor.
By 41 BCE, the Triumvirate was falling apart and Antony was residing in Egypt as
rumours began to circulate about his relationship with Queen Cleopatra. Left behind
in Rome, Fulvia was accused by Octavian of wanting to take control of the empire with
Antony’s brother Lucius. In retaliation, she went to war against Octavian, hoping she
would protect Antony’s interests and entice him back to Rome. She raised an army led
by Lucius, with historian Cassis Dio recording that “a sword was girded to her side and

FUlViA
she gave signals to the soldiers and even addressed them”. Fulvia was not with the

UNkNowN - 40 BcE army when Octavian besieged them at Perusia, but she did encourage soldiers from Gaul
to join the fight. However, Octavian triumphed in 40 BCE and Fulvia fled to Greece,

ANciENt ROme where she died shortly after reuniting with her husband. She became the first woman
(aside from a few female mythological characters) to be featured on a Roman coin.

ROsa LUxeMbURg 1871 - 1919

POlaNd ANd GErManY
One of the most important revolutionary figures in the history of Poland and
Germany, Rosa Luxemburg was engaged in politics from a young age. She
joined and founded left-wing political parties in both countries, writing about

YAa ASanTEwaA
and advocating socialist ideas. Having already been imprisoned
in Warsaw for political agitation, Luxemburg was arrested
in Germany in 1914 as a result of the anti-war sentiments
she was spreading in her speeches. While in prison she
wrote and published the Junius Pamphlet, which spoke C.1840 - 1921 AShaNtI eMpIRe
out against the violence of the First World War and Yaa Asantewaa was born in the
championed proletariat revolution. The Junius Pamphlet Ejisu state of the Ashanti Empire (in
led to the establishment of the Spartacus League in 1916. present-day Ghana) and was appointed
Along with Karl Liebknecht and Clara Zetkin, as well the state’s queen mother when her
as other members of the Social Democratic Party of brother, Nana Akwasi Afrane Okpase,
Germany, the Spartacus League was formed to organise became king. She continued to hold
revolution and end Germany’s involvement in the war. this title long after the end of her
In November 1918, the German revolution saw Luxemburg brother’s reign. As queen mother,
finally released from prison, and the following January she Yaa Asantewaa occupied the sacred
and Liebknecht led the supporters of the Communist Party position of the keeper of the Golden
of Germany in the Spartacist Uprising: a violent socialist Stool: the emblem of the kingdom and
rebellion against the provisional German government. But a symbol of power and authority. In
the revolution was unsuccessful and Luxemburg was arrested 1886, Yaa Asantewaa’s commitments
on 15 January 1919. She was tortured and executed by the to her people and the Golden Stool
Freikorps (paramilitary volunteer units) and her body thrown were put to the test when the British
into a Berlin canal. Luxemburg continues to be immortalised invaded and sent the king and other
as a socialist idol to this day. prominent political figures into exile.
Determined to stop the Golden Stool
falling into the hands of the British,
Yaa Asantewaa rallied her people to
rise up. Noting a lack of enthusiasm
from the men, she appealed to the
women: “If you the men… will not go
forward, then we will. We the women
will. I shall call upon my fellow
women. We will fight the white men.
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

We will fight until the last of us falls

in the battlefields.” Yaa Asantewaa and
her followers proved to be a formidable
opponent, but they were eventually
defeated. She was sent into exile in the
Seychelles and died there in 1921.

40
 Revolutionary Women

GAbRiEla SIlaNg
1731-63 PhILipPIneS
María Josefa Gabriela Cariño de
Silang, better known as Gabriela

RAni
Silang, was a revolutionary leader
from the Ilocos region of the
Philippines. At the time of her 1828-58
INdiA
birth in 1731, Ilocos and the wider
Philippines were incorporated into

LAkShMIbaI
the Spanish Empire and had been
subject to colonial rule for almost two
centuries. Gabriela’s first introduction
to revolutionary ideas began when
she married her second husband,
Diego Silang in 1757. Diego wanted to
remove Spanish leaders from Ilocos
and replace them with native Filipino
administrators, and his chance came Born in Varanasi, in 1842 Lakshmibai married Gangadhar Rao
in 1762 when the British went to war Newalkar, the Maharaja (prince) of the Indian Jhansi state. Upon
against the Spanish and captured the marriage she became known as Maharani, or Rani (the feminine
Philippines capital Manila. Allying equivalent of Maharaja) Lakshmibai and took an active role in
himself with the British forces, Diego governance, defying the norms for female royalty of the time and
was appointed governor of Ilocos by engaging directly with political figures and her subjects of all
the British and served with Gabriela castes. Lakshmibai’s only child with her husband died while
by his side as his advisor. still an infant, and they adopted another child, who was to
Diego was assassinated in May be the Maharaja’s successor. When the prince died in 1853
1763, and the grieving Gabriela took the British East India Company, which controlled large
up the his cause. After fleeing to the areas of India, refused to accept Lakshmibai’s adopted
Abra mountains she began to raise son as the heir and annexed Jhansi.
her own army to take on the Spanish Unwilling to let the East India Company take
colonial forces. By September 1763, control of Jhansi, Lakshmibai used the threat of the
her troops were ready and, with ongoing Indian Rebellion, which had begun in 1857,
Gabriela at the head as La Generala, to her advantage and asked permission from the
they met the Spanish at Vigan. But British to raise an army to defend herself. They
the rebellion was swiftly defeated by agreed, but came to regret it when the British
the superior Spanish army and over garrison was attacked and Lakshmibai regained
100 rebels were hanged, including power over Jhansi. Training an army of men and
Gabriela. Despite her short-lived women, she defended Jhansi from the British
revolution, she remains a prominent until 1858, when she fled and joined forces with
figure in Filipino history. a bigger revolutionary army. Lakshmibai was killed in battle at
Gwalior, and is remembered in India as a symbol of resistance.

41
42
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

LUDLAM
CHARLES
 How one man helped shape a bawdy,
extravagant underground movement
into a theatrical phenomenon
Written by Callum McKelvie

inary"
EXPERT BIO

I'm interested in is extraord

"Everything s Ludlam. - Charle
© Stefano Fabrizio

T
o Charles Ludlam, the word ‘ridiculous’ Born in Long Island, New York, on 12 April 1943, as a
RICK
ROEMER described not only his livelihood but also his young boy Ludlam largely kept to himself. At an early
Rick Roemer is own unique art form. A force to be reckoned age he began to develop a taste for popular culture.
an actor, director, with in the New York ‘Off-off-Broadway’ scene Fed on a steady diet of comic books, television and
writer and teacher of the late 1960s to mid-1980s, while Ludlam B-movies, Ludlam fully embraced the fantasy worlds
based in Austin,
cannot be credited with the creation of ‘ridiculous they presented. “My mother used to take me to the
Texas. He has
acting experience theatre’ he was arguably its most influential figure. movie theatre across the street from our apartment in
spanning 40 years For decades his company delighted audiences Hyde Park a couple of times a week,” Ludlam later told
and is the author with groundbreaking works, recognised by their journalist Don Shewey. “I had a big fantasy life.”
of Charles Ludlam
trademark use of disparate cultural references, drag, Particular favourites were the campy, exotic
and the Ridiculous
Theatrical Company
humour – and Ludlam himself. But despite his later adventure films of Maria Montez, which would prove
(McFarland & extravagance, he experienced a somewhat lonely particularly inspirational to Ludlam and many others
Company, 2010). childhood in a quiet New York suburb. in New York’s underground art scene of the 1960s.

43
 FAR-LEFT LEFT The 1960s BELOW
Susan Carlson, saw independent Ludlam with
whom Ludlam theatres known the cast of The
met at university, as ‘Off-off- Ventriloquist’s
was one of his Broadway’ thrive Wife, which
collaborators and in Greenwich was performed
closest friends Village in 1977

“Particular
But as Ludlam’s interests developed it was no longer enough Commons. “But he came up to me and he said: ‘You love the
simply to observe and he sought to create, beginning to theatre, don’t you?’ And I said: ‘Yes.’ He said: ‘Stick with me,

favourites were
experiment with puppetry and theatre. According to Calvin babe, you’ll see the East.’”
Tomkins’ profile for The New Yorker in 1976, the relatively Graduating in 1965, Ludlam moved to Greenwich Village

the campy,
reserved child was “the boy who shone only once a year, in New York. He arrived at an opportune moment. By the
when he starred in the class play at school”. 1960s a niche movement had formed, striking back against

exotic adventure
Rick Roemer, author of Charles Ludlam and the the perceived commercialisation of New York theatre. ‘Off-
Ridiculous Theatrical Company, says there was another off-Broadway theatre’ was cheap, but what it may have

films of Maria
aspect of Ludlam’s youth which would go on to lacked in glitz and glamour it made up for in creativity
heavily influence his work – his latent homosexuality. and sheer vividness. At the same time the underground

Montez, which
“Homosexuality was the common thread in Ludlam’s film movement, pioneered by figures such as Jack Smith,
work,” Roemer writes. “There was no ‘gay identity’ at was making waves. Smith’s Flaming Creatures (1953) drew

would later
this time, gay culture took place in a vacuum.” With the inspiration from the same cinema Ludlam had enjoyed
‘Lavender Scare’ in full swing and the Stonewall riots in his youth and starred a troupe of drag queens – among

prove especially
several decades away, the America of Ludlam’s childhood them Mario Montez. Smith’s work would prove an integral
was not a welcoming place for homosexuals. inspiration to the founding of Ridiculous Theatre.

inspirational
Speaking to Shewey in 1978, Ludlam attempted to But what exactly was Ridiculous Theatre? Ostensibly a
explain how his company fit in with a ‘gay sensibility’. In movement of quirky, camp productions, it incorporated
the process, however, he perhaps hinted to how a pop- aspects of queer culture and theatricality, and drew from
culture inspired fantasy world had provided a lifeline to
him, and others, during this difficult formative period.
“We use artefacts that we find to try to make some kind
to Ludlam” high-brow and low-brow sources. “It was a direct reaction
to the advent of realism and naturalism on the stage and
the metaphysical underpinnings of Theatre of the Absurd,”
of culture,” said Ludlam. “It’s because the gay lifestyle has Roemer tells us. “The productions used artifice, camp and
to be learned somewhere other than in the family unit. drag to explode and challenge the status quo.” Yet in 1965,
We throw our cards in the air and, leaving society’s when John Vaccaro and Ronald Tavel founded the
structure as is, form another one outside of it.” Playhouse of the Ridiculous, these core tenets were not
After running his own student repertory company yet fully in place.
at school, Ludlam became determined to pursue In 1966, a freshly graduated Ludlam joined the
a career in the theatre. Granted a scholarship to company as an actor in The Lives of Lady Godiva.
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

Long Island’s Hofstra University, academically he “He did numerous projects with Vaccaro, and met
struggled. In particular, he took umbrage with the many of the 1960s psychedelic, anarchy-driven
emphasis placed on naturalism and the teachings of avant-garde performers,” Roemer explains. Ludlam
Konstantin Stanislavsky. But university was not a total was able to convince the temperamental Vaccaro
loss – he met Susan Carlson, better known as ‘Black to stage his script, Big Hotel, but unfortunately the
Eyed Susan’, and the pair began a lifelong friendship production quickly closed. Returning to his typewriter,
and creative partnership. “I was very shy, and not very Ludlam wrote a new masterpiece, Conquest of the Universe.
outgoing, which is not too good for someone in theatre,” But as rehearsals began, Vaccaro and Ludlam’s relationship
Carlson told Alexis Clements for HowlRound Theatre collapsed. “They clashed because Charles did not think

44
 Charles Ludlam

Actor Brian Belovitch discusses his time working

with the Ridiculous Theatrical Company

What was your pneumonia. I had to drop out of both. Then things. He was one of my dearest friends and
first experience of Everett did Isle of the Hermaphrodites, and I miss him terribly every day.
ridiculous theatre? I got a smaller role. But Everett was new to
© Jay Matthews

