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DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
Third Edition

Raghu Ramakrishnan
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Johannes Gehrke
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York, USA

Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis
Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
abc
To Apu, Ketan, and Vivek with love

To Keiko and Elisa

 CONTENTS

PREFACE xxiv

Part I FOUNDATIONS 1

1 OVERVIEW OF DATABASE SYSTEMS 3

1.1 Managing Data 4
1.2 A Historical Perspective 6
1.3 File Systems versus a DBMS 8
1.4 Advantages of a DBMS 9
1.5 Describing and Storing Data in a DBMS 10
1.5.1 The Relational Model 11
1.5.2 Levels of Abstraction in a DBMS 12
1.5.3 Data Independence 15
1.6 Queries in a DBMS 16
1.7 Transaction Management 17
1.7.1 Concurrent Execution of Transactions 17
1.7.2 Incomplete Transactions and System Crashes 18
1.7.3 Points to Note 19
1.8 Structure of a DBMS 19
1.9 People Who Work with Databases 21
1.10 Review Questions 22

2 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE DESIGN 25

2.1 Database Design and ER Diagrams 26
2.1.1 Beyond ER Design 27
2.2 Entities, Attributes, and Entity Sets 28
2.3 Relationships and Relationship Sets 29
2.4 Additional Features of the ER Model 32
2.4.1 Key Constraints 32
2.4.2 Participation Constraints 34
2.4.3 Weak Entities 35
2.4.4 Class Hierarchies 37
2.4.5 Aggregation 39

vii
viii Database Management Systems

2.5 Conceptual Design With the ER Model 40

2.5.1 Entity versus Attribute 41
2.5.2 Entity versus Relationship 42
2.5.3 Binary versus Ternary Relationships 43
2.5.4 Aggregation versus Ternary Relationships 45
2.6 Conceptual Design for Large Enterprises 46
2.7 The Unified Modeling Language 47
2.8 Case Study: The Internet Shop 49
2.8.1 Requirements Analysis 49
2.8.2 Conceptual Design 50
2.9 Review Questions 51

3 THE RELATIONAL MODEL 57

3.1 Introduction to the Relational Model 59
3.1.1 Creating and Modifying Relations Using SQL 62
3.2 Integrity Constraints over Relations 63
3.2.1 Key Constraints 64
3.2.2 Foreign Key Constraints 66
3.2.3 General Constraints 68
3.3 Enforcing Integrity Constraints 69
3.3.1 Transactions and Constraints 72
3.4 Querying Relational Data 73
3.5 Logical Database Design: ER to Relational 74
3.5.1 Entity Sets to Tables 75
3.5.2 Relationship Sets (without Constraints) to Tables 76
3.5.3 Translating Relationship Sets with Key Constraints 78
3.5.4 Translating Relationship Sets with Participation Constraints 79
3.5.5 Translating Weak Entity Sets 82
3.5.6 Translating Class Hierarchies 83
3.5.7 Translating ER Diagrams with Aggregation 84
3.5.8 ER to Relational: Additional Examples 85
3.6 Introduction to Views 86
3.6.1 Views, Data Independence, Security 87
3.6.2 Updates on Views 88
3.7 Destroying/Altering Tables and Views 91
3.8 Case Study: The Internet Store 92
3.9 Review Questions 94

4 RELATIONAL ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS 100

4.1 Preliminaries 101
4.2 Relational Algebra 102
4.2.1 Selection and Projection 103
4.2.2 Set Operations 104
Contents ix

4.2.3 Renaming 106

4.2.4 Joins 107
4.2.5 Division 109
4.2.6 More Examples of Algebra Queries 110
4.3 Relational Calculus 116
4.3.1 Tuple Relational Calculus 117
4.3.2 Domain Relational Calculus 122
4.4 Expressive Power of Algebra and Calculus 124
4.5 Review Questions 126

5 SQL: QUERIES, CONSTRAINTS, TRIGGERS 130

5.1 Overview 131
5.1.1 Chapter Organization 132
5.2 The Form of a Basic SQL Query 133
5.2.1 Examples of Basic SQL Queries 138
5.2.2 Expressions and Strings in the SELECT Command 139
5.3 UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT 141
5.4 Nested Queries 144
5.4.1 Introduction to Nested Queries 145
5.4.2 Correlated Nested Queries 147
5.4.3 Set-Comparison Operators 148
5.4.4 More Examples of Nested Queries 149
5.5 Aggregate Operators 151
5.5.1 The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses 154
5.5.2 More Examples of Aggregate Queries 158
5.6 Null Values 162
5.6.1 Comparisons Using Null Values 163
5.6.2 Logical Connectives AND, OR, and NOT 163
5.6.3 Impact on SQL Constructs 163
5.6.4 Outer Joins 164
5.6.5 Disallowing Null Values 165
5.7 Complex Integrity Constraints in SQL 165
5.7.1 Constraints over a Single Table 165
5.7.2 Domain Constraints and Distinct Types 166
5.7.3 Assertions: ICs over Several Tables 167
5.8 Triggers and Active Databases 168
5.8.1 Examples of Triggers in SQL 169
5.9 Designing Active Databases 171
5.9.1 Why Triggers Can Be Hard to Understand 171
5.9.2 Constraints versus Triggers 172
5.9.3 Other Uses of Triggers 172
5.10 Review Questions 173
x Database Management Systems

Part II APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT 183

6 DATABASE APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT 185

6.1 Accessing Databases from Applications 187
6.1.1 Embedded SQL 187
6.1.2 Cursors 189
6.1.3 Dynamic SQL 194
6.2 An Introduction to JDBC 194
6.2.1 Architecture 196
6.3 JDBC Classes and Interfaces 197
6.3.1 JDBC Driver Management 197
6.3.2 Connections 198
6.3.3 Executing SQL Statements 200
6.3.4 ResultSets 201
6.3.5 Exceptions and Warnings 203
6.3.6 Examining Database Metadata 204
6.4 SQLJ 206
6.4.1 Writing SQLJ Code 207
6.5 Stored Procedures 209
6.5.1 Creating a Simple Stored Procedure 209
6.5.2 Calling Stored Procedures 210
6.5.3 SQL/PSM 212
6.6 Case Study: The Internet Book Shop 214
6.7 Review Questions 216

7 INTERNET APPLICATIONS 220

7.1 Introduction 220
7.2 Internet Concepts 221
7.2.1 Uniform Resource Identifiers 221
7.2.2 The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 223
7.3 HTML Documents 226
7.4 XML Documents 227
7.4.1 Introduction to XML 228
7.4.2 XML DTDs 231
7.4.3 Domain-Specific DTDs 234
7.5 The Three-Tier Application Architecture 236
7.5.1 Single-Tier and Client-Server Architectures 236
7.5.2 Three-Tier Architectures 239
7.5.3 Advantages of the Three-Tier Architecture 241
7.6 The Presentation Layer 242
7.6.1 HTML Forms 242
7.6.2 JavaScript 245
7.6.3 Style Sheets 247
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Contents xi

7.7 The Middle Tier 251

7.7.1 CGI: The Common Gateway Interface 251
7.7.2 Application Servers 252
7.7.3 Servlets 254
7.7.4 JavaServer Pages 256
7.7.5 Maintaining State 258
7.8 Case Study: The Internet Book Shop 261
7.9 Review Questions 264

Part III STORAGE AND INDEXING 271

8 OVERVIEW OF STORAGE AND INDEXING 273

8.1 Data on External Storage 274
8.2 File Organizations and Indexing 275
8.2.1 Clustered Indexes 277
8.2.2 Primary and Secondary Indexes 277
8.3 Index Data Structures 278
8.3.1 Hash-Based Indexing 279
8.3.2 Tree-Based Indexing 280
8.4 Comparison of File Organizations 282
8.4.1 Cost Model 283
8.4.2 Heap Files 284
8.4.3 Sorted Files 285
8.4.4 Clustered Files 287
8.4.5 Heap File with Unclustered Tree Index 288
8.4.6 Heap File With Unclustered Hash Index 289
8.4.7 Comparison of I/O Costs 290
8.5 Indexes and Performance Tuning 291
8.5.1 Impact of the Workload 292
8.5.2 Clustered Index Organization 292
8.5.3 Composite Search Keys 295
8.5.4 Index Specification in SQL:1999 299
8.6 Review Questions 299

9 STORING DATA: DISKS AND FILES 304

9.1 The Memory Hierarchy 305
9.1.1 Magnetic Disks 306
9.1.2 Performance Implications of Disk Structure 308
9.2 Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks 309
9.2.1 Data Striping 310
9.2.2 Redundancy 311
9.2.3 Levels of Redundancy 312
9.2.4 Choice of RAID Levels 316
xii Database Management Systems

