3.

1 Hardware Storage Devices Notes

Objective:
 Show understanding of need for primary memory, secondary (including removable) storage.
 Describe principal operations of hardware devices Including: hard disk, solid state (flash)
memory, optical disc reader/writer.
 Explain differences between RAM and ROM. Including their use in a range of devices.
 Explain differences between SRAM and DRAM. Include their use in range of devices and
systems and reasons for using one instead of other depending on device and its use.
 Explain difference between Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable Programmable ROM
(EPROM) and Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).
 Show understanding of embedded systems, benefits and drawbacks of embedded systems.
 Show understanding of the use of buffers.

Computer System Hardware Functionality

A computer system has to support three major areas of operational capability:

 Storage of Data.
 Processing of data. Processing of data is carried out CPU.
 Input and output of data.
For data output from a computer system, following options are available:
• Screen Display • Hardcopy using printer/ plotter • virtual headset display
• speaker • writing to any data storage devices
For input of data to a computer system, following options are available:
• Keyboard • user interaction with a screen possibly using pointing device or
use of touch screen • A user using a game controller • a user using a scanner
• A user using a microphone • Reading from any of the storage devices

Storage Devices

A storage device is a piece of computer equipment that is used to store information and data.
➢ It is an integral part of computer hardware, without which a computer would not be
able to run or even boot up.
➢ Storage devices can hold and store information both temporarily and permanently.
➢ They can be internal or external to a computer, server, or computing device.
➢ Storage needs to be larger than internal memory since user may wish to store large
files.
➢ Storage devices can be removable to allow data to be transferred between computers.
Removable devices allow user to store important data for back up in different location
in case of data loss.

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 Storage Devices

➢ Examples of storage devices include hard disks, CDs, DVDs, pen/flash drives, SSDs, and
cloud storage.
Types of Storage Devices
Types of computer memory: Primary memory, Secondary memory.

Primary (Main) Memory:

Primary memory is part of computer memory which can
be accessed directly from CPU. Primary memory are used to store data, files, part of
an application or part of operating system currently in use.
Example are random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM) and Cache Memory.

Cache Memory is external to processor, this is used to store data which processor will
probably need to use again. Cache memory has faster access speed than that of main
memory. It is built using SRAM technology

Random Access Memory

✓ It is ‘read–write memory because it can be read from or written to any number

of times.
✓ It is called RAM because any byte of data stored can be accessed without
affecting the other bytes stored.
✓ It is also called ‘direct-access memory’.
✓ RAM is volatile main memory, which means that when computer system is
switched off contents of memory are lost.
✓ RAM is used to hold data and programs that are currently in use.
Larger the RAM, faster the computer will operate. RAM never runs out of memory, it
continues to operate but becomes slower and slower as more data is stored.

Two Types of RAM

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
DRAM chip consists of a millions of transistors and
capacitors. Capacitors hold the bits of information (0 or 1). Transistors act like switch
and allow chip control circuitry to read capacitor or change capacitor’s value.
DRAM needs to be constantly refreshed because capacitor needs to be re-charged
otherwise it would lose its value. If it is not refreshed, capacitor’s charge will leak away
very quickly, leaving every capacitor with value 0.

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 3.1 Hardware Storage Devices Notes

 Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM does not need to be constantly refreshed as it makes use
of flip flops which hold each bit of memory. SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it
comes to data access.
DRAM is common type of RAM used in computers, but where absolute speed is
essential, for example in processor’s memory cache, SRAM is preferred technology.
Differences between DRAM and SRAM
DRAM SRAM
Consists of number of transistors and Uses flip-flops to hold each bit of memory
capacitors
Needs to be constantly refreshed . Does not need to be constantly refreshed
DRAM have less complex circuitry, use SRAM uses more than one transistor to
single transistor and capacitor to store a bit. form a memory cell and therefore has more
complex circuitry.
Consumes more power than SRAM under If accessed at high frequency then power
reasonable levels of access, as it needs to use can exceed than DRAM, otherwise it
be constantly refreshed. consume less power.
Less expensive to manufacture than SRAM Has a faster data access time than DRAM
Has higher memory capacity than SRAM Processor memory (cache) makes use of
Main memory is constructed from DRAM SRAM.