It was 1974 and I was 18 years directing. We got to opening night and he In 2017 you participated in the
old. I came to New York and pulled the plug. It was lavish, the costumes Ridiculous Theatrical Company’s
was living with a friend, and were from the Metropolitan Opera, the 50th anniversary celebration, could
one day he said: “We’re going to the theatre.” production values were impeccable. But he you tell us about it?
So we went to see Camille, with Charles in the freaked out. He didn’t feel like it was where it We did Conquest of the Universe, directed by
lead role. On the way I got an excruciating needed to be and he cancelled it. Everett, and I played Alice, First Lady of the
toothache. I was in the worst mood. I was Earth. It was a love-fest. Everybody in the
bitching and moaning saying: “I don’t want to You didn’t have much luck then? cast fell in love with each other. It was the
go. Why do we have to go?” Acting like a five- [Laughing] I thought: “Damn, I’m never going most amazing experience. I did a scene where
year-old! Anyway, the play began and it was to get to be in this Ridiculous Theatre!” Then I gave birth to nine babies and they were all
so freaking ridiculous – it was just stupidly I got to play Lamia, the Leopard Woman in slaughtered by my husband. It was full of
ridiculous. I laughed and laughed and it took Bluebeard, with Everett and some of the blood and people were doing flamenco dances
away the pain of my toothache. We paid five original cast. It was a huge success and we while I’m having babies!
or ten bucks? It was the most inexpensive ended up getting great reviews. I’ve done
trip to the dentist, but it also sparked in a lot of theatre but this was special. Everett What was your favourite part of
me the thought of: “Oh, wow. I’m kind of had hit his stride and was much more working with the theatre company?
a queer, off-beat person myself. Maybe confident in what he was doing. I found a place where I could fit in. Gay
someday I could do that!” men that are slightly effeminate or even
What was Everett Quinton like? flamingly feminine have a really difficult
How did you come to be a part of the He was not only the greatest director I’ve time finding a place in the cultural
Ridiculous Theatrical Company? ever worked with, and I’ve worked with lots, world of acting. There’s always been
I went to see the last play Charles wrote, but he was the most lovely human being. He stereotypical portrayals of effeminate
the Artificial Jungle, in 1986. Afterwards I has been overshadowed by Charles a bit, but gay men, we are always fools or best
was introduced to both Charles and Everett. I think time will give him his due. He was a friends. With the Ridiculous, I was
Six months later I ran into Everett and we walking encyclopedia when it came to creative accepted for what I was. It was a great
struck up a conversation. We just hit it off. opportunity for me to just do
He invited me to audition for a role in Turds what I loved, which was act.
in Hell. I was already rehearsing Ballet of
the Dolls, playing Sharon Fate at La MaMa.
Running back and forth from the East
Village to the West Village, I got sick with

“I laughed
and laughed
and it took
away the
pain of my
toothache”
RIGHT Everett
Quinton as
Bluebeard in the
1991-92 revival

45
 Charles Ludlam’s obituary became the first to name AIDS as the cause
of death and helped reduce the stigma surrounding the disease
The 1980s was a dark period for New York’s gay community. the age of 44. In his front page obituary for The New York
AIDS, first reported in the United States in 1981, had spread Times, Jeremy Gerard named AIDS as the cause of Ludlam’s
across the country. By 1986, 16,301 people had died from death. Gerard knew how important it was to name AIDS as
AIDS complications, with 2,960 in that year alone. In March the cause, aware that without truth the stigma would only
1987 Ludlam received the news that he had contracted HIV continue, and he worked hard to persuade Ludlam’s parents.
and a month later was admitted to St Vincent’s Hospital. On The resultant obituary was the first to specifically name the
28 May 1987, Ludlam died of complications from AIDS at disease as a person’s cause of death.

enough risks were being taken,” says Roemer. “Vaccaro BELOW John Vaccaro’s

“Bluebeard
refused to show nudity on stage for fear of being arrested Playhouse of the Ridiculous
continued to operate
and shut down. Ultimately Ludlam left.” while Ludlam’s Ridiculous

tells the story

But two of Ludlam’s many strengths were his resilience Theatrical Company was
and sense of humour, and he demonstrated both upon already making a storm

of the titular
leaving the Playhouse of the Ridiculous. Undeterred, he
branched out on his own and launched the Ridiculous

mad scientist
Theatrical Company. Realising Vaccaro held the rights
to Conquest of the Universe and was intending to stage

who lives on a
the production without him, Ludlam lightly rewrote
the entire piece. The title for his new version was When
Queen’s Collide – a playful reference to the spat between

small island and himself and Varraco?

Now Ludlam was his own master and the Ridiculous

conducts insane Theatrical Company was to be his personal playground.

According to Ronald Argelander’s 1974 article for the

experiments in
Theatrical Review, the troupe was “primarily composed
of untrained actors, non-actors and filmmakers”, with

his search for

Ludlam being the only one “with extensive schooling
and experience in acting, directing and playwriting”.

a third sex”
The troupe began with a restaging of Big Hotel at The
Tambellini Gate theatre, following this with works such
as Turds in Hell (1969) and The Grand Tarot (1969). While
popular, Ludlam knew something was missing and wider
BELOW John success eluded the burgeoning company.
Vaccaro, creative
director of the One possible reason was Ludlam’s approach to writing.
Playhouse of Up until now he had avoided the traditional three-act
the Ridiculous, of structure. As a result his plays had a loose narrative style.
which Ludlam was
a member until the Ludlam himself once admitted: “We knew what the plot
two had a falling out was, but I’m not sure if the audience did.” Seeking to
amend this, he penned Bluebeard (1970). The play tells
the story of the titular mad scientist who lives on
a small island and conducts insane experiments
in his search for a third sex. At its climax, Mario
Montez revealed a grotesque third genital, to to play a substantial role in his creative one – he met his
the delight of the audience. The play was a life partner Everett Quinton. According to Quinton the
resounding hit. pair met “cruising Christopher Street old-school style”.
Eunuchs of the Forbidden City (1971) and Corn Quinton was in his mid-twenties and had no theatre
(1972) followed but Camille, produced in 1973, experience, but Ludlam immediately took a shine to the
was to prove his most popular production yet. young man, eight years his junior. Despite the fact that
Ludlam played the titular role in drag, proudly Quinton misplaced Ludlam’s phone number after their
displaying his hairy chest. In the audience was initial meeting, they bumped into each other again outside
a young writer and actor Charles Busch. “The a restaurant. “I ran into him the following August and the
power of his performance made you believe first thing he said to me was: ‘So you’re not a dream! You
that he was a desirable, glamorous lady,” Busch do exist!’” Quinton reflected to author David Kaufmann.
wrote for backstage.com “It was a wonderful “And that’s when we became lovers.”
tightrope that he walked between sincerity and Quinton began to work in the Ridiculous Theatrical
outrageous, burlesque comedy.” Company as a wig and wardrobe manager while Ludlam
In 1975, an event would occur in trained him as an actor. “He was always thinking and
Ludlam’s personal life that would go on writing, his mind never stopped,” Quinton said of Ludlam
 Charles Ludlam

in a 2015 interview with AM New York. This constant

stream of ideas eventually led Ludlam to experiment in
new avenues. Beginning in 1979, he began to work on a pair LEFT A month after
of short films The Sorrows of Dolores (1986) and Museum his death, The Big
Easy was released,
of Wax (1987). Both silent, neither was fully completed but in which Ludlam
they demonstrate the same vibrant creativity and adoration played a sleazy
Southern lawyer
of pop culture evident in Ludlam’s plays.
This is not to suggest, however, that Ludlam was BELOW The
Mystery of Irma
turning away from the theatre and he continued to write Vep, Ludlam’s
a new play, often two, each year. The inspiration for these most famous work,
varied wildly. Stage Blood (1975) was a rough variation on continues to be
staged. Pictured is
Hamlet retold as a comic thriller. On the other hand, the the 2010 production
following year’s Jack and the Beanstalk was a bawdy take starring Tom Ford
on the classic fairytale. “He took material and reworked and Steven Strafford

it according to his aesthetic,” Roemer explains. “He never

called it stealing but, rather, recycling!”
One of his most creative works during this period was

“By 1992
The Ventiloquist’s Wife (1978), a comic thriller that drew
from the classic British horror film Dead of Night (1945).

Irma Vep
Ludlam’s script told of a foul-mouthed dummy who
starts to take over a ventriloquist’s act, then his life. The

had graced
impudent dummy was the amusingly named Walter Ego
who uttered such lines as: “I’ve got twelve inches but I

more stages
don’t use it as a rule.” The play drew on Ludlam’s love
of puppetry, which he had indulged in four years earlier,
operating a one-man Punch and Judy show aimed at
children with puppets Ludlam built himself.
While popular, nothing compared to the success and than any
acclaim that was yet to come. In September 1984, the
Ridiculous Theatre Company premiered The Mystery other play
in the United
of Irma Vep at the Sheridan Square Playhouse. A self-
described ‘penny dreadful’, the play drew on a slew of

States”
gothic tropes, including werewolves, a mummy’s curse
and bizarre plot contrivances – ‘Irma Vep’ is of course an
anagram of ‘Vampire’.
In the words of Mel Gurrow’s October 1984 positive
review for The New York Times: “What makes it singular is Following his passing, control of the Ridiculous
that every one of the myriad characters – men and women, Theatrical Company fell to Quinton. He kept the theatre
more than six, less than 12 – is played by Mr Ludlam and alive for a decade, until 1997 when he stepped down as
Everett Quinton.” artistic director and the theatre closed. “It was tough
The impressiveness of this feat cannot be overstated, BELOW Ludlam because I really don’t have any entrepreneurial ability.
requiring precise comic timing. “An actor would walk (left) with his life Now I’m smarter than I was then and would have done
partner Everett
out a door as one character and re-enter seconds later Quinton in 1986 things differently,” Quinton told AM New York. “We
though another door as a completely different character certainly had a bunch of hits, like Brother Truckers, but
in a different costume,” Roemer explains. By 1992 The they just barely paid for themselves and could never
Mystery of Irma Vep had graced more stages than any quite get us out of hock.” Quinton passed away on 23
other play in the United States and, perhaps more January 2023 aged 71.
incredibly, in 2003 it became the longest-running “Ludlam did not sit around and wait for creativity to
production ever put on in Brazil. happen. He created it himself. In his own image,” says
Irma Vep was a resounding success and Roemer. “More actors, directors and artists today
Ludlam had never been so popular. According to need to follow his lead and create their own work
Kenneth Elliot, co-founder of Theatre-in-Limbo, instead of waiting for somebody to hire them.”
there “was much talk that he was entering One theatrical talent Ludlam directly inspired
the mainstream.” In evidence of this, in 1987 was Busch, who produced his own string of camp
Ludlam played the role of a corrupt southern classics including Vampire Lesbians of Sodom
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

lawyer in New Orleans crime thriller The Big (1984) and Psycho Beach Party (1988). “He was
Easy. His notices were good and there were like a wonderful bucket of water,” Busch wrote
whispers of more mainstream roles to come. in an article for Backstage, “awakening me to the
Ludlam was also being courted by the theatrical possibility of making your own work instead of
elite, having been asked by Joseph Papp to direct just hoping to be cast by someone else. I could
a new take on Titus Andronicus for the New York create my own theatrical world.”
Shakespeare Festival – but it was not to be. Three If Ludlam achieved anything in his work, it was
months before The Big Easy was released, Ludlam certainly the creation of a unique world, always his
died of complications from AIDS. own and always extraordinary.

47
 Written by Scott Reeves

Discover the unfortunate monarchs

prematurely kicked off the throne
n theory, every sovereign rules until they their kind, and their nations chose a republican
take their last breath, after which the crown future. Some kings without a kingdom were
© Getty Images, © Shutterstock

seamlessly transfers to the next generation. permitted to live on in exile, but others were
But throughout history the reality has often given a violent end. From medieval monarchs
All images: © Alamy,

been very different – some have been booted who fell out with their nobles, to 20th-century
out by their subjects, others forced from the kings dethroned by world wars, meet the
throne by foreign powers. A few were the last of royals whose crowns slipped from their heads.