9.3 Disk Space Management 316

9.3.1 Keeping Track of Free Blocks 317
9.3.2 Using OS File Systems to Manage Disk Space 317
9.4 Buffer Manager 318
9.4.1 Buffer Replacement Policies 320
9.4.2 Buffer Management in DBMS versus OS 322
9.5 Files of Records 324
9.5.1 Implementing Heap Files 324
9.6 Page Formats 326
9.6.1 Fixed-Length Records 327
9.6.2 Variable-Length Records 328
9.7 Record Formats 330
9.7.1 Fixed-Length Records 331
9.7.2 Variable-Length Records 331
9.8 Review Questions 333

10 TREE-STRUCTURED INDEXING 338

10.1 Intuition For Tree Indexes 339
10.2 Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) 341
10.2.1 Overflow Pages, Locking Considerations 344
10.3 B+ Trees: A Dynamic Index Structure 344
10.3.1 Format of a Node 346
10.4 Search 347
10.5 Insert 348
10.6 Delete 352
10.7 Duplicates 356
10.8 B+ Trees in Practice 358
10.8.1 Key Compression 358
10.8.2 Bulk-Loading a B+ Tree 360
10.8.3 The Order Concept 363
10.8.4 The Effect of Inserts and Deletes on Rids 364
10.9 Review Questions 364

11 HASH-BASED INDEXING 370

11.1 Static Hashing 371
11.1.1 Notation and Conventions 373
11.2 Extendible Hashing 373
11.3 Linear Hashing 379
11.4 Extendible vs. Linear Hashing 384
11.5 Review Questions 385

Part IV QUERY EVALUATION 391

Contents xiii

12 OVERVIEW OF QUERY EVALUATION 393

12.1 The System Catalog 394
12.1.1 Information in the Catalog 395
12.2 Introduction to Operator Evaluation 397
12.2.1 Three Common Techniques 398
12.2.2 Access Paths 398
12.3 Algorithms for Relational Operations 400
12.3.1 Selection 401
12.3.2 Projection 401
12.3.3 Join 402
12.3.4 Other Operations 404
12.4 Introduction to Query Optimization 404
12.4.1 Query Evaluation Plans 405
12.4.2 Multi-operator Queries: Pipelined Evaluation 407
12.4.3 The Iterator Interface 408
12.5 Alternative Plans: A Motivating Example 409
12.5.1 Pushing Selections 409
12.5.2 Using Indexes 411
12.6 What a Typical Optimizer Does 414
12.6.1 Alternative Plans Considered 414
12.6.2 Estimating the Cost of a Plan 416
12.7 Review Questions 417

13 EXTERNAL SORTING 421

13.1 When Does a DBMS Sort Data? 422
13.2 A Simple Two-Way Merge Sort 423
13.3 External Merge Sort 424
13.3.1 Minimizing the Number of Runs 428
13.4 Minimizing I/O Cost versus Number of I/Os 430
13.4.1 Blocked I/O 430
13.4.2 Double Buffering 432
13.5 Using B+ Trees for Sorting 433
13.5.1 Clustered Index 433
13.5.2 Unclustered Index 434
13.6 Review Questions 436

14 EVALUATING RELATIONAL OPERATORS 439

14.1 The Selection Operation 441
14.1.1 No Index, Unsorted Data 441
14.1.2 No Index, Sorted Data 442
14.1.3 B+ Tree Index 442
14.1.4 Hash Index, Equality Selection 444
14.2 General Selection Conditions 444
xiv Database Management Systems

14.2.1 CNF and Index Matching 445

14.2.2 Evaluating Selections without Disjunction 445
14.2.3 Selections with Disjunction 446
14.3 The Projection Operation 447
14.3.1 Projection Based on Sorting 448
14.3.2 Projection Based on Hashing 449
14.3.3 Sorting Versus Hashing for Projections 451
14.3.4 Use of Indexes for Projections 452
14.4 The Join Operation 452
14.4.1 Nested Loops Join 454
14.4.2 Sort-Merge Join 458
14.4.3 Hash Join 463
14.4.4 General Join Conditions 467
14.5 The Set Operations 468
14.5.1 Sorting for Union and Difference 469
14.5.2 Hashing for Union and Difference 469
14.6 Aggregate Operations 469
14.6.1 Implementing Aggregation by Using an Index 471
14.7 The Impact of Buffering 471
14.8 Review Questions 472

15 A TYPICAL RELATIONAL QUERY OPTIMIZER 478

15.1 Translating SQL Queries into Algebra 479
15.1.1 Decomposition of a Query into Blocks 479
15.1.2 A Query Block as a Relational Algebra Expression 481
15.2 Estimating the Cost of a Plan 482
15.2.1 Estimating Result Sizes 483
15.3 Relational Algebra Equivalences 488
15.3.1 Selections 488
15.3.2 Projections 488
15.3.3 Cross-Products and Joins 489
15.3.4 Selects, Projects, and Joins 490
15.3.5 Other Equivalences 491
15.4 Enumeration of Alternative Plans 492
15.4.1 Single-Relation Queries 492
15.4.2 Multiple-Relation Queries 496
15.5 Nested Subqueries 504
15.6 The System R Optimizer 506
15.7 Other Approaches to Query Optimization 507
15.8 Review Questions 507

Part V TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT 517

Contents xv

16 OVERVIEW OF TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT 519

16.1 The ACID Properties 520
16.1.1 Consistency and Isolation 521
16.1.2 Atomicity and Durability 522
16.2 Transactions and Schedules 523
16.3 Concurrent Execution of Transactions 524
16.3.1 Motivation for Concurrent Execution 524
16.3.2 Serializability 525
16.3.3 Anomalies Due to Interleaved Execution 526
16.3.4 Schedules Involving Aborted Transactions 529
16.4 Lock-Based Concurrency Control 530
16.4.1 Strict Two-Phase Locking (Strict 2PL) 531
16.4.2 Deadlocks 533
16.5 Performance of Locking 533
16.6 Transaction Support in SQL 535
16.6.1 Creating and Terminating Transactions 535
16.6.2 What Should We Lock? 537
16.6.3 Transaction Characteristics in SQL 538
16.7 Introduction to Crash Recovery 540
16.7.1 Stealing Frames and Forcing Pages 541
16.7.2 Recovery-Related Steps during Normal Execution 542
16.7.3 Overview of ARIES 543
16.7.4 Atomicity: Implementing Rollback 543
16.8 Review Questions 544

17 CONCURRENCY CONTROL 549

17.1 2PL, Serializability, and Recoverability 550
17.1.1 View Serializability 553
17.2 Introduction to Lock Management 553
17.2.1 Implementing Lock and Unlock Requests 554
17.3 Lock Conversions 555
17.4 Dealing With Deadlocks 556
17.4.1 Deadlock Prevention 558
17.5 Specialized Locking Techniques 559
17.5.1 Dynamic Databases and the Phantom Problem 560
17.5.2 Concurrency Control in B+ Trees 561
17.5.3 Multiple-Granularity Locking 564
17.6 Concurrency Control without Locking 566
17.6.1 Optimistic Concurrency Control 566
17.6.2 Timestamp-Based Concurrency Control 569
17.6.3 Multiversion Concurrency Control 572
17.7 Review Questions 573
xvi Database Management Systems

18 CRASH RECOVERY 579

18.1 Introduction to ARIES 580
18.2 The Log 582
18.3 Other Recovery-Related Structures 585
18.4 The Write-Ahead Log Protocol 586
18.5 Checkpointing 587
18.6 Recovering from a System Crash 587
18.6.1 Analysis Phase 588
18.6.2 Redo Phase 590
18.6.3 Undo Phase 592
18.7 Media Recovery 595
18.8 Other Approaches and Interaction with Concurrency Control 596
18.9 Review Questions 597

Part VI DATABASE DESIGN AND TUNING 603

19 SCHEMA REFINEMENT AND NORMAL FORMS 605

19.1 Introduction to Schema Refinement 606
19.1.1 Problems Caused by Redundancy 606
19.1.2 Decompositions 608
19.1.3 Problems Related to Decomposition 609
19.2 Functional Dependencies 611
19.3 Reasoning about FDs 612
19.3.1 Closure of a Set of FDs 612
19.3.2 Attribute Closure 614
19.4 Normal Forms 615
19.4.1 Boyce-Codd Normal Form 615
19.4.2 Third Normal Form 617
19.5 Properties of Decompositions 619
19.5.1 Lossless-Join Decomposition 619
19.5.2 Dependency-Preserving Decomposition 621
19.6 Normalization 622
19.6.1 Decomposition into BCNF 622
19.6.2 Decomposition into 3NF 625
19.7 Schema Refinement in Database Design 629
19.7.1 Constraints on an Entity Set 630
19.7.2 Constraints on a Relationship Set 630
19.7.3 Identifying Attributes of Entities 631
19.7.4 Identifying Entity Sets 633
19.8 Other Kinds of Dependencies 633
19.8.1 Multivalued Dependencies 634
19.8.2 Fourth Normal Form 636
19.8.3 Join Dependencies 638
Contents xvii

