Control and Instrumentation

Introduction to instrumentation
 Block diagram of a general
measurement system

Calibration

Signal path Signal

Sensor Transducer Output
Conditioning
stage stage stage
stage

Process
Control
stage
 Sensors and Transducers

 A sensor is:
 the element which produces a signal relating to
the quantity being measured.
 A transducer is:
 a device that converts the variation of one
quantity to those of another
 a device that converts the sensed information
into a detectable signal, which might be
electrical , mechanical, optical, or otherwise.
 an electromechanical device that converts a
mechanical change to an electrical signal.
Examples

Examples of Sensors
Strain gauge; potentiometer,
thermistor, Photoelectric cell,
piezoelectric crystal,
piezoresistive element, etc.
Examples of Transducers
Load cell, accelerometer,
pressure transducer, etc.
Systems Characteristics
 Types of systems
Static
Dynamic
 Static behaviour are the values given for a
transducer when steady-state conditions
occur.
 Dynamic behaviour refers to the
behaviour of the transducer between the
time that the input values change and the
steady state time.
Static System characteristics

Error
Accuracy
Zero Offset
Sensitivity
Resolution
Dead Band
Reliability
Stability
Error

Error = measured value – actual value

Sometimes it is difficult to quantify

because it is not possible to know the
actual value

Error of +1 V means the measured

value is bigger by 1V.
Error of -1 V means the measured
value is smaller by 1V.
Accuracy

An accuracy of  1mV indicates

that the true value is somewhere in
the band between –1 mV and + 1
mV.
Accuracy of  5% for a full scale
range 0-200 C means that
reading is within + or – 10 C
Zero offset

Zero offset: States the output for a

zero input.

Output

+Offset Input
0,0
-Offset
Sensitivity, Resolution, Dead
band
 Sensitivity is used to show how the
output depends on secondary inputs
such as temperature, power supply
voltage etc.
 Resolution is defined as the largest
change in the input that can occur
without a corresponding change in the
output. Used for electrical mostly.
 Dead band is the range of input values
for which there is no output. Same as
resolution but for a certain range of
input. Used for non electrical mostly.
Repeatability, Stability

 Repeatability is the ability to give the

same output for repeated applications
of the same input value.
 Stability is the ability to produce the
same output (for a given input) over a
period of time.
 Example

 A displacement sensor has an input range

of 0 to 10 cm and an output of 0 to 100 mV.
The sensor has an offset error within  5% of
full range and a accuracy of  20% .
 Using a graph determine the possible
output values for a displacement of 5 cm.
 Answer

 At input = 5 cm the output is 50 mV

 Possible output s
 50 mV + 5 mV + 10 mV = 65 mV
 50 mV - 5 mV + 10 mV = 55 mV
 50 mV + 5 mV - 10 mV = 45 mV
 50 mV - 5 mV - 10 mV = 35 mV
 Worst case output values 65 mV or 35 mV
Answer

If accuracy is  20 mV, then.

 At input = 5 cm the output is 50 mV
 Possible output s
 50 mV + 5 mV + 20 mV = 75 mV
 50 mV - 5 mV + 20 mV = 65 mV
 50 mV + 5 mV - 20 mV = 35 mV
 50 mV - 5 mV - 20 mV = 25 mV
 Worst case output values 75 mV or 25 mV
Dynamic System characteristics

Frequency response
Response time
Time constant
Rise time
Settling time
 Dynamic System characteristics
 Frequency response: it is about the system
Sensitivity versus input frequency.
 Response time: Time taken for the output to
reach 95% of its final value in response to a step
input.
 Time constant: Time taken for the output to
reach 63.2% of its final value in response to a
step input.
 Rise time: Time taken for the output to rise
between 10% and 90% of its steady state value.
 Settling time: time taken for the output to first to
reach and thereafter remain within a
prescribed percentage of the final steady state
final value.
Sensors and Transducers
Types of sensors