48
 Deposed Kings

LOUIS XVI
A victim of Madame Guillotine
France, 1774-92
When Louis supported the American colonists in their bid to
win independence from Britain, it left his subjects wondering:
why them and not us? The king had opened a can of worms.
France was still ruled by a largely autocratic monarchy, but
the French people and nobles forced Louis to summon
the estates-general so they could air their grievances. It
quickly descended into vehement criticism of Louis and
his wife, Marie Antoinette, who were seen as ignorant and
uncaring of their people’s suffering. As political rhetoric
became more radical, Louis and Marie Antoinette made an
ill-advised dash from Paris, but were caught and returned
in shame. Louis was arrested, tried and sentenced to
be executed by guillotine as France slipped further into
revolution, and the monarchy was eventually abolished.

JAMES II & VII

Inglorious monarch
Britain, 1685-88
The biggest problem James’ subjects had was their
king’s openly Catholic faith. At a time when Protestants
and Catholics were still unable to live together in peace,

EDWARD II
the prospect of a Catholic dynasty on the throne was
unbearable. After the birth of James’ son and heir,
the aristocracy decided to act. They invited James’
Protestant daughter, Mary, to take the throne in his
Red-hot rebellion place, and she arrived in England with an army led by
her Dutch husband, William of Orange. James’ army
England, 1307–27 refused to fight, James fled to the continent, and his
country decided that he’d voluntarily vacated the
When Edward II acceded to the
throne. Mary and William took his place as England’s
throne, royal relationships with
first and only co-monarchs to conclude what was to
England’s powerful nobles were
become known as the Glorious Revolution.
already strained. Unfortunately,
Edward further antagonised the
aristocracy by leaning heavily

HENRY VI
on the advice and support of his
friend (and possible lover) Piers

The Lancaster rose

Gaveston. Nobles didn’t like the
favouritism – they exiled, and
eventually executed, Gaveston. That England, 1422-61 & 1470-71
caused Edward to seek solace with
the powerful Despenser family, but Henry had proven himself a weak and lacklustre king by
Hugh Despenser was also arrested 1452, but things got much worse when he was suddenly
and killed. Eventually, the nobles struck down by a mental illness that left him unable to
came for Edward himself. Roger function. Richard, Duke of York, took advantage and
Mortimer raised an army and began to scheme against the king, kicking off the Wars
Edward fled to Wales, but he was of the Roses. Richard’s son took up the cause when his
captured and forced to abdicate father was killed in battle and succeeded in deposing
in favour of his son, Edward III. Henry. The new Edward IV was himself temporarily
When the younger Edward was removed after the powerful Earl of Warwick switched
confirmed on the throne, Edward II sides, but Henry’s return to the throne was shortlived.
was no longer of any use and died in Henry was defeated at the Battle of Tewkesbury, and his
September 1327, probably murdered son and heir was killed in the fighting. Edward IV was back
by the new regime. on the hot seat and within three weeks of his second reign
commencing, Henry conveniently died in the Tower of London.

49
 HAILE SELASSIE
Double deposed
Ethiopia,
1930-36 & 1941-74
When Italian dictator Benito Mussolini decided
he wanted a ‘new Roman Empire’, most of Africa
was already under the colonial control of rival
European powers. The nation Mussolini set his
imperial sights on was Abyssinia (modern-day
Ethiopia) and Italian troops invaded in 1934,
deposing Emperor Haile Selassie and installing
their own regime. Selassie was restored to his
throne after the Italians’ WWII surrender in 1941
and reigned for another three decades. Despite
modernising his country he also suppressed
opposition, retaining his grip on power until
a famine struck. Selassie was accused of being out
of touch with his people’s suffering and a coup
d’état saw him deposed for a second time. He
died a year later, supposedly from complications
following an operation, although military officers
were later found guilty of his murder.

CHARLES I MOHAMMAD
The cavalier king
Britain, 1625-49
REZA PAHLAVI
The subjugated
shah
Charles was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. Unfortunately
for him, his subjects didn’t agree that God alone decreed who ruled
in England and Scotland. Charles began his reign by marrying an
Iran, 1941-79
unpopular French princess, then dismissed Parliament after it tried
to interfere with his policies. He ruled Mohammad Reza came to the
for 11 years as an absolute monarch, throne during the Second World
but eventually had to recall War after a joint Anglo-Soviet
Parliament when he ran short invasion forced the abdication
of cash. Both sides still differed of his father. In the early 1950s
on the fundamental issue of his prime minister Mohammad
who had control, and the Mosaddegh tried to nationalise
country slipped into a civil Iran’s oil industry, but a military coup
war. Charles was defeated sponsored by the UK and USA forced
and he lost his head to out Mosaddegh in favour of strengthening
the executioner’s sword. Reza’s power and authority. Reza pushed through
It wasn’t just Charles who a programme of modernisation known as the White Revolution,
was deposed – the whole which succeeded in rapidly increasing Iran’s economic output and
monarchy went with him and military strength. The shah had a prominent role in the Organization
for almost a decade Britain of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) that allowed him to
was ruled by Oliver Cromwell, control global oil prices, but in 1979 he was overthrown by the Islamic
who took the title lord protector. Revolution and forced into exile in Egypt, where he died a year later.

50
 Deposed Kings

MANUEL II
NICHOLAS II
The last tsar
Designated survivor
Portugal, 1908-10
Russia, 1894 – 1917 Manuel wasn’t meant to rule, but was thrust
onto the throne after his family was attacked
Nicholas inherited a Russian Empire that by assassins. His father and older brother were
lagged behind its peers in Europe and he killed, while Manuel survived with a gunshot
pressed ahead with economic reforms wound to his arm. Still only 18 years old, he
designed to close the gap. Unfortunately, requested the resignation of his unpopular prime
he also wanted to retain autocratic minister and presented a newer, more popular
powers that had long been jettisoned form of monarchy. But it wasn’t enough to satisfy
in Britain, France and Germany, and Portugal’s republicans. The country suffered
he cracked down hard on his subjects from chronic instability, with seven governments
after they rose up in the 1905 Revolution. in two years, and the Republican Party grew in
Nicholas clung on for another 12 years, strength until its leaders launched a coup d’état.
but WWI made life for Russians even Manuel escaped on his royal yacht, which launched
more unbearable. A mutiny in Petrograd from a beach with the revolutionaries nearing. The
forced Nicholas from the throne, but the ex-king spent the rest of his life in exile, hoping in vain
revolutionaries were themselves overthrown that his nation would allow him to return.
nine months later by the Bolsheviks. The
royals served no purpose for the new regime,
and Nicholas was executed with his family

“WILHELM LOST THE

in the basement of the isolated house where
they’d been imprisoned.

SUPPORT OF THE
GENERALS AND HIS
PEOPLE, AND WAS
OVERTHROWN”

WILHELM II
Kaiser Bill
Germany, 1888 – 1918
Wilhelm’s enforced abdication marked the end
of centuries of Hohenzollern rule in Prussia and
Brandenburg – and he had nobody else to blame but himself. In March 1890,
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

the 31-year-old kaiser dismissed experienced Chancellor Otto von Bismarck

and directed his successors to make Germany a world power. Germany began
to construct an empire, built up its armed forces and flexed its muscles on
the world stage – but this “new course” upset the balance of power. Wilhelm’s
brinksmanship helped transform a local conflict in the Balkans into the First
World War, and he relinquished power to a military dictatorship during the war.
After losing the support of the generals and his people, Wilhelm was overthrown
in November 1918. He died in the Netherlands in 1941, when the land of his exile
was under German occupation in the Second World War.

51
52
PIRATE PRINCESS OF HALICARNASSUS
Praised by Herodotus, what do we really
know about the woman who stood with
Xerxes against the Greeks?
Written by Jonathan Gordon

n 480 BCE Xerxes I took on Artemisia was queen of the city state of Halicarnassus
the city states of Greece in two and it’s thanks largely to her compatriot Herodotus that we
historic battles. In one, the Battle still remember her. His record of the Battle of Salamis and
of Thermopylae, his (possibly) its surrounding history is one of our few sources on the life
300,000-strong army was triumphant, and impact of Artemisia. “Other ancient Greek and Roman
but at great cost and against what legend tells us was only historians wrote about her too, but Herodotus gushed about
300 Spartans, led by King Leonidas (estimates vary, but 7,000 her,” says Dr Katie Nelson, co-author of A History of the World
men seems more likely). Meanwhile, in the straits between the in 80 Lost Women. “He clearly deeply admired her. Plus, the
island of Salamis and the port of Piraeus, Xerxes’ navy was way he didn’t feel the need to ‘explain’ her presence tells
crushed by the Athenians at the Battle of Salamis. In neither us a lot about Persian attitudes to women at the time. The
battle did Xerxes himself take the field, but history records the absence of an explainer tells us that a female general wasn’t
names of very few of his commanders. One who stands out, so unusual that it required a long explanation of how she
having warned the emperor against a battle at sea with Athens came to be in such a role.”
and being one of the few to exit the conflict with any praise, is The facts about her life prior to the battle are sparse, to
Queen Artemisia I of Caria. say the least. We know that she ruled as regent for her son,

EXPERT BIO
DR KATIE NELSON
Dr Katie Nelson is a World Historian teaching courses
All images: © Getty Images, © Shutterstock
© Deniane Kartchner

at Weber State University while also writing, leading

tours and podcasting. Her show, What’s Her Name, is
co-hosted with Olivia Meikle, who is also co-author of
their book A History of the World in 80 Lost Women.

53
 The Battle
of Salamis
How the skilful Greeks
routed the Persian navy

LAYING THE TRAP

The Greek ships took up their
positions at dawn with an
eye to drawing the Persian
fleet into the straits between
Salamis and the Greek mainland,
allowing them as little room for
manoeuvre as possible and then
closing in on all sides.

Pisindelis, following the death of her captains, having no need so to do, save ABOVE An 1882 DRAWING THEM IN
husband, whose name has been lost. We only Artemisia, who moves me to marvel painting of the As the Persian ships approached
Battle of Salamis the Greeks, the latter began
also know that she was the daughter of greatly that a woman should have gone by Constantinos
King Lygdamis of Halicarnassus and that with the armament against Hellas,” he Volanakis to move backwards, drawing
her unnamed mother was originally from wrote in his Histories. He reveals that she Xerxes’ forces even deeper
Crete, so she was of Greek and Carian provided five ships to Xerxes’ fleet, and into the straits. This was exactly
descent. The precise start and end dates they were considered among the best that the kind of seamanship and
of her rule are less clear, but it coincided took on Athens that day. knowledge that Artemisia
with the reign of Xerxes I (486-65 BCE). Nelson points out that Artemisia’s must have feared.
We also know that her city was one of contribution and equal place at the table
the great powerhouses of the era. among Persia’s captains tells us a lot
“By the time she ruled, Halicarnassus about the differences between Greek
had been a major trade port for many and Achaemenid culture. “She was one CLOSE-QUARTERS COMBAT
centuries,” says Nelson. “It had been of his top generals, and the only female Once in position, the Greek ships
founded by the Mycenaeans, so her people general. Based on the sources we have, it BELOW Artemisia
began ramming from all sides,
would be well-versed in their own cultural was the only female closing in on the Persians and
legacy, the epic stories from the Age of commander in the turning the battle into a melee
Persian fleet
Heroes. Soon after her rule, Halicarnassus of javelins, arrows and marines
built one of the famed Ancient Wonders leaping onto Achaemenid vessels
of the World [the Mausoleum at to fight hand-to-hand.
Halicarnassus, 351 BCE], so it was a big
deal. Now it’s a major tourist destination,
Bodrum, Turkey, and people are flocking
there from across Europe again.” NO ROOM TO RUN
Beyond that, however, much about In the crush of ships much of the
Artemisia is unclear prior to her role Persian fleet is unable to turn
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

in Xerxes’ navy. As Nelson points out, effectively to make a retreat

Herodotus was clearly a fan, perhaps to gain any kind of advantage.
because having grown up in her city Chaos ensues and ships continue
he heard stories of this warrior queen to collide and become entangled
(Herodotus was about four years old when with one another. Only those
the battle took place). That said, he made who can swim stand much of
a special point of dismissing Xerxes’ a chance of getting away.
other commanders in his account of the
battle. “I name none of the rest of the

54
 Artemisia
does seem like she not only had a seat at but she chose to. She willingly sailed into
the table, but that she was as respected a storm only she saw coming.”
as the men. By all accounts, there was no While Artemisia was the only woman
‘mansplaining’ or disregard because she recorded to have taken part in the Battle
was a woman. In other words, it wasn’t a of Salamis, Nelson tells us that she was
shock or scandal to have a female general. unlikely to have been an outlier, at least
Women in ancient Persia were the most in Persian society. “I’d say [Artemisia’s
liberated in the ancient world. They were command] was about as unusual as it is
educated and entitled to own property and today to see a female military commander.
run businesses. And though it was still It was remarkable enough that Herodotus
a patriarchal society, women could rise pays her special attention (and almost
to positions of immense power.” drips with admiration), but it wasn’t so
Her presence certainly got the attention unusual that the Persians were shocked.
of the Greeks. The Athenians are thought So again, perhaps like seeing a female CEO
to have offered 1,000 drachmas (equivalent or prime minister today – remarkable, a
bit exciting and therefore watched more

“The losers used the closely, but not shocking.