19.8.4 Fifth Normal Form 638

19.8.5 Inclusion Dependencies 639
19.9 Case Study: The Internet Shop 640
19.10 Review Questions 642

20 PHYSICAL DATABASE DESIGN AND TUNING 649

20.1 Introduction to Physical Database Design 650
20.1.1 Database Workloads 651
20.1.2 Physical Design and Tuning Decisions 652
20.1.3 Need for Database Tuning 653
20.2 Guidelines for Index Selection 653
20.3 Basic Examples of Index Selection 656
20.4 Clustering and Indexing 658
20.4.1 Co-clustering Two Relations 660
20.5 Indexes that Enable Index-Only Plans 662
20.6 Tools to Assist in Index Selection 663
20.6.1 Automatic Index Selection 663
20.6.2 How Do Index Tuning Wizards Work? 664
20.7 Overview of Database Tuning 667
20.7.1 Tuning Indexes 667
20.7.2 Tuning the Conceptual Schema 669
20.7.3 Tuning Queries and Views 670
20.8 Choices in Tuning the Conceptual Schema 671
20.8.1 Settling for a Weaker Normal Form 671
20.8.2 Denormalization 672
20.8.3 Choice of Decomposition 672
20.8.4 Vertical Partitioning of BCNF Relations 674
20.8.5 Horizontal Decomposition 674
20.9 Choices in Tuning Queries and Views 675
20.10 Impact of Concurrency 678
20.10.1 Reducing Lock Durations 678
20.10.2 Reducing Hot Spots 679
20.11 Case Study: The Internet Shop 680
20.11.1 Tuning the Database 682
20.12 DBMS Benchmarking 682
20.12.1 Well-Known DBMS Benchmarks 683
20.12.2 Using a Benchmark 684
20.13 Review Questions 685

21 SECURITY AND AUTHORIZATION 692

21.1 Introduction to Database Security 693
21.2 Access Control 694
21.3 Discretionary Access Control 695
xviii Database Management Systems

21.3.1 Grant and Revoke on Views and Integrity Constraints 704

21.4 Mandatory Access Control 705
21.4.1 Multilevel Relations and Polyinstantiation 707
21.4.2 Covert Channels, DoD Security Levels 708
21.5 Security for Internet Applications 709
21.5.1 Encryption 709
21.5.2 Certifying Servers: The SSL Protocol 712
21.5.3 Digital Signatures 713
21.6 Additional Issues Related to Security 714
21.6.1 Role of the Database Administrator 714
21.6.2 Security in Statistical Databases 715
21.7 Design Case Study: The Internet Store 716
21.8 Review Questions 718

Part VII ADDITIONAL TOPICS 723

22 PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED DATABASES 725

22.1 Introduction 726
22.2 Architectures for Parallel Databases 727
22.3 Parallel Query Evaluation 728
22.3.1 Data Partitioning 730
22.3.2 Parallelizing Sequential Operator Evaluation Code 730
22.4 Parallelizing Individual Operations 731
22.4.1 Bulk Loading and Scanning 731
22.4.2 Sorting 732
22.4.3 Joins 732
22.5 Parallel Query Optimization 735
22.6 Introduction to Distributed Databases 736
22.6.1 Types of Distributed Databases 737
22.7 Distributed DBMS Architectures 737
22.7.1 Client-Server Systems 738
22.7.2 Collaborating Server Systems 738
22.7.3 Middleware Systems 739
22.8 Storing Data in a Distributed DBMS 739
22.8.1 Fragmentation 739
22.8.2 Replication 741
22.9 Distributed Catalog Management 741
22.9.1 Naming Objects 741
22.9.2 Catalog Structure 742
22.9.3 Distributed Data Independence 743
22.10 Distributed Query Processing 743
22.10.1 Nonjoin Queries in a Distributed DBMS 744
22.10.2 Joins in a Distributed DBMS 745
Contents xix

22.10.3 Cost-Based Query Optimization 749

22.11 Updating Distributed Data 750
22.11.1 Synchronous Replication 750
22.11.2 Asynchronous Replication 751
22.12 Distributed Transactions 755
22.13 Distributed Concurrency Control 755
22.13.1 Distributed Deadlock 756
22.14 Distributed Recovery 758
22.14.1 Normal Execution and Commit Protocols 758
22.14.2 Restart after a Failure 760
22.14.3 Two-Phase Commit Revisited 761
22.14.4 Three-Phase Commit 762
22.15 Review Questions 763

23 OBJECT-DATABASE SYSTEMS 772

23.1 Motivating Example 774
23.1.1 New Data Types 775
23.1.2 Manipulating the New Data 777
23.2 Structured Data Types 779
23.2.1 Collection Types 780
23.3 Operations on Structured Data 781
23.3.1 Operations on Rows 781
23.3.2 Operations on Arrays 781
23.3.3 Operations on Other Collection Types 782
23.3.4 Queries Over Nested Collections 783
23.4 Encapsulation and ADTs 784
23.4.1 Defining Methods 785
23.5 Inheritance 787
23.5.1 Defining Types with Inheritance 787
23.5.2 Binding Methods 788
23.5.3 Collection Hierarchies 789
23.6 Objects, OIDs, and Reference Types 789
23.6.1 Notions of Equality 790
23.6.2 Dereferencing Reference Types 791
23.6.3 URLs and OIDs in SQL:1999 791
23.7 Database Design for an ORDBMS 792
23.7.1 Collection Types and ADTs 792
23.7.2 Object Identity 795
23.7.3 Extending the ER Model 796
23.7.4 Using Nested Collections 798
23.8 ORDBMS Implementation Challenges 799
23.8.1 Storage and Access Methods 799
23.8.2 Query Processing 801
xx Database Management Systems

23.8.3 Query Optimization 803

23.9 OODBMS 805
23.9.1 The ODMG Data Model and ODL 805
23.9.2 OQL 807
23.10 Comparing RDBMS, OODBMS, and ORDBMS 809
23.10.1 RDBMS versus ORDBMS 809
23.10.2 OODBMS versus ORDBMS: Similarities 809
23.10.3 OODBMS versus ORDBMS: Differences 810
23.11 Review Questions 811

24 DEDUCTIVE DATABASES 817

24.1 Introduction to Recursive Queries 818
24.1.1 Datalog 819
24.2 Theoretical Foundations 822
24.2.1 Least Model Semantics 823
24.2.2 The Fixpoint Operator 824
24.2.3 Safe Datalog Programs 825
24.2.4 Least Model = Least Fixpoint 826
24.3 Recursive Queries with Negation 827
24.3.1 Stratification 828
24.4 From Datalog to SQL 831
24.5 Evaluating Recursive Queries 834
24.5.1 Fixpoint Evaluation without Repeated Inferences 835
24.5.2 Pushing Selections to Avoid Irrelevant Inferences 837
24.5.3 The Magic Sets Algorithm 838
24.6 Review Questions 841