Displacement sensors
Position sensors
Proximity sensors
Force sensors
Pressure sensors
 Displacement sensors and
Position sensors
1. Linear displacement sensor
2. Rotational (potentiometer) sensor
3. Strain gauge displacement sensor
4. Capacitive displacement sensor
5. Differential Transformers Output Voltage
EI and LVDT

Displacement
Or position
1. Linear displacement sensor

Vs Vs
slider Rd-Rx
Vout
d Vout
x
Rx
0v 0v

Rx
Vout = Vs
( Rd − Rx) + Rx

x Track length d metres

Vout = Vs Slider position x metres
d
2. Rotational displacement sensor

 For a rotary model replace distance by

angle
 out
Vout = Vs
t
Example - Rotational displacement sensor
 3. Strain gauge displacement sensor
The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal
wire/foil strip, or semiconductor strip stuck to work
piece like a postage stamp.

l
semiconductor

 con ection
connection leads
leads
Strain-gauge Operation

If the strain gauge is put under

tension, the gauge will stretch and
the wires not only get slightly
longer but also thinner.
 Both actions cause the total wire
resistance to rise.
Strain-gauge Operation
4. Capacitive sensor

 For a parallel plate capacitor :

dielectric

εA Plate area
C=
h h

A is the plate area .

 is the dielectric constant.
h is the distance between the plates.
Change in distance h for a
capacitor
If h changes the capacitance
changes ( in a non-linear way) as
shown in the graph.

Cap.
C

C+C

h h+h distance
Change in Area A for a
capacitor

If area changes the capacitance

changes (in a linear way ) as
shown in the graph.

Cap

C+C

C
A A+A area
Change in dielectric constant 
for a Capacitor
 This produces a similar change in
capacitance as the previous change in
area.
 However to produce a change in dielectric,
over the complete surface area of a
capacitor, is very difficult.
 The possible way is to move a slab of
dielectric material within two fixed plates
creating two parallel connected capacitors
C1 and C2

C1 C2
Capacitive proximity sensor

It consists of a single capacitor

plate probe with the other plate
being formed by the object
(metallic & earthed).
Coaxial cable

Guard ring

Metallic object
Capacitive proximity sensor
Operation

As the object moves towards the

fixed plate, the plate separation h
changes, becoming significant and
detectable when the object is close
to the probe.
5. Differential Transformers

EI
LVDT
EI Differential transformer

the most common type of

transformer that uses steel E- and I-
laminations
EI Differential transformer operation

Differential transformer
used to sense angular
displacement.
LVDT Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
 3 coils symmetrically positioned around a
tube.
 Central coil transformer primary, ac
input.
 Outer coils transformer secondary
 Same number of turns, wound in
opposite direction, connected in series.
 Voltage induced in outer coils depends
on the position of the magnetic core in
the tube. Vout = v2 - v3
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Vout Vout Vout

v2 v3 v2 v3 v2 v3
2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3
core

v1 v1 v1
v2 = v3 v2 > v3 v2 < v3
Vout = 0V Vout +ve Vout -ve
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Sensors and Transducers
Force sensor
Pressure sensor
speed sensor
Temperature sensor
 Force transducer- Load cells

 A load cell is a transducer that is used to

convert a force into electrical signal.
 The conversion happens in two stages:
1) The force deforms a strain gauge.
2) The strain gauge measures the
deformation (strain) as an electrical signal
 A load cell usually consists of four strain
gauges in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration
Wheatstone bridge

R4
VA = VS
R1 + R 4
R1 R2
R3
VB = VS A
R2 + R3 Vs Vo
B

Vo = VA − VB R4 R3
Wheatstone bridge - Null reading

Assume initially all the resistors are

equal valued .
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4
The bridge is balanced when:

Vo = 0
 Wheatstone bridge

The bridge can be used in two methods:

1. Direct voltage reading
2. Null balance
1. Direct voltage reading
A change in resistance is indicated
by the output Vo.
Suppose R1 is a strain gauge .
Under load the resistance changes
by R.