“But that’s in Persia. In Athens it

wreckage of their own would’ve been unthinkable. Athenians

would have been well and truly shocked

city to build a statue to see a woman in command of anything,

let alone a fleet of ships. Athens, though

of their enemy’s conceptually democratic, was incredibly

oppressive to women. Athenian women

iconic female general”

weren’t even welcome to walk around in
public, let alone be citizens or take any
form of command.”
to three years’ wages for a workman) for The Battle of Salamis went about as
her capture, and we know she was still badly for Xerxes’ forces as Artemisia
remembered in 411 BCE because she is predicted. Drawn into a tight strait, the
referenced in the play Lysistrata. “One Persian navy was surrounded on all
legend says that ancient Sparta (another sides. The crush of vessels meant the
society of powerful women) erected a battle turned into close-quarters combat,
statue of her in their agora, built from the and Artemisia’s ship was seemingly
wreckage that the invading Persians left trapped right in the middle of this melee.
behind,” says Nelson. “It’s a wonderfully “The Persian fleet had been lured into
powerful myth: the losers used the a narrow passage and trapped by the
TOP A Greek frieze ABOVE The Battle BELOW Artemisia’s
wreckage of their own city to build a statue depicting women in of Salamis became reign after Salamis is
quicker, more agile Athenian ships,”
of their enemy’s iconic female general. You combat with men a crush of ships lost to history explains Nelson. “As the waves churned,
could analyse that all day!” the Persian ships smashed into each other
However, as mentioned earlier, and sank before Xerxes’ eyes.”
Artemisia was not in favour of engaging It was at this point that Artemisia did
the Athenians at sea. Herodotus records something that’s been portrayed as either
her objection, passed through another daring or treacherous, depending on the
of Xerxes’ trusted commanders named observer’s perspective. Pursued by an
Mardonius: “Spare your ships, and offer Athenian trireme but blocked by ships
no battle at sea; for their men are as much from the Persian fleet, she decided to ram
stronger by sea than yours, as men are through what was in front of her. The
stronger than women.” ship she crashed through was that of King
“Her words recorded by Herodotus are Damasithymus of Calyndus. “It may be that
so rich,” reflects Nelson. “What a line! she’d had some quarrel with him while
From a female general, as she disagreed they were still at the Hellespont, but if her
with all the men.” It’s important to also deed was done of set purpose, or if the
note in this objection and her subsequent Calyndian met her by crossing her path at
command in the battle that Artemisia haphazard, I cannot say,” wrote Herodotus,
appears to have been free to take part pondering whether the ramming had been
or not in what was to come. There’s no entirely accidental or not. Regardless, it
indication from Herodotus that Artemisia had two significant reactions from both
was strong-armed into engaging Athens. friend and foe that worked in her favour.
“Xerxes respected her all the more for The Athenians thought she had switched
daring to speak her mind when all others allegiances and cut off their pursuit, while
disagreed,” says Nelson. “But he didn’t Xerxes, watching from a distance, thought
take her advice. He launched the invasion, she had smashed an enemy vessel and
but gave her an out. She didn’t have to go, celebrated her brave commitment to

55
 “Xerxes summoned all his generals that Artemisia was occupied with her role
as a local leader for much of that time
ABOVE LEFT A
statue of Artemisia

to himIJthen in a symbolic gestureIJ following Salamis.

For her part, Nelson wishes Artemisia’s
in Bodrum, Turkey

ABOVE RIGHT

dismissedallof them exceȅt Artemisia” story had received more attention: “It says
so many interesting things about societies
The site where
Halicarnassus once
stood, now Bodrum
him. According to Herodotus, the king As Nelson says, firm details of what of the past. For one, her story highlights
exclaimed: “My men have become women, happened next for Artemisia are limited. the fact that the ‘role of women’ in
and my women men.” One story from the 9th century suggests history can’t be painted with a single
The Battle of Salamis was lost but that, having been rejected by a prince brush. For ancient women, there was the
Artemisia’s reputation and standing with named Dardanus, she threw herself into patriarchy of ancient Persia and there
Xerxes remained intact. “In the face of the sea, but no such legend seems to was the patriarchy of Ancient Athens at
catastrophic loss and humiliation, Xerxes appear in any earlier texts. We know that the same time. Then as now, there’s a
summoned all his generals to him, then her son Pisindelis took up his role as ruler whole spectrum of female experience in
in a symbolic gesture, dismissed all of of Caria around 460 BCE, so it’s possible patriarchal societies.”
them except Artemisia,” says Nelson. ”He
asked what he should do, and Artemisia LEFT Eva Green in
a rare portrayal of
told him to ‘GTFO’! He agreed, and tasked Artemisia in 300:
her with returning his children safely Rise of an Empire
back to Persia (there were a lot of them).
She took them on her ship and safely
delivered them to Ephesus (in modern-
day Turkey). After that, she disappears
entirely from the historical record.”
Mardonius was left behind to continue
Xerxes’ invasion of Greece, also at
Artemisia’s suggestion, and he was killed
at the Battle of Plataea the following year,
bringing the campaign to an end.
It’s believed that as reward for her
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

arc le is elso EN LOS E

bravery in the battle Artemisia received

13 M Meik tie N OM N 80 F TH
T

a full suit of Greek armour from Xerxes,

I YO

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RLD OR

which was a Greek custom to honour

ra B .99, hed liv
WO HIST

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commanders rather than a Persian

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one, but could plausibly have been a

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Carian custom too and therefore doubly

a

significant. Meanwhile, his admiral of

K
by

the fleet was given a spindle and distaff,

thought to be symbols of womanhood.

56
 Artemisia

Greek Warrior Women More female figures thought to have seen battle

Tomyris Pheretima Telesilla

Believed to be the queen of Massagetae, Queen of the Battiad Dynasty, Pheretima took Unlike the other ruling women here, Telesilla
Tomyris rejected a marriage proposal from the throne following the defeat and exile of was a poet of Argos, but when her city was
Cyrus II then faced him in battle to defend her her son around 518 BCE. He was later killed under attack from the Spartans she is said
realm from his overtures. Herodotus writes and she laid siege to Barca, where his killers to have organised the women, elderly and
that Tomyris led her troops in battle, and were thought to be hiding. According to children of Argos to force back the enemy
some accounts say Cyrus died in the fighting. Herodotus, the siege lasted for nine months. after they defeated the men in the field.

57
 10 GREATEST CHINESE INVENTIONS
Ancient China was a melting pot
of advanced technologies and
ingenious innovations
Written by Peter Fenech
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

58
 1 Paper
It’s hard to imagine a world without paper. It’s
an essential resource in almost every aspect of
modern life, from supermarket receipts to sensitive
government documents. The history of paper is
fascinating, and like many great inventions its
birthplace was China. It was first crafted in Lei-Yang
during the Han dynasty in 105 CE by Ts’ai Lun, a
court official. While early humans used rudimentary
symbols applied to cave walls, paper enabled
widespread communication and record-keeping,
transforming how we pass information geographically
and between generations. The initial process likely
involved the pulping of hemp, waste rag fibres and
the bark of mulberry trees, but the Chinese refined
the process further, creating textured and coated
papers, even innovating insect-resistant
materials and the use of plant-based
types, specifically from bamboo. It
may seem a modest invention, but it
took a further 800 years to reach
Europe, and without paper,
literature, history, education
and entertainment as we
know it simply would
not exist. You certainly
wouldn’t be reading
this magazine.

2
Gunpowder
As with many inventions, gunpowder was
created during the search for an unrelated item,
in this case a medicine capable of extending
human life. Stumbled upon by Chinese monks
in the 9th century CE while experimenting
with the medicinal properties of saltpetre
(potassium nitrate), it didn’t take long for
the militaristic applications to be embraced.
Gunpowder as we know it today is a blend of
saltpetre, carbon (charcoal) and sulphur in
a ratio of 75:15:10, although the recipe has gone
through multiple revisions over the centuries.
As its use spread through the Middle East to
Europe, the addition of a liquid to the mixture
to form a paste created a more stable product,
which could be ground more effectively. This
safer, more reliable powder has transformed
the landscape of modern warfare, leading to
the development of complex weapon designs,
as well as the application of pyrotechnics in
fireworks and even theatre.

59
 3 Movable-type printing
Just as the invention of paper had an enormous impact on human communication
and record-keeping, so too did the printing process. Before mass printing
techniques, books and complex documents had to be scribed and copied by hand,
which was a time-consuming and expensive process. Next came block printing,
where an entire wooden block was engraved with a page of type, then inked and
pressed onto paper. In the 11th century, Chinese inventor Bi Sheng (990 – 1051)
developed movable type. With this method, each character was carved
into clay blocks, which could be rearranged as necessary, ink applied
and paper pressed against them. This was a far cheaper option since
mistakes were much easier to correct without having to start a
whole page block from scratch. By around 1297, inventor Wang
Zhen had introduced wooden moveable type, a more durable
option than Bi Sheng’s fragile clay. These early printing
presses paved the way for literary mass production,
enabling the creation of larger books in higher
volumes, quickly and cost-effectively.

4 Compass
Another aspect of modern life we take for granted is knowing which
direction we are facing. It’s an essential function that enabled ancient
human civilisations to venture far beyond their immediate environment,
away from recognisable landmarks and well-trodden routes. During
the Han dynasty, in approximately 220 BCE, Chinese alchemists
noticed that magnetite ore always pointed to a fixed north.
They constructed a rudimentary device consisting
of a spoon-like pointer made from lodestone or
magnetite ore (referred to as a ‘south pointer’)
placed upon a bronze ‘heaven plate’ marked
with 24 directions. The handle-like
protrusion of the spoon pointed south.
While this early compass was proven
to work fairly well, by the emergence
of the Tang dynasty (7th–8th
century CE) a more effective system
was in place that used magnetised
iron needles rubbed with magnetite
ore and suspended in water. These
needle compasses were portable
enough for maritime navigation, and
by the Song dynasty (1000 CE) trading
vessels could range as far as Saudi Arabia.
All images: © Getty Images

60
 5 Mechanical clock
A mechanical clock, while less accurate than an astronomical clock, allows
us to tell the time at any point during the day or night and in any weather
conditions. First invented by the Buddhist monk Yi Xing in the year 725,
the early clock made use of dripping water that slowly turned a wheel
through one full revolution in 24 hours. This was neither a traditional
water clock, which used the water level to tell the time, nor was it
intended as a clock but rather an astronomical instrument. Several
hundred years later, between 1086 and 1092, Chinese engineer
Su Song developed a metal cog mechanism that he called
his “Cosmic Engine”, which more closely resembled the
modern clock. It even had a chime that sounded on the
hour. This time-measuring tool paved the way for
the development of complex technologies, from
navigation instruments to modern computer
networks and Global Positioning Systems.