25 DATA WAREHOUSING AND DECISION SUPPORT 846

25.1 Introduction to Decision Support 848
25.2 OLAP: Multidimensional Data Model 849
25.2.1 Multidimensional Database Design 853
25.3 Multidimensional Aggregation Queries 854
25.3.1 ROLLUP and CUBE in SQL:1999 856
25.4 Window Queries in SQL:1999 859
25.4.1 Framing a Window 861
25.4.2 New Aggregate Functions 862
25.5 Finding Answers Quickly 862
25.5.1 Top N Queries 863
25.5.2 Online Aggregation 864
25.6 Implementation Techniques for OLAP 865
25.6.1 Bitmap Indexes 866
25.6.2 Join Indexes 868
25.6.3 File Organizations 869
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too close and over much shaded, as well as too great a distance
from the glass.
ANNULAR. Having a ring-like form.
ANNULATE. With the appearance of rings.
ANŒCTOCHILUS (from anoiktos, open, and cheilos, a lip; in
reference to the spreading apex of the lip). SYNS. Anecochilus,
Chrysobaphus. ORD. Orchideæ. Stove terrestrial orchids, the radical
leaves of which are the chief attraction, being amongst the most
beautiful and delicate objects in the vegetable kingdom. The flowers,
which should be pinched off so soon as they appear, are, as a rule,
small and unattractive. Few of the species exceed 6in. in height, with
leaves from 2in. to 6in. long, including the fleshy petioles. They
require a good deal of attention. To one part of silver sand,
thoroughly washed twice or three times, add two of sphagnum,
which should also be well washed and picked over, when it should be
chopped into minute particles, in order that it may freely
amalgamate with the sand; mix a little loam and peat with the
whole. In the pots, when well drained by first placing a large piece
of potsherd over the bottom and nearly half filling up with pieces
broken small and of uniform size, place a thin layer of crude
sphagnum, afterwards filling firmly with the mixture above
mentioned, and bringing it up more or less in the form of a cone
above the rim of the pot, into which the plants should be firmly
fixed. Plants which have been propagated by division should be
carefully transferred to 32-sized pots. About five separate pieces
might be placed evenly over the surface. Make holes with a neat
dibble, and into these drop the roots their entire length, pressing the
soil firmly with the dibble. Fix them so that they may grow inwardly,
and not out over the rim of the pots, pegging each creeping root
needing such attention firmly down upon the surface of the soil
afterwards; after a good soaking, they may be replaced in any
warm, shady situation. For propagating, a strong plant is necessary;
it may be cut into pieces just below the first joint, each piece having
a root. The bottom piece should have two eyes—one to root from,
and the other to push into a shoot. The "bottom," or plant which has
been cut, should be replaced in its pot, and then put under a bell
glass. It will soon throw up a young shoot; this ought to be left on
until well rooted, when it may be separated and treated similarly to
the portion first removed, still leaving the old part in the pot. These
plants must be grown in glass cases, or under bell glasses, but they
should always have a little air, for, as Mr. Williams says, when too
much confined, they grow up spindly, and damp off in the stem; the
latter, being fleshy, requires more substance and sturdiness. Air
should be admitted through a space of about 1in. or 2in. The
following ranges of temperature are advised: Winter, night, 55deg.
to 60deg.; day, 65deg. to 70deg. during March, April, and May;
night, 60deg. to 70deg.; and, afterwards, a few degrees higher, with
a maximum day temperature of 80deg. Bottom heat should not be
given, as it induces a weak, fast growth. Great care will be needed
to prevent ravages of insects. The most suitable month for repotting
is March, just before growth commences, when the plants will need
plenty of water up to October, excepting when it is desirous to utilise
them as drawing-room ornaments, in which case they should be
kept rather dry for a short time previous. See also Dossinia,
Goodyera, Hæmeria, Macodes, Physurus, and Zeuxine.
 FIG. 104. ANŒCTOCHILUS FRIDERICI-AUGUSTI.

A. argenteus pictus (silvery-painted). A synonym of Physurus

pictus.
A. argyroneurus (silvery-veined).* l. light green, dark mottled;
veins forming a beautiful silvery network. Java.
A. Boylei (Boyle's).* l. ovate, acuminate, 2in. long and broad,
olive-green, netted and pencilled with gold. India.
A. Bullenii (Bullen's).* l. 2½ in. long, ground colour bronzy
green, with three broad distinct lines of coppery-red, or golden
stripes running the entire length. Borneo, 1861.
A. concinnus (neat). l. ovate, acuminate, rounded at base,
dark olive-green, netted and striped with shining coppery-red.
Assam.
A. Dawsonianus (Dawson's).* l. ovate, of a dark velvety, rich
olive-green, traversed by about seven longitudinal copper-
coloured veins; the space on each side of the midrib being filled
with fine reticulations of the same colour. Malay Archipelago,
1868. The proper name of this plant is Hæmeria discolor
Dawsoniana.
A. Dayi (Day's). A synonym of Dossinia marmorata Dayi.
A. Dominii (Dominy's). l. dark olive-green, streaked down the
centre with pale coppery-yellow, the main ribs marked by pale
lines. Hybrid between Goodyera discolor and A. Friderici
Augusti.
A. Eldorado (Eldorado). l. dark green, with small tracery of a
lighter colour, deciduous. Central America.
A. Friderici-Augusti (Frederick Augustus').* l. 2½in. long, and
1½in. broad, dark velvety green, with broad orange and green
stripes down the centre, covered with a beautiful golden
network. h. 5in. Very distinct. See Fig. 104. SYN. A.
xanthophyllus.
A. Heriotii (Heriot's). l. 3½in. long, 2½in. broad, dark
mahogany-colour, golden-reticulated, and with shadowy
network. India.
A. hieroglyphicus (hieroglyphic-marked). l. small, dark green,
with hieroglyphic-like, silvery-grey blotches. Assam.
A. intermedius (intermediate).* l. 2½in. long, and 1½in.
broad, with a silky surface, dark olive, striped and veined with
gold. h. 3in. Will succeed with a glass covering, in a stove, if
shaded.
A. javanicus (Java). fl. pink, small, spicate; scape 9in. high. l.
2in. long, 1½in. broad, dark olive-green, with lighter blotches
and faint golden reticulation, pinkish beneath. Java.
A. latimaculatus (broad-spotted).* l. dark green, with silvery
markings. Borneo. A distinct and free-growing kind.
A. Lowii (Low's).* l. 4in. to 5in. long, 3in. broad, dark velvety-
green, shading to orange-brown, lined from base to apex with
deep golden veins, crossed by lines of the same hue. h. 6in.
Borneo. The correct name of this plant is Dossinia marmorata.
A. L. virescens (greenish).* l. brighter green, with brighter
markings over the whole surface.
A. Ordianus (Ordi's).* l. shape and habit of A. Dawsonianus,
but the colour is a vivid green, and lined with golden veins.
Java, 1869. The proper name of this plant is Hæmeria discolor
Ordiana.
A. pictus (painted). A synonym of Physurus pictus.
A. querceticola (forest-dwelling). A synonym of Physurus
querceticolus.
A. regalis (royal).* King Plant. l. 2in. long, 1½in. broad;
surface a beautiful velvety green, veined in regular lines, and
covered with a network of gold. h. 4in. Java, 1836. If examined
with a lens in sunshine, the beauty of the network will be plainly
seen. SYN. A. setaceus (of gardens). There are several varieties,
the best of which are:
A. r. cordatus (heart-shaped). l. rounder, and gold markings
broader. Very rare.
A. r. grandifolius (large-leaved).* l. light green, beautifully
laced and banded with a network of gold. Also rare.
A. r. inornatus (unadorned). l. dark rich velvety, with a few
slight markings, destitute of the golden reticulation. Java.
A. Reinwardtii (Reinwardt's).* l. rich, deep velvety-bronze,
intersected with bright golden lines. Java.
A. Roxburghii (Roxburgh's).* l. 2½in. long, 1½in. broad, dark
velvety-green, striated with well-defined lines of silver. h. 3in.
India. The true species is very rare; several are sold as such.
A. Ruckerii (Rucker's).* l. broadly ovate-bronzy-green, with six
rows of distinct spots running from base to apex. Borneo, 1861.
 A. setaceus (bristly). A garden synonym of A. regalis.
A. striatus (striated). A synonym of Zeuxine regia.
A. Turneri (Turner's).* l. large, rich bronze, freely golden-
reticulated. One of the handsomest; a very free grower.
A. Veitchii (Veitch's). A synonym of Macodes Petola.
A. xanthophyllus (yellow-leaved). A synonym of A. Friderici-
Augusti.
A. zebrinus (striped).* l. ovate-lanceolate, deep olive green,
with copper-coloured veins. India, 1863. Dwarf and elegant.

ANOMATHECA (from anomos, singular, and theca, a capsule, or

seed-pod). ORD. Irideæ. Very pretty little bulbous perennials.
Perianth hypocrateriform; tube triquetrous, constricted at the throat.
The species are hardy when planted in warm sunny situations in the
open border. Their dwarf stature, brilliance, profusion of flowers, and
habit of blossoming continuously over a long period, render them
very popular subjects amongst growers of hardy perennials.
Although generally credited with being hardy, when cultivated out of
doors they should be lifted and stored in frost-proof quarters before
winter commences, until the following March. They are excellent as
window garden plants, and also for pot culture. If grown in pots,
they should be shaken out, and repotted in February or March. They
multiply very rapidly, and may be divided in patches, not by single
bulbs, once yearly. Light sandy loam, mixed with a little leaf mould,
is the best compost. Anomathecas are sometimes increased by seed,
which may be sown so soon as ripe, very thinly, in seed pans. Thin
out the seedlings if growing very close together; the next season
they may be put out four or five in a pot. When they become
crowded, shift into a much larger pot, but do not disturb the ball.
The young seedlings will probably produce flowers the second
season.

