Taylor and Maclaurin Series

University of Computer Studies, Yangon

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Semester I

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Series Representation

We assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is the sum of power series about 𝑥 = 𝑎:

𝑓 𝑥 = σ∞ 𝑛 2 3
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑎) +𝑎3 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎
𝑛 + ⋯ ---(1)

We assume that 𝑓(𝑥) has derivative of every order and that we can find them as follows:
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 3𝑎3 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛−1 + ⋯, 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 𝑎1
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 1 ⋅ 2𝑎2 + 2 ⋅ 3𝑎3 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 3 ⋅ 4𝑎4 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 + ⋯, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 = 1 ⋅ 2𝑎2

𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3𝑎3 +2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4𝑎4 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5𝑎5 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 +⋯, 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑎 = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3𝑎3

⋮ ⋮
⋮ ⋮
𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑥 = n! 𝑎𝑛 + a sum of terms with 𝑥 − 𝑎 as a factor, 𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑎 = n! 𝑎𝑛

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Series Representation
𝑓′ 𝑎
𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 𝑎1 → 𝑎1 =
1!
𝑓′′ 𝑎 𝑓′′ 𝑎
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 = 1 ⋅ 2 𝑎2 → 𝑎2 = =
1⋅2 2!
𝑓′′′ 𝑎 𝑓′′′ 𝑎
𝑓 ′′′ 𝑎 = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 𝑎3 → 𝑎3 =
1⋅2⋅3
=
3!
⋮ ⋮
⋮ 𝑓(𝑛) 𝑎 𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑎
𝑓 (𝑛) ⋮𝑎 = n! 𝑎𝑛 → 𝑎𝑛 = =
1⋅2⋅3…𝑛 𝑛!
Substitution into Equation (1) gives the following Taylor Series:
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) 𝑎 𝑘 ′
𝑓 ′′
𝑎 2
𝑓 ′′′
𝑎 3
𝑓 (𝑛)
𝑎 𝑛
෍ (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑥−𝑎 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑘=0

Taylor Series generated by f at x=0 is a Maclaurin Series:

∞
𝑓 (𝑘) 0 𝑘 𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓 (𝑛) 0
෍ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
𝑘! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑘=0

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Taylor Series
𝑓 (𝑘)
𝑎 𝑓′′ 𝑎
σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑘! (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑥−𝑎 2
2!

𝑓′′′ 𝑎 3 𝑓(𝑛) 𝑎 𝑛
+ (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑥−𝑎 +⋯
3! 𝑛!

Maclaurin Series
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) 0 𝑘 𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓 ′′ 0 𝑓 (𝑛) 0
෍ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
𝑘! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑘=0

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

1
EXAMPLE 1 Find the Taylor series generated by f(x) = 𝑥 at x= 𝑎=2.
1
Where, if anywhere, does the series converge to ?.
𝑥
Solution

∞
𝑓𝑘 𝑎 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑥
෍ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 = 𝑎0 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯ + 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 𝑛!
𝑘=0

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

EXAMPLE 1 (Continued)

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Taylor Polynomials

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

EXAMPLE 2 Find the Taylor series and Taylor’s Polynomial generated by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

EXAMPLE 3
Find the Taylor series and Taylor’s Polynomial generated by f(𝑥) =cos 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

EXAMPLE 3 (Continued)

The Taylor series generated by f(𝑥) =cos 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 is

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Assignment

4, 12, 30

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing

 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

REFERENCES
1] GEORGE B. THOMAS, JR., JOEL HASS, CHRISTOPHER HEIL, MAURICE D. WEIR.: THOMAS’
CALCULUS, 14th Edition. Pearson
2] GEORGE B. THOMAS, JR., JOEL HASS, CHRISTOPHER HEIL, PRZEMYSLAW BOGACKI,
MAURICE D. WEIR.: THOMAS’ CALCULUS, 15th Edition, Early Transcendental. Pearson

CM-101(Calculus) Faculty of Computing