6 Silk
Silk is a natural protein fibre that has found
widespread use in textiles due to its attractive
reflective properties and strength. Industrial silk
production can be traced back to neolithic China,
around the 4th millennium BCE. The earliest example of
silk fabric was a child’s burial shroud found in Qingtaicun
near Xingyang, Henan province. Legend depicts Princess Xi
Lingshi discovering that cocoons of the mulberry silkworm

7
bombyx mori could be unravelled into threads when one fell
into her tea as she sat below a mulberry tree. The process of
silk production began with rearing domesticated bombyx
larvae, soaking their cocoons and weaving the silk threads
Alcohol
on a loom. For almost 1,000 years China monopolised silk Alcohol production and consumption are
production before the opening of the Silk Road to the west, widely considered to be almost universal
where it became a symbol of wealth. As well as clothing, silk practices across human cultures. As recently
has also been used for writing on due to its ink-absorption as 2013, analysis of ancient pottery discovered
properties, for home decoration and even for making in Henan province indicated alcoholic
parachutes and bicycle tyres. beverages brewed from rice, honey, grapes
and hawthorn fruit were being produced in
China almost 9,000 years ago. By the late
Shang dynasty (1600–1050 BCE) there were
bone inscription records of diverse types of
alcoholic drinks, including beer with
an alcohol content of around five
percent. While mostly viewed
today as a recreational substance,
it is believed that drinking alcohol
played a critical role in societal
structure and politics. Ancient
people drank to ‘commune with
the gods’ and the dead in the ‘spirit
realm’, while royal houses used wine
Image source: wiki/PD/The Yorck Project

to forge political relationships. Today,

the global alcoholic drinks industry is
worth an estimated US$1,176 billion,
with countries such as America
seeing an increasing demand for
a diverse array of craft beers.

61
 10 Iron smelting
Despite some evidence that suggests some smelting skills diff used into China from
the west, the pre-existing knowledge of furnace technology the Chinese possessed
certainly enabled them to independently develop quality iron-smelting techniques.
The earliest examples of iron in China date from the 8th century BCE,
significantly before evidence of European production. This type of iron was
likely too brittle to be used for a wide variety of functions, but by the 5th
century BCE annealing processes (slowly cooling a heated substance)
allowed for strengthened iron. By the time of the Wei dynasty (386–
535 CE), metallurgist Qiwu Huaiwen had discovered how to use
wrought iron and cast iron in the manufacture of steel. Private
iron-making was banned, creating a state monopoly, and from
this point iron production techniques flourished and spread across
the globe. Along with general furnace technology, smelting fuelled the
Industrial Revolution in Europe.

8 Toothbrush
One of the earliest records of a device used for dental cleaning dates
from 1223 and was made by Japanese Zen master Dōgen Kigen, who was
travelling through China. It is thought, however, that such a tool was
being used as early as the Tang dynasty (619–907). The humble bristle
toothbrush, in a form we might recognise today, came into being in
China in the 15th century. It was originally made up of a handle crafted
from animal bone or bamboo, with bristles made from Siberian hog

Image source: wiki/PD/Rifleman 82

hair. The hair itself, being sourced from animals inhabiting the cold
northern Chinese climate, was stiff and ideally suited for use as
a brush. When Europeans brought toothbrushes back to the
Continent, hog hair was replaced by horse-tail hair, which
was preferred by Westerners because it was softer. By the
20th century, electric toothbrush designs had further
transformed dental hygiene.

6
Umbrella
The fi rst mention of a collapsible paper umbrella dates from 21 CE,
in a reference to one made for the chariot of the Emperor Wang
Mang of the Xin dynasty (9–23 CE). This type of umbrella
is said to have been constructed with articulated joints
that enabled the material to be extended and retracted
and, while this does not specifically reference a
collapsible nature, such an example was found at
the burial site of Wang Guang, Wang Mang’s son.
Brass joints dating from as far back as the 6th century
BCE have also been found, meaning their use in the
movement of an umbrella was certainly possible. Silk Chinese
umbrellas were commonly sold as luxuriously painted fashion
All images: © Getty Images

accessories for the wealthy. Chinese paper umbrellas are also an

iconic feature of the Terracotta Army, found in the tomb of Emperor
Qin (221–207 BCE), suggesting the umbrella was an integral part of
the fabric of ancient Chinese society.

62
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 Greatest Battles

O
n 6 June 1944, the long-anticipated
Allied assault on occupied France took
place along an 80km front – however the
amphibious landings were confined to
roughly 19km of beaches across five areas. One
of the smallest landing areas was the easternmost,
where the British 3rd Infantry Division would land
on Queen White and Red beaches alongside the
town of Ouistreham.
Sword Beach would be a tough nut to crack. The
beach itself was well defended by the formidable
stützpunkt 20, codenamed strongpoint Cod by the
British, a significant company-sized fortification
and the largest single strongpoint on all five
OUISTREHAM, FRANCE Normandy beaches. To the east widerstandsnest

6 JUNE 1944 18 (Skate) was equipped with a 75mm anti-tank

All images: © Alamy

gun that could fire down the length of the beach,

while widerstandsnest 21 (Trout) a little to the
Written by Stephen Fisher west could bring fire down on the attackers’ right

64
 MAIN Medics attend
to the wounded while
taking cover behind
a Churchill tank
BELOW British
commandos of
1st Special Service
Brigade landing on
Queen Red sector
of Sword Beach

flank. A little recognised fact is that, although 185th Infantry Brigade would come ashore and the east a new threat emerged from the smoke
considerably narrower than Omaha Beach, the push rapidly south in the direction of Caen, hoping screen laid by overhead aircraft. Three destroyer-
average strength of the defences per kilometre to secure the city by nightfall. Meanwhile 9th sized torpedo boats of Korvetten-kapitän Henrich
was practically the same on Sword. Infantry Brigade, the reserve formation, would push Hoffman’s 5th Torpedo Boat Flotilla loomed
Unlike Omaha, Sword was relatively low-lying southwest to cover the right flank and link up with out of the swirling mists and immediately the
and the attackers would not have to contend with Canadian troops moving inland from Juno. Allied warships’ guns were brought to bear on the
the high bluffs that characterised the US beach. But German vessels. At 5:15am HMS Ramillies opened
unlike Omaha, 3rd Infantry Division would have THE INVASION BEGINS fire and for the next ten minutes great geysers of
to deal with significant defences inland as well. At 2:50am, the first minesweepers arrived at the water erupted around the torpedo boats. Then, as
Once off the beach, several artillery strongpoints Lowering Position 14.5km off Queen Beach. For the soon as they were within range, Hoffman turned
and command posts barred the way, the strongest next few hours, the sailing groups began to arrive his boats beam-on and let loose a volley of 16
of which was widerstandsnest 17 (Hillman). Set and arrange themselves for the assault. At 5am torpedoes. As the Germans scurried back into the
into the broad Periers ridge 3km inland, it boasted the troopships were entering the designated area smoke, the ships of Force S took avoiding action,
numerous underground bunkers, steel cupolas and and preparing to lower their boats, while overhead but the Norwegian destroyer HNoMS Svenner was
anti-tank guns. Moreover, its strength had been dozens of aircraft droned past on their way to too late – a torpedo slammed into it amidships and
badly underestimated by Allied intelligence. bomb Ouistreham. within minutes its back was broken.
The British plan was a three-part assault. The first On the left flank the battleships and cruisers There was no time for the fleet to mourn
wave, led by 8th Infantry Brigade, would secure the of Force D took their places to begin bombarding Svenner’s loss – already the landing craft were
beaches and the first towns inland. Behind them, the larger coastal batteries, but beyond them to setting course for Queen Beach. At the forefront

65
 Greatest Battles

01

01 Operation
Neptune begins
At 11:30pm on 25 May 1944, Admiral
Bertram Ramsay issues the order that
Operation Neptune is to be carried
out. Ten days later, in the early hours
of 4 June, D-Day is postponed by
24 hours, then at 9:45am on Monday
5 June the first convoys of Force S set
sail from the Solent.

02 6th Airborne
drop in
Just after midnight on 6 June, ‘D’
Company, 2nd (Airborne) Battalion,
Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire
Light Infantry land by parachute near
Ranville and capture key bridges
over the Orne River and Caen canal,
codenamed Pegasus and Horsa. These
bridges are key to keeping open a
route eastwards from Sword sector.
06 04

03
03 First bombs fall
At 5am on 6 June, 106
Lancaster Bombers of 3 Group RAF 07 05
bomb Ouistreham and the coastal
battery at stützpunkt 8. Despite
dropping some 500 tons of bombs,
the battery is only lightly damaged.

04 H-HourAt 7:26am, just one minute

behind schedule, the first landing
craft ground on Queen White and
Red Beaches and disembark the
assault infantry and armour onto the
sand. Immediately the defenders of
09
strongpoint Cod open fire on them. It 02
will take the attackers several hours
to neutralise the defensive position.

08
05 Securing
the flanks
At 8:20am 4 Commando,
accompanied by two troops of
French commandos, begin their
advance on Ouistreham. For the
next few hours they are engaged
in the most significant urban
fighting in Normandy on D-Day,
eventually ensuring stützpunkt 8
is no threat to the invasion.

06 The defenders
07 Hillman 08 Enter the
09 Lebisey
Map: The Map Archive

respond At 1pm the Panzers At 5:30pm the

At approximately 10am the first Suffolk Regiment Shortly after 4pm, armoured units King’s Shropshire Light
counter-attack begins as 3 Battalion begins its first attack of 21 Panzer Division counter- Infantry begin their
736 Grenadier Regiment, supported on widerstandsnest 17. attack from the north of Caen. advance on Lebisey, but
by self-propelled guns, advances on The significant German Although two columns are quickly without support from the
Lion-sur-Mer where 41 Commando is strongpoint, codenamed repulsed, their attack further stalls units held up elsewhere
fighting to secure the landing’s west Hillman, holds up the the advance of the British forward the attack falters. That
flank. Their action eventually forces advance of several units. A third column manages to evening the infantry
the commandos to withdraw to the battalions for the next penetrate to the coast and reinforce withdraw. Lebisey is not
eastern end of the town. seven hours. the garrison at Lion-sur-Mer. taken until July.

66
 Sword Beach
An M10 Wolverine self-
propelled gun of 20th
Anti-Tank Regiment

Field Marshall Erwin

Rommel inspects the
defences in northern
France, 1944

on board LCH 185, Commander Edmund Currey self-propelled 105mm guns from the decks of burning vehicle on the landing craft ramp fought
studied the sea state. On his shoulders rested the their landing craft. As they neared the shore the to dislodge it the other AVRE troops came ashore,
responsibility of launching the swimming DD support landing craft joined the fray, including several succumbing to anti-tank fire. Around
Sherman tanks that would lead the first waves of the fearsome Landing Craft Rockets, sending them the DD tanks landed and sat in the shallows,
landing craft to the shore. As he lead the invasion thousands of screeching rockets towards the pouring fire into houses and strongpoints as the
force south he was relieved to see that while beach. Above them hundreds of American B-17 waves lapped around their tracks. On the right flank
not perfect, the conditions were not so bad and, bombers roared overhead, dropping thousands of the 1st South Lancashire Battalion raced across the
as they got nearer, he decided to proceed about tons of bombs on strongpoints along the shore and sand and began breaching the barbed wire obstacles
1.6km closer to the shore before launching the inland. Finally, when the leading craft were only blocking the beach exits, but on the left the 2nd
tanks from their landing craft. 1km from the shore, a squadron of Royal Canadian East Yorkshire Battalion faced the strong defences
At 6:30am the leading landing craft launched Air Force Typhoons roared down and dropped of Cod and Skate. Casualties mounted as withering
34 DD tanks into the sea. Two quickly succumbed their bombs onto strongpoint Cod. fire was directed on the assault troops and very few
to the waves but the rest of these unlikely vessels Almost as quickly as it began, the bombardment complete units reached the top of the beach where
struck out for the shore. Behind them the landing ceased, just as the leading tanks and landing craft they could start to clear the barbed wire.
craft carrying the assault infantry and the Hobart’s approached the shore. But as soon as it did, the As the assault troops battled for the beach,
Funnies Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers German defenders who had sheltered in their the follow-up units started to land. On the far
(AVRE) closed up. bunkers emerged and manned their guns. A storm left flank, 4 Commando came ashore in front of
A few minutes later, the bombardment started. of shot and shell greeted the attackers as they Skate and were instantly in action against the
A dozen destroyers opened fire on 13km of ground up on the sand. strongpoint. Along the length of the beach landing
shoreline, their 120mm shells hitting bunkers, The effect was immediate. As it came ashore, the craft brought another squadron of tanks, but
strongpoints, trenches and reinforced houses. landing craft flotilla leader was hit by several shells only one beach exit had so far been cleared. As
Behind the leading landing craft the guns of and the commander of the AVRE assault squadrons the tide raced in the beach narrowed and traffic
three artillery regiments opened up, firing their was killed. While the tanks trapped behind his jams grew as tanks, artillery, armoured cars and