A. cruenta (bloody).* fl. rich carmine-crimson; perianth

segments elliptical, three lower ones broader than the others,
 with a dark blotch at the base; tube long, whitish; scapes
secund, bearing about five or six flowers. Summer and autumn.
l. two-ranked, about ½in. broad, sword-shape, somewhat
tapering. Bulb ovate, rather large. h. 6in. to 12in. Cape of Good
Hope, 1830.
A. juncea (rushy). fl. very bright pink, with a dark spot at the
base, produced in profusion. The leaves are narrower than
those of the foregoing. Cape of Good Hope, 1791. A rare
species.

ANONA (Anona is the name applied to these plants in St. Domingo).

Custard Apple. ORD. Anonaceæ. Stove evergreen shrubs, with
fragrant leaves. Petals six, in two rows. Carpels indefinite, joined into
one fleshy, many-celled, edible, roundish fruit, with a muricated,
scaly, or reticulated skin. Anonas thrive best in rich loamy soil, mixed
with a little peat. Ripened cuttings, with leaves intact, will root if
inserted in sand and placed under a hand glass, in a moist heat.
When seeds are procurable, they should be sown in pots, and
plunged into a hotbed.

A. Cherimolia (The Cherimoyer). fl. outer petals somewhat

concave, linear-oblong, brown on the outside, each marked with
a dark spot at the base; peduncles opposite the leaves, solitary.
July. fr. somewhat globose and scaly, dark purple; esteemed by
the Peruvians as one of their most delicate, and as being not
inferior to any fruit in the world. l. ovate-lanceolate, not dotted;
under surface silky tomentose, strong scented. h. 20ft. Peru,
1739.
A. glabra (smooth-fruited).* fl. outer petals ovate, obtuse,
brown; calyx leathery, large; peduncles opposite the leaves,
two-flowered. July. fr. greenish-yellow, conoid, blunt, smooth. l.
ovate-lanceolate, smooth. h. 10ft. West Indies, 1774.
A. longifolia (long-leaved). fl. purplish; outer petals concave,
thick, all acute, large, axillary, solitary, stalked. May. fr. ovate-
 globose, dotted, and reticulated, flesh-coloured. l. oblong,
acuminated, mucronate, smooth. h. 20ft. Guiana, 1820.
A. muricata (muricated-fruited).* The Sour Sop. fl. outer
petals cordate, concave, thick, acuminated, green on the
outside, yellow inside, and spotted; peduncles solitary, one-
flowered, sweet-scented. fr. muricated, with fleshy points,
green. l. ovate-lanceolate, smooth, shining. h. 15ft. West Indies,
1656.
A. palustris (marsh). Alligator Apple; Cork-wood. fl. yellow;
petals all acute. fr. rather areolate, large, heart-shaped, sweet-
scented. l. ovate-oblong, leathery, quite smooth. h. 10ft. to 20ft.
South America, 1788.
A. reticulata (netted). The Custard Apple, or Bullock's Heart.
fl. outer petals oblong-lanceolate, acute, somewhat concave at
the base, brownish on the outside, whitish-yellow on the inside,
marked with dark purple spots. fr. ovate-globose, reticulate, as
large as a tennis ball, with yellowish soft flesh; it is much
esteemed by some people. l. oblong-lanceolate, acute, smooth,
somewhat dotted. h. 15ft. to 25ft. Brazil, 1690.
A. squamosa (scaly). Sweet Sop. fl., outer petals linear-
oblong, somewhat concave at the base, nearly closing,
greenish-yellow. fr. egg-shaped, scaly. l. oblong, bluntish,
smooth, full of pellucid dots, rather glaucous beneath. h. 20ft.
South America, 1739.

ANONACEÆ. An order of trees or shrubs, mostly tropical, with

axillary peduncles, lateral or opposite the leaves, and with alternate,
simple, entire or hardly toothed leaves, without stipules. Anona is
the typical genus.
ANONYMO. A synonym of Saururus (which see).
ANONYMOS BRACTEATA. See Zornia tetraphylla.
ANOPLANTHUS (in part). A synonym of Phelipæa (which see).
ANOPLOPHYTUM. See Schlumbergeria and Tillandsia.
ANOPTERUS (from ano, upwards, and pteron, a wing; in reference
to the seeds, which are winged at the apex). ORD. Saxifrageæ. A
very handsome greenhouse evergreen shrub, having a free
branching habit, large dark shining green leaves, and long panicles
of salver-shaped flowers. It would probably prove quite hardy in the
south and west of England, and parts of Scotland, provided it had a
slight winter protection. It grows well in sandy loam and peat. When
grown in pots, it requires plenty of room and water. Half-ripened
cuttings root freely under a bell glass in a cool house or frame in
summer.

A. glandulosa (glandular).* fl. white, rose tinted, large;

racemes erect, simple, terminal. April, May. l. alternate, rarely
nearly opposite, ovate-oblong, attenuated at both ends, nearly
sessile, leathery, toothed. h. 3ft. Van Diemen's Land, 1823.

ANSELLIA (named after Mr. Ansell, the botanical collector who

accompanied the ill-fated Niger Expedition). ORD. Orchidaceæ.
Strong growing, free flowering stove epiphytal orchids. Best grown
in large pots, as they produce a quantity of roots. They require a
compost of turfy peat, with moderate drainage. An ample supply of
water during the growing season is needed; but care must be taken
not to let any remain in the heart of the plants, as they are very
likely to rot. During the season of rest, little or no water, but a damp
atmosphere, are the chief requirements. Propagated by divisions of
the bulbs just after flowering.

A. africana (African).* fl., sepals and petals nearly 2in. long,

greenish yellow, spotted with brownish red; lip small, yellow;
spikes large, drooping, branched, each sometimes bearing
nearly a hundred blooms. Stems 3ft. to 4ft. high, with light
evergreen foliage. Fernando Po, 1844. Lasts two months in
perfection.
 A. a. gigantea (gigantic).* fl. on upright spikes from the top of
the pseudo-bulbs, but smaller, of a light yellow tint, with very
few narrow, transverse, brown bars, and a deep yellow lip,
without warts of any kind on its middle lobe, and with more or
less crenulated keels. Natal, 1847. The perfume is very peculiar.
Very rare.
A. a. lutea (yellow). Not so strong a grower; producing clusters
of light yellow flowers from the top of the pseudo-bulbs. Natal.
A. a. nilotica (Nile district).* As a garden plant this is much
superior to the type. The habit is dwarfer, the colours of the
flowers brighter and more distinctly defined. The sepals and
petals, too, are more spreading. Eastern Africa.

ANSERINA. See Potentilla anserina.

ANTENNÆ. Two movable, articulated organs attached to the heads
of insects and crustacea, commonly called "horns" or "feelers." They
are variable in form and length. Antennæ seem to serve for touch,
and, perhaps, for smell and hearing.

FIG. 105. ANTENNARIA MARGARITACEA, showing Habit and Inflorescence.

ANTENNARIA (from antennæ; in reference to the similarity which
exists between the seed down of the plant and the antennæ, or
feelers, of an insect). ORD. Compositæ. Hardy herbaceous
perennials, distinguished by the dry, coloured, chaffy scales
encircling each head of flowers, of which the stamens and pistils are
on different plants. These are charming little alpine plants, admirably
adapted for rockwork, pots, edgings, or borders, in any light soil.
Propagated by divisions of the roots in spring, and seeds; the latter
should be sown in spring in a cold frame. Grown chiefly for their
leaves.

A. dioica (diœcious).* fl.-heads pink, in crowded corymbs, 3in.

to 4in. high. June. l. radical ones spathulate, woolly chiefly
beneath; upper ones lanceolate. Stems simple; shoots
procumbent. Britain. The two or three varieties of this pretty
species exceed the type in beauty. SYN. Gnaphalium dioicum.
A. d. hyperborea (northern). l. woolly on both surfaces.
A. d. minima (smallest).* A very small growing variety.
A. margaritacea (pearly).* fl.-heads white, corymbose.
August. l. linear-lanceolate, acute, alternate, cottony, especially
beneath. Stems branched above. h. 2ft. Naturalised in England
and on the Continent. Said to have been introduced from
America about the sixteenth century. The prettier but much
rarer A. triplinervis, from Nepaul, comes close to this species.
See Fig. 105.
A. tomentosa (downy).* fl.-heads corymbose. Summer. One of
the dwarfest and best of silvery-leaved plants, either as an
edging for small beds or for covering the higher portions of
rockwork; it is much used in carpet bedding. It scarcely grows
more than 1in. high, and forms a dense carpet in a short space
of time. It should be grown separate from other plants. It is
frequently known under the name of A. candida.