R1 R2 V

Vs A B
Vo

R4 R3
Direct voltage reading
 Sensitivity can be improved by having more
than one active gauge in the bridge as shown:

R1 R2

Vs A B
Vo

R4 R3
 2. Null Balance
Vo is kept at zero.
Slow, accurate, requires a calibrated
potentiometer
Balance (Vo = 0) is always achieved when
R4.R2-R3.R1 = 0

R1 R2
Active Variable
Vs Vo
R4 R3
Fixed Fixed
 Null Balance condition

If R1 is a sensor and R2 is a variable resistor

and all resistors are initially the same,
balance is achieved when
R2 = R1
 Pressure sensors

Pressure sensors usually consist of two

parts:
Part1: converts pressure to a force or
displacement
Part2: converts the force or
displacement to an electrical signal.
Pressure measurements are made only
for gases and liquids.
 Pressure sensor using Bourdon Tubes

 A Bourdon tube is a short bent tube, closed at

one end.
 When the tube is pressurized, it tends to
straighten out. This motion is proportional to the
applied pressure and can be sensed using LVDT
 Bourdon-tube sensors are available in pressure
ranges from 30 to 100,000 psi. Typical uses include
steam- and water-pressure gauges.
Pressure sensor using Bourdon Tubes
 Semiconductor Pressure Sensor
Some of the available pressure sensors
use the piezoresistive property of
silicon.
The piezoresistive element converts
pressure directly into resistance, and
resistance can be converted into
voltage.
Semiconductor Pressure Sensor
The piezoresistive effect is a change in the
electrical resistivity of a semiconductor when
mechanical strain is applied.
Advantages of Semiconductor
Pressure Sensor

No moving parts

Available in pressure ranges from
0-1.5 psi and 0-5000 psi.
 Speed sensors

Optical Tachometers
Variable reluctance tachogenerator
Optical Tachometer
Optical Tachometer operation

The stripe is placed on the shaft. A

photo sensor is mounted in such a way
to output a pulse each time the stripe
goes by.
The period of this waveform is inversely
proportional to the rpm of the shaft and
can be measured using a counter
circuit.
Variable reluctance tachogenerator
 Variable reluctance
tachogenerator operation
 consists of a stationary sensor and a rotating,
toothed, iron-based wheel.
 The toothed wheel (which looks like a big
gear) can be built into the part to be
measured
 The sensor generates a pulse each time a
tooth passes by.
 The angular velocity of the wheel is
proportional to the frequency of the pulses.
 For example, if the wheel had 20 teeth, then
there would be 20 pulses per revolution.
Temperature sensors

Resistance temperature detector

Thermistor
IC Temperature sensor
 Resistance temperature detectors
 RTDs are sensors used to measure temperature
by correlating the resistance of the RTD element
with temperature.
 The RTD element is made from a pure material,
typically platinum, nickel or copper.
 The material has a predictable change in
resistance as the temperature changes and it is
this predictable change that is used to
determine temperature.
Resistance temperature detectors
RTD is a wire made of platinum wrapped
around a ceramic or glass rod and
placed inside a probe to protect it as
shown in the figure below.
Resistance temperature detectors

RT = R0 (1 +  .T )
RT resistance at T C
R0 resistance at 0C
 temperature coefficient of resistance
T temperature C

Operating range approx. -50 to 800C

RTDs advantages & disadvantages

RTDs have the advantage of being very

accurate and stable (characteristics do
not change over time).
The disadvantages are low sensitivity
(small change in resistance per degree),
relatively slow response time to
temperature changes, and high cost.
 Thermistors

 A thermistor is a two-terminal device that

changes resistance with temperature.
 Made of oxide mix material.
 Temperature coefficient of resistance
dependent on material mix .
 Operating range -100 to 500C
 High sensitivity
 Non linear response of the form:
 /T
RT = Roe
RT resistance at T C
R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (25°C = 298.15 K)
B temperature coefficient of resistance
T temperature C
Thermistors
Integrated circuit temperature sensor
IC temperature sensor LM 35 datasheet
IC temperature sensor LM 35 Example
Solution
End