“AS THE TIDE RACED IN, SWORD BEACH NARROWED

AND TRAFFIC JAMS OF ALLIED ARMOUR GREW”
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Allied troops and a DD

Sherman advance towards
Ouistreham on 6 June

67
 Greatest Battles

trucks sought to find dry sand and shelter from On the right flank, 41 Commando pushed the bridges over the Caen Canal and Orne River,
the shelling and mortar fire raining down on the into Lion-sur-Mer, their objective to secure the from where they would advance onto the heights
beach. Meanwhile the assault troops were pushing town and link up with 47 Commando advancing overlooking Merville and Franceville-Plage.
through the defences and slowly surrounding from Juno Beach. As the commandos advanced Pushing ahead of the advancing infantry, the
and overwhelming the opposition. Spared the they ran into strongpoint Trout, whose well- commandos cut a path through German defences
attention of the anti-tank guns the AVRE began sited positions quickly rebuffed them. Three between Colleville and Benouville as they raced
to clear more exits, but it was slow work. AVREs were summoned, but as they advanced towards the bridges, which were thinly held by the
Having cleared the beach, at 8:20am 4 along the main road towards the strongpoint airborne forces that had captured them overnight.
Commando began their advance on Ouistreham. they were picked off by an anti-tank gun. Then Shortly after midday the leading commandos
Led by two troops of Free French commandos, a strong German counter-attack pushed back reached the bridges and advanced.
the men ran down the exposed 1.6km straight 41 Commando’s forward units and the Royal Meanwhile, 1st Suffolk Battalion pushed into
road into the town, coming under increasingly Marines were forced to fall back to the eastern Colleville, securing another German battery that
heavy mortar and sniper fire as they did so. The edge of the town, only 0.8km from the edge threatened the beaches. But as they advanced on
two French troops peeled off and Commandant of the landing area itself. The invading forces strongpoint Hillman their progress faltered. The
Kieffer took 1 Troop to neutralise the site of the wouldn’t progress any further west on D-Day. German regimental HQ was much stronger than
town’s old casino, since demolished and turned While the commandos secured the flanks, 8th they had expected, and machine gun positions in
into a blockhouse. Meanwhile 4 Commando Infantry Brigade pushed south, and while the South armoured cupolas thwarted the first attack. With the
advanced to the east end of the town and turned to Lancashires secured the town of Hermanville the position dominating the ridge on which it sat, only
attack the coastal artillery position at stützpunkt East Yorks advanced up to two strongpoints. Dozens one battalion of infantry – the 1st King’s Shropshire
8. Although it had already been bombed and fired of German soldiers had fallen back to stützpunkt Light Infantry (KSLI) from 185th Infantry Brigade –
on by HMS Frobisher, it was essential to make sure 14, codenamed Sole, where they desperately tried to was able to push past unmolested, while their fellow
the battery’s 155mm guns were neutralised. After hold out against the British attacks. battalions in the brigade were forced to wait for
rushing the outer defences the commando troops Eventually forced back into the command Hillman to be neutralised. Supported by tanks of the
spread out to attack the gun positions, but were bunker, their fanatical commander tried to hold Staffordshire Yeomanry, the KSLI advanced into the
astounded to find them empty. After numerous out for as long as he could, until the Yorkshiremen villages of Beuville and Bieville, but what was meant
air attacks the preceding week, the Germans had brought up a flamethrower. In between them, 1 to be a brigade-sized thrust on Caen was now a slim
already withdrawn the guns inland. Special Service Brigade began its advance towards and badly understrength push inland.

Obstacles, dubbed Rommel’s

Asparagus, were designed to
hinder approaching landing craft

Troops and vehicles from the

185th Brigade Group, 3rd Infantry
Division, British Second Army

68
 Sword Beach

Meanwhile, the reserve brigade of infantry was

coming ashore, but 9th Infantry Brigade’s arrival “WITH FRESH GERMAN RESERVES back, Once the defenders of Lion-sur-Mer had pulled
the British were able to fill the gap to their
was complicated by the traffic jams caused by the
narrow beach and the congestion that had built up
ALREADY ARRIVING IN THE INVASION Juno. But with their advance so badly hampered
west and link up with the Canadian forces from

over the last few hours. With the entire right flank AREA, A NEW FRONTLINE WAS the previous day, and with fresh German reserves
at risk of crumbling, two of the battalions were
deployed to shore up the line facing west, while the ESTABLISHED NORTH OF CAEN. IT wasalready arriving in the invasion area, a new frontline
established north of Caen. It would be a month
third was despatched to strengthen the centre. 1st
WOULD BE A MONTH BEFORE THE before the Allies could advance into the city.

ALLIES COULD ADVANCE INTO THE CITY” well-defended landing area had caused in the region
Suffolks made a second attack on Hillman while Sword Beach had been a difficult battle. The
2nd East Yorks launched their attack on the final
battery firing on the beaches, but it was not until the of 600 casualties on the beach alone (the same
evening that both fell. to Lion-sur-Mer. But deprived of the tanks in the average number of casualties the Americans took
The two battalions of 185th Infantry Brigade tried other two columns there was little they could do, per 1.5km on Omaha Beach), and the small landing
to outflank Hillman, but the 1st Norfolk Battalion and fearing the gap would close behind them they area caused congestion for the following waves,
took heavy casualties and the 2nd Warwickshire withdrew south that evening. who were not able to deploy inland as quickly as
Battalion went so far east that they were unable to With the counter-attack blunted, 1 KSLI bravely needed. The German counter-attack – the only
reach 1 KSLI to support their advance. attempted to secure the Lebisey ridge themselves, armoured counter-attack anywhere in Normandy
Shortly after 4pm a new threat emerged as but the single battalion was unable to make on D-Day – further stalled the advance, but well-
nearly 100 armoured vehicles from 21 Panzer any headway. As darkness fell they withdrew to deployed British units were able to repulse it before
Division counter-attacked out of Caen. Although positions around Bieville. it could reach the beaches, where the tanks would
thinly stretched, the anti-tank guns of 1 KSLI and surely have caused carnage. Despite not taking Caen
their supporting Shermans from the Staffordshire AFTERMATH on D-Day, 3rd Infantry Division had managed to
Yeomanry were well-placed to repulse two of the The following morning, supported by 1 Warwicks secure a strong presence on the eastern flank of the
columns advancing north and the Germans beat a who were finally able to reach them, 1 KSLI launched invasion area, link up with the airborne forces east
hasty retreat to dig in on the Lebisey ridge between a second attack on Lebisey, but this was similarly of the river and protect the beaches from German
the British and Caen. A third column exploited the blunted and the British were forced to occupy armour. It was a resounding victory and a key part
gap left open between Sword and Juno and raced a defensive line to the north. of the overall success of Operation Neptune.

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Part of the German strongpoint Cod can be

seen in the background as troops take cover

69
 What If…

John F Kennedy’s presidency was defined by several crises. If Richard

Nixon had been elected, how would he have handled these events?

O
n Tuesday 8 November 1960, the Ultimately, why do you think JFK man had what it took to be president of
INTERVIEW WITH United States voted in its 35th triumphed over Nixon? the United States. But there are a variety of
president: John F Kennedy of the In any close election, you can point to a reasons why Kennedy prevailed in the end.
Democratic Party. He was inaugurated number of different factors as being decisive
on 20 January 1961. However, less than three – that’s the very nature of close elections. How close was the result?
© Martha Stewart

years later the 46-year-old was killed by an An obvious explanation is that the country It was extremely close, less so in the electoral
assassin’s bullet while riding in a motorcade had more self-described Democrats than college, but with the popular vote in
in Dallas, Texas. His presidency was defined Republicans, so Kennedy already had an particular. If Illinois and Texas had swung to
FREDRIK by a number of dramatic moments in world advantage. Nixon, however, also had an Nixon, he would have been elected president.
LOGEVALL history, including crises in Berlin and Cuba. advantage in that he was following a popular There have been suggestions that there were
Logevall is Laurence His opponent in 1960, Republican Richard [Republican] incumbent. He could claim shenanigans by the Democrats in Illinois but
D Belfer Professor of Nixon, served as president between 1969 and that they were going to continue where the even if that were true, it still wouldn’t have
International Affairs 1974 but resigned after the fallout from the President Dwight D Eisenhower years left off been enough. Nixon would have needed, for
at Harvard University.
He is the author of Watergate scandal. Given the wildly different and it would be a powerful statement. More example, Texas as well.
JFK: Coming of Age in nature of both men, as well as their respective broadly, the economy was in pretty good
the American Century,
1917-1956 (Random
legacies, the imagination runs wild when we shape in the autumn of 1960 – giving Nixon What would it have taken for Nixon to
House, 2020) and ask: what if Kennedy had lost the incredibly yet another advantage. So maybe that evened win the election?
Embers of War: The close 1960 election? things out. However, the four televised What would Nixon have changed if he could
Fall of an Empire
and the Making of debates really helped Kennedy. They assured have gone back and done it [the campaign]
America’s Vietnam What was the state of US politics in voters that this less experienced, younger again? I think he would have done more
(Random House, November 1960?
2012).
It would be fair to characterise the United
States in November of 1960 as being in a
kind of politics of consensus, with not a lot
separating at least the dominant wings of
the two parties. Of course, on the right there
was a radical wing beginning to emerge and
in the Democratic Party there were liberals
who were unhappy with Kennedy, preferring
Adlai Stevenson. They chastised what
they saw as Kennedy’s lack of true liberal
credentials but, again, that wasn’t dominant
within the party. Finally, African-American
activists and voters were understandably
clamouring for change and both parties, at
All Images: © Getty Images

RIGHT The 1960 US

election was extremely their conventions, were progressive and
close – in the poplar advocated for serious change in terms of civil
vote Nixon (pictured)
trailed JFK by fewer rights. So even there, there isn’t a great deal
than 120,000 votes separating the two parties.

70
71
 What If…

THE PAST
SEPT – OCT 1960
DEBATE DIVIDE
The 1960 election marked the first
time that televised debates between
the two presidential candidates took
place. Four debates occurred, between
26 September and 21 October, with the
first of these achieving an estimated 70
million viewers. They were simultaneously
broadcast on all four networks and
were shown without commercials. The
importance of these TV debates cannot be
overstated – some have even argued that
a key factor in Kennedy’s victory was his
charisma and natural good looks, which
came across well on television.