ANTERIOR. Placed in front, or outwards.

ANTHEMIS (from anthemon, a flower; referring to their general
floriferous character). Camomile. ORD. Compositæ. Receptacle
convex, chaffy. Involucre hemispherical or nearly flat; scales
imbricated, membranaceous at the margin. Pappus none; ray florets
ligulate; disk tubular. This is a large genus, principally of medicinal
value, and contains very few species worth the cultivator's trouble.
Of easy culture in any ordinary soil. Propagated by divisions.

A. Aizoon (Aizoon).* fl.-heads resembling a white Daisy; florets

of the ray fourteen to eighteen, trifid, twice as long as the
breadth of the disk. Summer. l. lanceolate, or broadly so,
acutely and deeply serrated, narrowed towards the base,
covered with white down; lower ones crowded; stem-leaves
rather acute, gradually lessening in size. h. 2in. to 4in. Northern
Greece. Free grower, dwarf, and compact.
A. Biebersteinii (Bieberstein's).* fl.-heads yellow. Summer. l.
pinnately divided into linear three-lobed segments, which are
covered with white silky pubescence. h. 1ft. to 2ft. Caucasus.
A. Chamomilla fl. pl. See Matricaria.
A. nobilis (noble). Common Chamomile. fl.-heads solitary; disk
yellow; ray white; scales of the receptacle membranaceous,
scarcely longer than the disk. l. bipinnate, segments linear-
subulate, a little downy. Stem procumbent, and much branched.
England. A very strong smelling plant, of great medicinal value.
For culture, see Chamomile.
A. tinctoria (dyer's). fl. bright yellow, in large heads. July and
August. l. bipinnatifid, serrate, downy beneath. Stem angular. h.
1½ft. England. A very pretty plant.

ANTHER. The male part of a flower containing the pollen.

ANTHERICUM (from anthos, a flower and kerkos, a hedge; in
reference to the tall flower stems). SYN. Phalangium. ORD. Liliaceæ.
A large genus, belonging to the capsular group of the order, and
inhabiting, for the most part, the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers white,
racemose or panicled, scapose; perianth segments either spreading
from near the base or campanulately united; stamens short, with
naked or bearded filaments. Leaves radical, filiform or linear. The
hardy varieties are now extensively grown, and are among the most
ornamental of border plants. They thrive best in rich light soil, and
are excellent subjects for pot culture; for which purpose use a
compost of fibrous loam, leaf mould, or well-decayed manure, and
coarse sand. The pots should be about 12in. across, well drained,
and the plants potted just previous to, or so soon as, growth
commences. During activity, plenty of water is needed, until the
plants have finished flowering, when the quantity may be lessened;
but never allow them to get dry. Propagated by division of the roots
or seeds, sowing the latter, as early as possible after they are ripe, in
a cold frame.

A. graminifolium (grass-leaved). A garden name of A.

ramosum.
A. Hookeri (Hooker's). See Chrysobactron Hookeri.
A. Liliago (Liliago).* St. Bernard's Lily. fl. pure white, 1in. to
1½in. across; perianth segments spreading; style curved. May
to August. l. tufted, narrow, channelled, 12in. to 18in. high.
South Europe, 1596. A very free flowering species, of which
there is a major variety in gardens. SYNS. Phalangium and
Watsonia Liliago.
A. Liliastrum (Liliaster).* St. Bruno's Lily. fl. much larger than
the last, 2in. long, and as much across, fragrant, of a
transparent whiteness, with a delicate green spot on the point
of each segment, campanulate, arranged in loose spikes. Early
summer. l. long, narrow, six or eight to each plant, about 1ft. to
2ft. long, h. 1ft. to 2ft. South Europe, 1629. SYNS. Czackia
Liliastrum and Paradisia Liliastrum (this is the correct name).
See Fig. 106.
 FIG. 106. ANTHERICUM LILIASTRUM, showing Habit and Flower.

A. L. major (greater). fl. about 1in. larger than the type. h.

about 6ft. A very desirable border plant.
A. ramosum (branched).* fl. white, rather smaller than those
of A. Liliago; perianth segments narrow and spreading; style
straight; flower stems much branched. June. l. long, narrow,
channelled, grass-like. h. 2ft. South Europe, 1570. A rapid
grower. SYN. A. graminifolium (of gardens).
A. serotinum (late-flowering). See Lloydia.
A. variegatum (variegated). l. keeled, grass-like, striped and
margined with white. South Africa, 1875. Half hardy. The proper
name of this plant is Chlorophytum elatum variegatum. SYNS. A.
Williamsii and Phalangium argenteo-lineare.
A. Williamsii (Williams'). Synonymous with A. variegatum.
ANTHERIDIA. The reproductive organs in cryptogamic plants,
analogous to anthers in flowering plants.
ANTHERIFEROUS. Bearing anthers.
ANTHESIS. The opening period of flowers.
ANTHOCARPOUS. Bearing a fruit resulting from many flowers.
ANTHOCERCIS (from anthos, a flower, and kerkis, a ray; in
reference to the radiated corolla). ORD. Solanaceæ. Handsome
greenhouse evergreen shrubs, with alternate leaves, attenuated into
the petioles or base, thick, sometimes glandularly dotted. Flowers
axillary, generally solitary; corolla campanulate. Cuttings strike freely
in sand under a bell glass, with a mild bottom heat. So soon as they
have well rooted, pot off into very small pots in two-thirds good
loam and one of peat. After having made a little headway, the
leading shoots should be pinched off, to induce a lateral growth;
they may be transferred to pots a size larger when the roots have
filled the first pot. Continue growing throughout the summer in
frames or in the greenhouse, near the glass, allowing plenty of air.
Vigorous growth should be checked; thus encouraging bushy plants.

A. albicans (whitish-leaved).* fl. white, streaked with bluish-

purple inside the tube, fragrant; petals longer than the tube.
April. l. oblong, obtuse, densely tomentose on both surfaces, as
well as the branches. h. 1½ft. to 2ft. New South Wales, 1824.
A. floribunda (many-flowered). fl. white. h. 3ft. New South
Wales.
A. ilicifolia (Holly-leaved). fl. yellowish green. June. h. 6ft.
Swan River, 1843.
A. littorea (shore). fl. white. June. h. 3ft. New Holland, 1803.
A. viscosa (clammy).* fl. large, white. May. l. obovate,
glandularly dotted with scabrous margins; young leaves and
branches clothed with fine down. h. 4ft. to 6ft. New Holland,
1822.
ANTHOLOMA (from anthos, a flower, and loma, a fringe; in allusion
to the fringed or crenulated limb of the corolla). ORD. Tiliaceæ. A
very fine greenhouse evergreen tree; it thrives best in a light loamy
soil, mixed with a little peat. Cuttings of ripened wood will strike root
in sand, under a hand glass.

A. montana (mountain).* fl. white; corolla ovately cylindrical,

with a crenate, rather toothed margin; racemes axillary,
somewhat umbellate, reflexed. May. l. elliptical-oblong, leathery,
stalked, scattered at the top of the branchlets. h. 20ft. New
Caledonia, 1810.

ANTHOLYZA (from anthos, a flower, and lyssa, rage; in reference

to the opening of the flowers, which resemble the mouth of an
enraged animal). SYN. Petamenes. Including Anisanthus. ORD.
Irideæ. A very pretty genus of bulbous plants from the Cape of Good
Hope, having narrow, erect, Iris-like leaves, and flower-spikes that
over-top the foliage, bearing numerous bright-coloured flowers.
Perianth tubular, six-cleft, unequal, the upper segments longest;
stamens three. The species may be grown in a greenhouse, or
planted out in a frame. They also thrive excellently out of doors, and
should be planted 8in. or 9in. deep for fear of frost, or have a winter
protection of several inches of cocoa-nut fibre refuse or litter. The
safer plan is to raise the roots, winter them in some dry part of the
greenhouse; but, previous to storing, divide the clumps, clean them,
and re-plant or pot in February, or early in March. A mixture of equal
parts peat, sandy loam, and leaf soil is most suitable for their
culture. Just previous to flowering, if in pots, frequent doses of weak
manure water will be found beneficial. They may be propagated by
offsets, which are produced in abundance, at almost any time. Seeds
are sometimes procured, which should be sown so soon as ripe, in
light soil, in a cool house, where they will germinate the following
spring, and will be fit to plant out in the summer of the same year.
With the exception of A. Cunonia, they all much resemble each
other. Only four or five species of this genus are worth cultivating.
 A. æthiopica (Æthiopian).* fl. scarlet and green. June. h. 3ft.
1759. SYNS. A. floribunda, A. præalta.
A. æ. ringens (gaping). fl. red and yellow, rather smaller than
those of the type. SYN. A. vittigera.
A. bicolor (two-coloured). Synonymous with A. Cunonia.
A. caffra (Caffrarian).* fl. rich scarlet; spike distichous, many-
flowered. June. l. long, linear, or linear-ensiform. h. 2ft. 1828. A
very showy and pretty species, but rarely seen in our gardens.
SYN. Anisanthus splendens.
A. Cunonia (Cunon's).* fl. scarlet and black, a combination of
colours uncommon among bulbous plants; spikes secund. June.
h. 2ft. 1756. SYN. Anisanthus Cunonia.
A. floribunda (much-flowered). A synonym of A. æthiopica.
A. præalta (very tall). Synonymous with A. æthiopica.
A. vittigera (glandular). Synonymous with A. æ. ringens.

ANTHOMYIA. See Beet Fly, Cabbage Fly, and Onion Fly.

ANTHONOMUS. See Grubs.
ANTHOSPERMUM (from anthos, a flower, and sperma, a seed).
Amber Tree. ORD. Rubiaceæ. An ornamental greenhouse evergreen
shrub from the Cape of Good Hope. It thrives in peat, loam, and
sand, with a summer temperature of 50deg. to 65deg., and winter,
40deg. to 45deg. Increased by cuttings, in sand, under a bell glass.
There are above twenty other species belonging to this genus.

A. æthiopicum (Æthiopian).* fl. diœcious, male brownish, and

the female ones green, disposed in verticillate spikes. June. l.
linear-lanceolate, three in a whorl, shining above, glabrous
beneath, about ¼in. long. Stem much branched, downy above.
h. 2ft. to 3ft. 1692.

ANTHOTAXIS. The arrangement of flowers on an inflorescence.

ANTHOXANTHUM (from anthos, a flower, and xanthus, yellow).
Spring Grass. Calyx of two valves, glumaceous, one-flowered; corolla
double, each of two valves: the exterior awned; the interior small,
awnless; stamens two, not three, as is usually the case with grasses.
ORD. Gramineæ. A pretty native hardy perennial, of easy culture in
common garden soil.
 A. odoratum (sweet). fl. panicle
spiked, oblong, dense, becoming dullish
yellow. l. short, pale green. h. 1ft. The
pleasant smell of new-made Hay is
chiefly owing to this plant, which in
drying emits an odour similar to that of
Asperula odorata. See Fig. 107.

ANTHURIUM (from anthos, a flower, and

oura, a tail; referring to the inflorescence).
ORD. Aroideæ. Flowers densely disposed
on a cylindrical spadix, at the base of
which is a large bract-like spathe, that
ultimately bends backwards. Leaves of
various shapes. This very large genus of
handsome stove and greenhouse plants is
remarkable both for the peculiar
inflorescence and often noble leaves, and
is distinguished in structure from all the
FIG. 107. ANTHOXANTHUM European members of the order in the
ODORATUM.
flowers being hermaphrodite. Fibry peat,
loam, sphagnum, broken crocks, or
charcoal, and silver sand, form the most suitable compost. In
preparing the peat, it should be broken up into small lumps, and
then have most of the earthy matter knocked out of it by giving it a
few raps with a stick, or by shaking it about in a sieve. To this, after
so treated, add about one-fourth its bulk of sphagnum, and about
half its bulk of fibrous loam, and just a sprinkling of fresh broken
crocks, or small pieces of charcoal and sharp silver sand. In placing
them in the pots—which must be well drained—carefully spread out
the roots and work the mixture among them, keeping the plant well
up, so that when finished it stands clear above the rim of the pot at
least 2in. or 3in., and forms a kind of mound or hillock. They must
then be kept freely syringed or watered, and placed in a moist
atmosphere, where they can enjoy a temperature ranging between
60deg. and 70deg., or a few degrees lower for the less tender
species. Raising plants from seed requires patience. About a year
elapses from the time the flowers are fertilised—which should be
done artificially—before the seed ripens, and often another to get up
plants. Sow as soon as ripe in shallow, well-drained pans or pots,
filled with the potting mixture, and cover slightly, and place in a
close, moist propagating case, where a temperature of from 75deg.
to 85deg. is maintained, or they may be covered with bell glasses.
The principal thing is to keep the air about them constantly humid,
and the material in which they are sown in a uniformly moist
condition; if this is done, the young seedlings will make their
appearance in due course. When these are of sufficient size to
handle, they should be pricked off in the same sort of compost, and
be kept close and moist till they get a start, after which gradually
inure them to more air. January is the best month of the year
wherein to propagate these plants by divisions. This is done by
carefully turning them out of their pots and shaking out what soil
they have amongst their roots, which must be tenderly dealt with, so
as not to bruise or injure them. This done, they may then be pulled
apart, and as many plants made as there are separate crowns, or
the mass may be simply halved or quartered, according to the stock
required. Treat now as recommended above for potting. They are all
moisture-loving plants, and must have a copious supply of water at
all times, although, of course, much less during the winter than
spring and summer months. There is no season of the year when
they can be handled for any purpose with less risk or check than
January. A moderate moist stove heat is advisable for them
generally. The species enumerated are selected from nearly 150, and
will be found to be a very representative collection. See also
Spathiphyllum.

A. acaule (stemless).* fl., spadix blue in a young state, borne

on long footstalks, sweetly scented. Spring. l. broad, oblong,
acuminate, 1ft. to 3ft. in length, erect, arranged in a rosulate
manner, dark shining green on the upper surface, somewhat
paler beneath. West Indies, 1853. A noble species.
 FIG. 108. ANTHURIUM ANDREANUM.

A. Andreanum (André's).* fl., spadix about 3in. long,

yellowish, with a broad central band of white; spathe open,
cordate-ovate, orange red, leathery, 3in. to 4in. across, and 6in.
to 9in. long; surface irregularly corrugated. l. ovate-lanceolate,
deeply cordate, green. Columbia, 1876. A very beautiful species.
See Fig. 108.
A. Bakeri (Baker's).* fl., spathe small, green, reflexed; the
spadix, wherein lies the plant's principal beauty, exhibits a lovely
combination of pink and bright scarlet; the fleshy rachis being
pink, and the pea-sized fruits bright scarlet. July. l. linear,
leathery, green, with stout midribs. Costa Rica, 1872.
A. cordifolium (cordate-leaved).* l. 3ft. long and 20in. broad,
heart-shaped, deep shining green on the upper surface, and
paler below. h. 4ft. New Grenada. One of the best, and may be
grown in a greenhouse or even in a sheltered spot of the sub-
tropical garden during July and August. A. Browni, although
quite distinct, comes close to this species.
A. coriaceum (leathery).* l. very thick, leathery, ovate, about
2ft. long; petioles stout, about the same length. Brazil. An
admirable sub-tropical species.

FIG. 109. ANTHURIUM CRYSTALLINUM.