1960
A STOLEN VICTORY? to woo African-American voters, he would ABOVE The 1960 deliberations with the Executive Committee
Following the election, Nixon suspected election saw the
he may have been cheated out of the have focused his attention more on the of the National Security Council that he was
first televised
presidency. Illinois (which he lost) industrial states in the North rather than on debates between almost alone in wishing to find a political
was one of the most hotly the South, and I think he would have taken two nominees for solution to the crisis. He was getting pressure
contested states, and the the US presidency
back his somewhat foolish pledge to visit all from military and civilian advisors to opt for
controversy was not
helped by the fact that
50 states. More importantly, I think Nixon military force. It seems to me far less likely
Chicago Mayor Richard should have made sure that Eisenhower that President Nixon would have resisted
Daley was a staunch came out and actively campaigned for him the use of such force. However, we should
Kennedy supporter. sooner than he did. I think it could have acknowledge that the [Soviet] decision to
Daley was also
made a huge difference because when put the missiles in Cuba was partly because
accused of fraudulent
activity in Cook County, Eisenhower finally did hit the campaign of policy by the Kennedy administration
where the number trail, Nixon began to make up ground in the leading up to October 1962. We can see
of Kennedy votes was polls quite dramatically. Finally, I would say the beginning of this with the Bay of Pigs
seen as ‘abnormal’. Over the Nixon should have refused to debate. It was in 1961 (a plan hatched under Eisenhower
decades, historians have investigated and
re-investigated the 1960 election and
not something that had happened before and Nixon but nevertheless taking place
little evidence has appeared to prove the in American politics and I think it’s worth under Kennedy) and other various efforts
vote was rigged. Had Kennedy lost Illinois noting that in 1968 and in 1972 he did refuse, to destabilise the Fidel Castro government
it is unlikely it would have changed the probably because of his experience in 1960. in Cuba. So perhaps without Kennedy we
outcome of the election and, similarly,
He thought he was a really good debater and wouldn’t have even had the crisis? But
the number of votes Kennedy received
in Cook County was as predicted. he thought he could take Kennedy, but in assuming that we do, which I think is also a
hindsight it was a poor decision. reasonable assumption, Nixon most likely
would have opted for a military solution.
22 NOV 1963 One of the most defining moments of
JFK’s presidency was the Cuban Missile Nixon’s premiership was defined by the
Crisis. How do you think Nixon would corruption of the Watergate scandal. Do
ASSASSINATION have handled this event?
My guess is that Nixon would have opted
you think that similar activities would
have occurred if he had won in 1960?
On the 22 November 1963, three years
after his election victory, President for a military solution. Most likely he would I don’t know the answer to that question.
John F Kennedy was murdered. He was have used at least American air power to He was somewhat prone to paranoia with
riding in a motorcade through downtown
pick out the missile sites, but he may even respect to his opponents. I also think he
Dallas, Texas, when he was shot several
times. Shortly after his arrival at the have considered an invasion. We know generally mistrusted the news media,
Parkland Memorial Hospital, Kennedy that as vice president he often counselled and those views were there long before
was pronounced dead. The assassin was the use of military force. For example, in he became president. That might have
named as Lee Harvey Oswald, although 1954, when the French were facing defeat inclined him to engage in some of the
in subsequent years various conspiracy
theories regarding who was behind the
in Indochina, Nixon strongly advocated for same kinds of activities that we see in the
assassination have surfaced, though no the use of at least air power to try to save the Watergate scandal. Nixon’s chief national
concrete evidence has emerged. French position. We know from Kennedy’s security aide, Henry Kissinger, was prone

72
 Nixon Had Won the 1960 Election?

THE POSSIBILITY
1960
WIN WITH EISENHOWER?
Logevall suggests that if Eisenhower had
embarked on the campaign trail sooner, it
may have helped Nixon win. The two men
had a slightly fractured relationship and
it has been claimed that Eisenhower was
angered by the decision to limit his role
in the campaigning. Had Nixon involved
Eisenhower more, would he have won?

to the same kind of thinking and possibly ABOVE Would the a Cold War between Russia and the United
expansion of US
the Watergate scandal required the two of involvement in Vietnam States. With respect to Vietnam, I have
them. But it’s difficult to say. have been accelerated argued (although we can never know for
under a 1960 Nixon
sure) that a surviving Kennedy would likely
administration?
The assassination of JFK is one of the have avoided the large-scale escalation of
defining moments of the 20th century. the war in the way that Lyndon Johnson, his
If this had never occurred, what do you successor, embarked upon. Which of course 1962
think would have been the impact on the has extraordinary implications.
American political landscape?
In this situation we have to ask, having In terms of policy, would a Nixon CALAMITY IN CUBA?
lost in 1960 would Kennedy have made a presidency in 1960 have changed much? The Cuban Missile Crisis was a defining
run for the nomination in 1964? And if so, I don’t think it would have meant a great deal moment of Kennedy’s presidency. When
many recommended military action, it was
would he have won the nomination and domestically. As I said before, I think they’re Kennedy’s most trusted advisor – his brother
then been a strong candidate for the general both centrist in their views on domestic Robert – who supported a naval blockade
election that November? If he takes office as policy and I think under a President Nixon and a diplomatic solution. In his role as vice
president in January of 1965, then it raises you would have had a lot of continuity from president (1952-60), Nixon often advocated
for military action, so if he’d been president
interesting questions regarding some of the Eisenhower administration. You would
he may have chosen a military solution in
the important policy issues he would have have had Democrats in Congress putting Cuba. While Kennedy’s response led to an
faced. Where would we be with respect to obstacles in the way of some of the things easing of tension during the Cold War, could
the war in Vietnam? In respect to the Cold that Nixon wanted to achieve, but I can’t Nixon’s hawkish approach have led to even
War? In respect to civil rights? To twist it see that there would have been wholesale greater animosity between the Soviet Union
and the United States?
slightly, if Kennedy is already president changes on the domestic side. Regarding
and had come back from Dallas alive, what foreign policy, there’s maybe more room
would that have meant? Well, I do think
he would have won the election in 1964 and
for differentiation, because it’s a very tense
time in the Cold War. Kennedy faced a lot
1965
would have had another term. This has big of crises in 1961. I do think that the Bay of
implications in foreign policy. He and [Soviet
leader] Nikita Khrushchev had begun to take
Pigs invasion would have occurred but it’s
likely that Nixon would have gone in more
INTERVENTION IN VIETNAM?
Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B Johnson,
important steps to reduce the tensions in robustly there, using American military escalated US involvement in Vietnam to
the superpower relationship. Maybe with a power. Likewise, with the Berlin Crisis of full-scale military intervention. But Johnson
surviving Kennedy they would have taken 1961, it’s fascinating to think about what a soon found himself with a thorny dilemma,
further steps in that direction, maybe to President Nixon would have done. Vietnam stating to Senator Eugene McCarthy in
1968: “I know we oughtn’t to be there, but
a degree that we could no longer refer to too is an interesting question. It’s certainly I can’t get out.” In 1973, Nixon implemented
very possible that with Nixon in the White a peace agreement with North Vietnam.
House the expansion of US involvement But fighting continued and North Vietnam

“It seems less likely that Nixon in Vietnam that happened under Kennedy emerged victorious, with the country unified
All images: © Getty Images

on 2 July 1976. Given Nixon’s history, had

would have been accelerated under Nixon,
would’ve resisted calls to use perhaps resulting in an Americanised war
he been president in 1960 would he have
pushed for US military intervention sooner?
in Vietnam earlier than you ultimately saw
force in the Cuban Missile Crisis” under Johnson.

73
 Through History

REPRESENTATION
The Handsworth Self Portrait project
began in 1979 and was organised by
Derek Bishton, Brian Horner and John
Reardon to capture photographs of the
multicultural community in Handsworth,
Birmingham. Bishton said they wanted to
“create [a] sense of empowerment and
to bring people in from the margins”.
Ting A Ling, from Handsworth Self Portraits, 1979 © Derek Bishton,
Brian Homer & John Reardon. Courtesy The Bodleian Libraries,
University of Oxford.

PHOTOGRAPHING
BRITAIN
A new exhibition showcases
brilliant UK photography
from the 1980s
74
 Photographing Britain

A
new exhibition at Tate Britain in London
is showcasing nearly 350 works from 70
artists and collectives to demonstrate
the power of photography in relation to
the political, social and cultural landscape of

Jason Evans, Simon Foxton, [No title] From the series Strictly, 1991. Tate: Presented anonymously 2001. © Jason Evans
1980s Britain.
The 80s: Photographing Britain highlights
the beauty and importance of the camera in
this decade, and how photography became
a means for representation and expression.
Powerful imagery of events like the miners’
strikes, conflict in Northern Ireland and anti-
racism demonstrations are featured, as well
as works influenced by and responding to the
Margaret Thatcher years, the AIDS pandemic,
gentrification and counterculture movements.
Other photographs on display shine a
spotlight on under-represented groups and
depict “Black arts movement, queer experience,
South Asian diaspora and the representation
of women in photography”. Encapsulating the
diverse mood and atmosphere of the 1980s, the
exhibition is as beautiful as it is fascinating.

DEFYING
STEREOTYPES
One of a series of
portraits by photographer
Jason Evans and stylist
Simon Foxton, this image
was commissioned by i-D
magazine for a project
that captured photos of
young Black men dressed
as “country gents”. Evans
said they were “trying to
break down stereotypes”
Melanie Friend, Greenham Common, 14 December 1985, 1985, reprinted 2023. © Melanie Friend, Format Photographers

with the pictures.

FEMALE
PHOTOGRAPHY
Melanie Friend, a
member of the women-
only Format Photography
Agency formed in 1983,
captured this image
from the Greenham
Common Women’s
Peace Camp in 1985.
Format photographers
documented the women’s
protests against nuclear
weapons stationed at the
RAF base in Berkshire.

75
 Through History

Peter Fraser, Untitled, from Arnolfini Series, 1984 © Peter Fraser. All Rights Reserved, DACS Artimage 2024
Chris Killip, ‘Critch’ and Sean,1982. Tate © Chris Killip

EXTRAORDINARY FROM MUNDANE

COMMUNITIES TO SUBLIME
Chris Killip was fascinated by the Part of the Arnolfini series of
seacoaling community (people who collect photographs by Peter Fraser, this
shards of coal from the sea then sell them) untitled image showcases his use of
at Lynemouth Beach in Northumberland. bright colour to create a captivating
He even moved into a caravan in the area work of art out of a mundane
to photograph the process. everyday scene.
David Hoffman, Nidge & Laurence Kissing, 1990 © David Hoffman

76
 Photographing Britain

Paul Trevor, Outside police station, Bethnal Green Road, London E2, 17 July 1978. Sit down protest against police racism, 1978 © Paul Trevor
The 80s:
Photographing Britain
PROTESTOR POWER is open until 5 May 2025 at
This powerful photograph by Paul
Tate Britain, London.
Trevor captures the charged atmosphere
at a sit-down protest outside a London
police station. Tate Britain describes how
“community perspective photographs such
as [this] served to empower other youth
groups, fostering a sense of solidarity within
a broader movement”.

SEALED WITH
A KISS
Paul Graham, Union Jack Flag in Tree, Country Tyrone, 1985, Tate: presented by Tate Members 2007. © Paul Graham
Taken by photographer David
Hoffman during a demonstration
against the Poll Tax introduced
by Margaret Thatcher, this
image of lovers Laurence and
Nidge highlights the passion and
defiance of the protestors.

CAPTURING THE TROUBLES

This image showing a Union Jack flag
in a tree was taken in County Tyrone,
Northern Ireland, by Paul Graham in 1985
during the period of conflict known as the
Troubles. Between 1984 and 1986, Graham
used his photography to document the
locations in Northern Ireland that had been
featured in news reports.

77
 The books, TV shows and films causing a stir in the history world this month

© Alamy
A COMPLETE UNKNOWN
A stylish yet flawed portrayal of Bob Dylan’s meteoric rise to stardom
Certificate: 15 Creator: James Mangold Cast: Timothée Chalamet, Monica Barbaro, Edward Norton Released: Out now

F
ollowing on from his 2013 Johnny Cash the art-house romance Call Me By Your Name musical world feels fully rounded, complemented
biopic Walk The Line, director James Mangold (2017) to the blockbuster Dune duo (2021 and by gorgeous costumes, superb set design and
returns to the world of music with this take 2024). Chalamet clearly spent a great deal of time wonderful photography. The film oozes cool.
on the revolutionary singer-songwriter Bob and effort learning to mimic Dylan’s voice and However, A Complete Unknown is messy and
Dylan. Based on the 2015 book Bob Dylan Goes mannerisms. It’s a captivating, if slightly excessive, unfocused. What its ultimate aim is, other than
Electric! by Elijah Wald, the film ostensibly tells the portrayal that emphasises Dylan’s rebellious and simply being a Bob Dylan movie, remains a
story of Dylan’s initial rise to fame as a folk singer, perhaps waspish nature. mystery. And yet it is not without its moments.
beginning with his arrival in New York in 1961 and Unfortunately, there seems to be a disconnect Norton’s homely portrayal of Seeger helps make
ending with his controversial appearance at the between Chalamet’s performance and the rest his clashes with Chalamet’s Dylan surprisingly
1965 Newport Folk Festival. of the cast, some of which can be blamed on the devastating, while Dan Fogler as manager Albert
It depicts his clashes with the folk music problematic script. For example, every interaction Grossman has a number of laugh-out-loud
community, who initially welcomed him but Chalamet has as Dylan seems to be about music moments, even if his screentime is limited.
later resisted his move to electric guitar, as well as or his burgeoning career. As a result, the key Those expecting a fully cohesive story of
relationships with girlfriend Sylvie Russo (based on relationships feel hollow and Dylan comes across the early years of Dylan’s career might be
real-life girlfriend Suze Rotolo and played by Elle as such a jerk that you can’t fathom why anyone disappointed. Yet the atmospheric portrayal of the
Fanning), lover Joan Baez (Monica Barbaro) and would want to know him, let alone sleep with him. Sixties music scene is compelling and enthralling,
mentor Pete Seeger (Edward Norton). Despite its Yet Dylan fans will probably find much to and the film is a particularly stylish and nostalgic
runtime of two hours and 20 minutes, the film feels enjoy here. A great deal of emphasis is placed on take on a golden era of music. If you are a lover of
overstuffed and is not helped by a script that seems the music, with Chalamet at times singing near Sixties folk or rock, A Complete Unknown might be
unsure what its main narrative thread should to be. complete covers of Dylan’s hits, with the songs of the movie for you. CM
Dylan is played by 29-year-old Timothée others such as Baez and Seeger also covered by
Chalamet, who has appeared in everything from the respective actors. The result is that the 1960s

78
 Book Film TV Podcast Games Other
Reviews by
Callum McKelvie, Jackson van Uden, Catherine Curzon

ARTHUR’S MISCELLANY
This lovingly curated collection of
work examines Arthurian legends
Author: Helmut Nickel Publisher: Amberley Publishing Price: £22.99 Released: Out now

V
ery rarely are we presented with books that Despite these being fascinating areas of discussion
examine the truth within Arthurian legends, and we felt that this book requires the reader to have
this latest contribution by Helmut Nickel gives us an existing level of knowledge into the period and
a deep exploration into King Arthur and his knights. topic before reading, as often we had to flick back
Part of this book’s charm is that it is an excellently and forth to ease our confusion. However, extensive
and lovingly curated collection of Nickel’s articles notes and bibliographies at the end of every chapter
by two of his friends, John Matthews and Stuart helped us to get to grips with the topic.
Pyhrr, nearly six years after his passing. Matthews Our favourite part of Arthur’s Miscellany was
and Pyhrr have ensured that they have covered a how Arthur and his knights (and their heraldry)
wide range of topics relating to King Arthur, such have been used in popular culture, with the most
as his connection to historical artefacts found at popular depiction being found in 1975’s Monty
Sutton Hoo and Roman military artefacts such as Python and the Holy Grail. This is the perfect book
soldiers’ armour. These connections see Nickel draw for those wanting to deepen their knowledge of
out details in Arthurian legends that link Arthur to Arthurian legends. JVU
French, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Germanic, Roman,
Greek and Scandinavian folklore and mythology.

THE WISDOM OF THE ANCIENTS:

FOUR IDEAS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD
Delve into this intriguing and good-natured study of four big ideas
Author: HA Drake Publisher: Oxford University Press Price: £18.99 Released: 3 May 2025

I
n The Wisdom of the Ancients: Four Ideas should be judged by their commitment to
that Changed the World, HA Drake takes on universal equal rights.
four very big ideas in approximately 150 Drake considers the initial reaction to these
pages. The themes he chooses are the four ideas and finds that they were often received
cornerstones of modern society that were with anything but acceptance. Indeed, the road
actually developed in the ancient world, to democracy and citizenship is littered with
between approximately 1500 BCE and 1000 CE. tales of persecution, suspicion and reluctance.
Moving from Mesopotamia to Rome, Greece What brings this potentially dry account to life
and into what is now modern Europe, it is a is Drake’s hugely readable and good-humoured
deceptively simple conceit. style, which never compromises the book, but
In this breathless and enormously instead enhances it.
entertaining gallop through over 2,000 years The Wisdom of the Ancients is an entertaining
of deep thought, Drake considers monotheism, and deeply researched read that offers readers
or the belief that there is only one god rather a fascinating insight into our own modern
than many; individual rights, namely the limits world through the context of the ancient world
of state control over citizens; that individuals that shaped it. It is a highly recommended
enjoy natural rights that a state cannot control; addition to your bookshelf. CC
that citizens of a place can be naturalised as
well as born; and that vast territorial states

79
 RECOMMENDS…
History of Russia Hitler’s Deserters
Throughout its history Russia has faced countless Author Douglas Carl Peifer Price £26.99
calamities, achieved remarkable feats in literature, Publisher Oxford University Press
music, technology and so much more and played
a key role in world affairs. In this new special you’ll In his detailed study, Peifer looks at issues such as
meet leaders who clawed their way to power, plunge Nazi ideology, military viewpoints, loyalty to the
into the wars that threatened Russia’s survival, and cause, reasons for desertion, how men deserted, and
explore the legacies of its finest sons and daughters. the collective postwar German conscience which was
Out Out forced to address this uncomfortable issue. This is a
now! Buy History’s Biggest Traitors in shops or online at
magazinesdirect.com Price: £15.99
now! highly recommended read for those wishing to gain
insight into the German mindsets of 1939-45.

MARIA THERESA: EMPRESS

Learn all about this complex and powerful ruler
Author: Richard Bassett Publisher: Yale University Press Price: £25 Released: 25 February 2025

B
orn in 1717, there were many facets tolerance was a watchword. Under her
to the remarkable life of Empress leadership, this biography posits, free
Maria Theresa. She succeeded as trade and innovative financial policies
empress of the Habsburg domains flourished, even as she preferred to
at the age of only 23 and ruled over a expand her dynastic reach through
vast swathe of the Continent, much of marriage rather than more aggressive
which was fiercely contested by her forms of expansion. Bassett does not,
neighbours for decades. however, shy away from Maria Theresa’s
Throughout her 40-year rule, Maria less-progressive policies and attitudes.
Theresa was the most powerful woman Within these pages, he undertakes an
in 18th-century Europe and proved examination of Maria Theresa’s open
herself to be a shrewd politician and a anti-Semitism, which blighted the lives
gifted strategist, managing to preserve of so many of her subjects.
the majority of her empire against the Alongside matters of state, Bassett
odds. Facing expectations that she also considers Maria Theresa’s domestic
should cede power to her husband and side, from her role as a wife and mother
eldest son, Maria Theresa did no such who attempted to stop her children
thing. Yet even as she proved herself to eating sugar while nursing a personal
be a fierce monarch and steely foe, she love of coffee and pastries that led to an
was also devoted to her spouse, Emperor explosion in the popularity of showy
Francis , and her 16 children, including patisserie. In this rococo wonderland
the ill-fated Marie Antoinette. of excess, where sugar was a prized
In Maria Theresa: Empress, Richard and expensive commodity, the court
Bassett turns his attention to this would enjoy a 42ft-long confection of
fascinating woman and attempts to meringue, chocolate, icing sugar and
examine not just her life and times, more that included life-sized crowns,
but her legacy. It is an endeavour that a triumphal arch and the high altar of
succeeds admirably, as Bassett recreates St Stephen’s Cathedral.
the world into which Maria Theresa was Maria Theresa: Empress is a
born, bringing to life the power plays comprehensive and enthralling
and subtleties of 18th-century monarchy biography that brings the life and world
but never losing sight of the woman at of the empress vividly to life. Supported
the heart of the story. It is an exhaustive by a comprehensive list of sources, as
biography, rich in context and historical well as illustrations and an extensive
detail, but at over 400 pages, never feels biography, it is utterly captivating.
overlong. Indeed, the pages are so packed Exhaustive in content and vast in scope,
with evocative detail and insight that Maria Theresa: Empress might not be
it will delight students of early modern for casual readers, but for anyone who
history and monarchy. has an interest in the characters, era or
Drawing on an enormous collection of locations that make up the tale, it is a
“An indispensable and enthralling sources, some of which have previously truly indispensable book. CC
biography of the empress that been unpublished, Bassett positions
Maria Theresa’s sometimes controversial
brings her rococo world to life” reign as a moderate one in which

80
 VS
Fact versus fiction on the silver screen

GLADIATOR II
Director: Ridley Scott Starring: Paul Mescal, Denzel Washington, Pedro Pascal Country: Italy Year: 2024
VERDICT: Fiction builds on fiction
Scott plays fast and loose with history once again for this Roman sequel

01 The story sees the return of

Lucilla (Connie Nielsen) and
her son Lucius (Mescal) from the
02 The film begins with
the Roman conquest of
Numidia, where we meet the adult
03 Macrinus (Washington)
is a real historical figure,
from Caesarea (modern Algeria). He
04 Caracalla (Fred Hechinger)
and Geta (Joseph Quinn)
only ruled together for a few months
05 Whether or not sea battles
took place in the Colosseum
is a matter of debate among experts.
original film. In reality, Lucilla didn’t Lucius (going by Hanno) for the first was not enslaved, but a Praetorian in 211 CE, giving us our date for the Such events, called naumachia, did
outlive her brother Commodus and time. This invasion did happen – in Guard having come from a humble film. In the movie, Caracalla is the take place in some arenas or on
Lucius died in childhood, aged 12. 46 BCE. It’s believed, through other background. He did succeed junior figure, but he was the older nearby coastlines, lakes or rivers.
Additionally, Lucilla’s new husband contextual events, that the film is Caracalla and Geta as emperor for brother and killed Geta in front of What is agreed is that sharks would
General Acacius is entirely fictional. set over 250 years later in 211 CE. one year, but he never entered Rome. their mother (who’s not in the film). not have been involved.
All images: © Alamy

81
 On The Menu

Did
you know?
For centuries
in Britain, arroz con
leche's close equivalent
rice pudding was a luxury
enjoyed only by wealthy
people due to the high cost
of imported rice.

Ingredients
250g long-grain white rice

ARROZ CON LECHE

2 cinnamon sticks
Zest of 1 lemon
500ml water
½ tsp salt

Inset image: © Alamy

Main image: © Alamy
700ml milk
100g sugar
Ground cinnamon (to serve)

TRADITIONAL FORM OF RICE PUDDING, ISLAMIC SPAIN, C.711

O METHOD
ver a seven-year period, from 711 to 718, Islamic
troops conquered the Iberian Peninsula, and for
over 700 years Spain remained under Muslim 01 Add the water, rice, salt, lemon zest and 03 As it cooks, the mixture should slowly thicken
control. Islamic rule in Spain only ended in 1492 cinnamon sticks to a saucepan and place – it will need frequent stirring so it doesn't
when Boabdil was defeated by the forces of King on the hob. Bring to the boil and then allow stick to the pan. Cook until the mixture
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. to simmer until the water has been fully achieves your desired thickness.
One of the many dishes brought over during this period absorbed by the rice. Please ensure the rice 04 To eat warm, serve immediately or, if you
was arroz con leche, a form of rice pudding that became a is fully cooked before progressing to the next prefer, place it in the refrigerator for 1-2 hours
traditional Iberian delicacy. The dish was then transported step (add more water if needed). and serve cold.
by Spanish Conquistadores during their various conquests 02 Add the milk and sugar to the rice mixture. 05 Sprinkle ground cinnamon on top to serve.
and can now be found in countries such as Peru and Once again bring to the boil and allow the Arroz con leche can also be served with dried
Mexico, as well as other parts of Latin America. liquid to simmer. fruit such as raisins.

NEXT MONTH NARMER: THE FIRST PHARAOH ON SALE

20 MARCH
82
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