A. crystallinum (crystalline).* l. large, ovate-cordate,

acuminate, bright rich velvety green, principal veins elegantly
banded with pure crystal white; when young, the leaves are
violet colour; petioles terete. h. 2ft. Columbia. See Fig. 109.
A. cuspidatum (cuspidate). fl., spathe crimson, reflexed,
shorter than the purplish spadix. l. ovate-oblong, acuminate,
10in. to 20in. long, green. h. 2ft. to 3ft. Columbia.
A. ferrierense (Ferrières).* fl., spathe cordate, about 5in. long,
and 4in. wide, bright red; spadix erect, about 4in. long, ivory
white. l. large, cordate. A handsome hybrid between A. ornatum
and A. Andreanum.
A. fissum (cut-leaved). fl., spathe green, erect, narrowly
lanceolate-acuminate. l. cut into four to seven elliptic oblong-
acuminate segments, green; petioles longish, terete. h. 2ft.
Columbia, 1868.
A. Harrisii pulchrum (beautiful).* fl., spathe linear-lanceolate,
creamy white, deflexed, and pinkish at top; spadix erect, deep
crimson; scape about 1ft. long, pale green. l. lanceolate,
rounded at the base, pale green, with confluent white markings
intermixed with dark green. Stem short. Brazil, 1882. A beautiful
variegated plant. The typical A. Harrisii is extremely rare.
A. Hookeri (Hooker's). fl., spathe green; spadix green or violet.
l. obovate-spathulate, narrowed to a wedge-shaped base, and
shortly stalked, shining, about 30in. long and 8in. broad. h. 3ft.
Tropical America, 1840. SYNS. A. Huegelii, Pothos acaulis.
A. Huegelii (Huegel's). A synonym of A. Hookeri.
A. insigne (showy).* l. three-lobed, middle lobe lanceolate, the
two lateral ones are nearly ovate, and have from three to five
longitudinal ribs; when young, the leaves have a bronzy tinge;
petioles terete, slightly sheathing at the base. Columbia, 1881.
A very handsome species.
A. Kalbreyeri (Kalbreyer's).* l. palmate, about 2½ft. across;
leaflets nine, obovate-oblong, acuminate, sinuate, thick,
glabrous, rich deep green, those furthest from the stem are
much larger than those next the axis; petiole cylindrical,
thickened at the top. New Grenada, 1881. A very handsome
climbing species.
A. lanceolatum (lanceolate). fl., spathe lanceolate, deflexed,
yellowish green; spadix dark brown. l. lanceolate, stalked,
green, 1ft. long, narrowed to the base. There appears to be
much confusion as regards this and many varieties of A. Harrisii;
and the specific designation is indiscriminately applied to
lanceolate-leaved forms generally. The true species was
introduced to Kew from the West Indies. SYN. A. Wildenowii.
A. leuconeurum (white-nerved). Green. Mexico, 1862.
A. Lindenianum (Linden's).* fl. fragrant, spathe very pretty,
white, not reflexed, but the pointed apex slightly arches over
and shelters the white or purplish spadix. October. l. deeply
cordate, of a roundish outline; petioles long. h. 3ft. Columbia,
1866. SYN. A. Lindigi (of gardens).
A. Lindigi (Lindig's). A garden synonym of A. Lindenianum.
A. macrolobum (large-lobed).* l. large, deflexed, cordate,
acuminate, with an open sinus at the base, and about three
acute marginal lobes, dark green, marked with about five pale
green ribs; petioles green, terete. Stem erect, short. A fine
hybrid.
A. nymphæifolium (Nymphæa-leaved). fl., spathe white;
spadix purplish. Venezuela, 1854.
A. ornatum (adorned).* fl., spathe linear-oblong, white, 5in. to
6in. long, on terete green scapes, enclosing cylindrical purplish
spadices of about the same length as the spathes, and studded
with white points arranged spirally. Spring. l. ovate or oblong-
cordate, on slender terete petioles. h. 2½ft. Venezuela, 1869.
A. regale (royal).* l. large, cordate-acuminate, 1ft. to 3ft. long,
dull metallic green, with white veins; young leaves tinged with
rose, on long smooth footstalks. East Peru, 1866. An excellent
species for conservatory or window decoration during summer.
 FIG. 110. ANTHURIUM SCHERZERIANUM.

A. Scherzerianum (Scherzer's).* fl. on bright red peduncles,

which spring from among the base of the leafstalks; spathe
ovate-oblong, 3in. long and nearly 2in. broad, intense and
brilliant scarlet; spadix orange coloured. l. oblong-lanceolate,
12in. to 18in. long, and 2in. or more broad, deep rich green,
leathery. Costa Rica. A very compact dwarf-growing evergreen
about 1ft. high. It continues in beauty about four months. See
Fig. 110.
A. S. album (white). A synonym of A. Scherzerianum Williamsii.
 FIG. 111. ANTHURIUM SCHERZERIANUM MAXIMUM.

A. S. maximum (greater).* A very fine variety, with "gigantic

flower spathes, which measure about 9in. in length by 4in. in
breadth, and are of the most brilliant scarlet colour." See Fig.
111.
A. S. pygmæum (small).* Altogether smaller than the type,
with narrow leaves, which are from 4in. to 6in. long, and about
½in. broad. It is one of the best varieties, and produces flowers
very freely. 1880.
A. S. Rothschildianum (Rothschild's). fl., spathe creamy
white, spotted with crimson; spadix yellow. 1880. Exactly
intermediate between its parent plants—the typical species and
the following variety.
A. S. Wardii (Ward's).* fl., spathe 6in. long, 4in. broad, very
brilliant. l. broader and more robust than those of the typical
species. A splendid variety.
A. S. Williamsii (Williams's).* fl., spathe white; spadix
yellowish. May. l. lanceolate-acuminate. Costa Rica, 1874. SYN.
A. Scherzerianum album.
A. signatum (well-marked). l. apparently three-lobed; front
lobe about 1ft. long and 4in. wide; the two side ones 4in. long,
and about 6in. from the midrib to the extremity, dark green;
petioles about 1ft. long. Venezuela, 1858.
A. spathiphyllum (Spathiphyllum). fl., spathe about 1¾in.
long, and nearly as much broad, erect, boat-shaped, broadly
ovate, white; spadix nearly 1in. long, very obtuse, pale yellow. l.
narrow lanceolate, 16in. to 24in. long, and about 2in. wide,
bright green above, pale greyish green beneath; midrib
prominent; petiole 3in. to 6in. long, trigonous. h. 1½ft. Tropical
America, 1875.
A. splendidum (splendid).* l. cordate, with an open sinus, the
lobes meeting behind; "the course of the nerves is marked by a
broadish band of deep lustrous velvety green, the intervening
spaces of about equal width being in striking contrast, of a pale
yellowish green; the leaf surface is scabrous, and the portions
between the ribs strongly bullate, as if raised in papillose
blisters; the veins on the under surface are angular, with tooth-
like projections at intervals, while the whole under surface is
punctuated with small pallid dots" (W. Bull). Stem short, thick.
South America, 1882. A very beautiful species, quite distinct
from any others of the genus. See Fig. 112.
 FIG. 112. ANTHURIUM SPLENDIDUM.

A. subsignatum (nearly allied to Signatum).* l. thick and

fleshy, hastate, with blunt points, 12in. to 18in. long, and as
much in breadth at the widest part; dark shining green above,
paler beneath; petioles about 1ft. long. h. 1½ft. Costa Rica,
1861. An excellent species.
A. tetragonum (four-angled). l. erect, commences very
narrow, 1ft. wide at its broadest part; margins undulate, deep
shining green on the upper surface, paler below; petioles short,
quadrangular. Tropical America, 1860. An excellent sub-tropical
species.
A. triumphans (superior). fl., spathe narrow, green; spadix
stout, greenish-white; peduncle quadrangular. l. alternate,
elongately cordate, bright green; ribs prominent, and of a paler
hue. Stem erect. Brazil, 1882. A handsome plant.
 A. Veitchii (Veitch's).* l. ovate-oblong, greatly elongated, 2ft.
to 3ft. long, with a breadth of less than one-third of these
dimensions, leathery, deep green, with a glossy metallic surface
when first expanded that becomes paler with age; the principal
nerves are arched and deeply sunk, imparting a curiously waved
appearance to the surface. h. 2½ft. Columbia, 1877. Rare but
very handsome.
A. Waluiewi (Walujew's).* l. broadly cordate, 12in. to 14in.
long, 8in. to 10in. broad, olive metallic green, when young,
bright reddish crimson; petioles four to five-angled. h. 2ft.
Venezuela, 1880. A very distinct and noble species.
A. Waroqueanum (Waroque's).* l. elongated, from 24in. to
sometimes 36in. long, and 8in. to 11in. broad, very rich deep
green, of a velvety lustre; midribs and veins light, forming a
very pleasing contrast. Columbia, 1878. A very free grower.
A. Wildenowii (Wildenow's). A synonym of A. lanceolatum.
It may be here remarked that by far the majority of species
enumerated in the Supplement of Johnson's Dictionary are
chiefly of botanical interest, and will, therefore, never become
extensively cultivated.

ANTHYLLIS (from anthos, a flower, and ioulos, down; flowers

usually downy). Kidney Vetch. ORD. Leguminosæ. Herbaceous or
sub-shrubby plants, of variable habit. Flowers in spikes or heads;
calyx tubular, five toothed, permanent after flowering, more or less
inflated. Petals nearly equal. Although not extensively grown, all the
species are very beautiful when in flower, the hardy sorts being
admirably adapted for rockwork. The herbaceous perennials may be
easily propagated by seed or division. The seeds of the annual kinds
should be sown in a rather dry, warm situation in the open ground.
The shrubby evergreens will need the protection of a frame or cool
greenhouse in cold northern climates, and are best grown in a
mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Young cuttings of most species will
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