Read only Memory ROM:

ROMs are
Non-volatile (contents are not lost after powering off computer)
Permanent memory devices (the contents cannot be changed)
Often used to store data which computer needs to access when powering up for
first time for example, basic input/output system (BIOS). ROM is used to store
bootstrap program. This is a program that runs immediately when a system is
switched on.
Types of ROM:

1. Simplest type of ROM: Programs or data are installed as part of manufacturing

process. If different contents are needed, chip must be replaced.
2. Programmable ROM (PROM) is type of ROM chip that can be altered once.
Manufacturer of chip supplies chips to a system builder. System builder installs
program or data into chips. PROM is made up of matrix of fuses. Programming
a PROM requires use of a PROM writer which uses an electric current to alter
specific cells by ‘burning’ fuses in the matrix.
PROM are used in mobile phones and in RFID tags.

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 Storage Devices

3. Erasable PROM (EPROM) use floating gate transistors and capacitors rather
than fuses. It can be re-written using ultra violet light multiple times. EPROM
needs to be removed from device to erased /written again. EPROM must be
entirely erased before rewriting.
EPROM are used in applications which are under development, such as
programming of new games consoles.
4. Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM). It can be re-written and erased using
electricity voltage. This has major advantage that chip can remain in circuit
while contents are changed. However, chip is still used as read-only.
Differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
Temporary memory device Permanent memory device
Volatile memory Non-volatile memory device
RAM allows you to both read and write You cannot write to ROM, you can only read
data. from it.
Used to store data, files, programs, part of Used to store BIOS and other data needed
OS currently in use. at start up.
Can be increased in size to improve
operational speed of a computer.

Secondary Storage Devices

✓ Secondary storage includes storage devices that are not directly accessible by
CPU.
✓ They are non-volatile devices which allow data to be stored as long as required
by user.
✓ Without secondary storage all programs and data would be lost the moment
the computer is switched off.
✓ Secondary storage is much larger than primary memory, but data access time is
considerably slower than RAM and ROM.
✓ All applications, operating system, device drivers and general files (documents,
photos and music) are stored on secondary storage.
✓ Secondary storage devices has three categories:
➢ Magnetic Storage : Internal Hard Disk or External / Removable Hard Disks
➢ Solid state: SSD , USB
➢ Optical Storage: CD , DVD , DVD RAM , Blu-ray discs
Magnetic Media Storage

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 3.1 Hardware Storage Devices Notes

 Hard disk drives (HDD):

Data is stored in digital format on magnetic surfaces of
disks (platters). Hard disk drive will have number of platters. Each platter will have
two surfaces which can be used to store the data. Platters spin in unison (all together
and at same speed). A number of read-write heads can access all of surfaces in disk
drive. Read–write heads are attached to actuator arms which allow heads to move
over surfaces of platters. Motion of each read–write head is synchronized with motion
of other heads. A cushion of air ensures that a head does not touch a platter surface.

Data is stored on surface in sectors and tracks. A sector on a given track will contain a
fixed number of bytes.
Hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to RAM.
Effect of Latency:
Latency is defined as time taken by a block in a sector to rotate around
to read-write head.
Many applications require read-write heads to constantly seek for correct blocks of
data; this means a large number of head movements. Effects of latency then become
very significant.
Users will notice effect of latency when they see messages such as, ‘Please wait’ or, at
its worst, ‘not responding’.
Hard Disk Fragmentation:
When data is stored on HDD. Required number of sectors
needed to store that data will be allocated. However, sectors allocated may not be
adjacent to each other. Through time, HDD will undergo numerous deletions and
editing, which leads to sectors becoming increasingly fragmented, resulting in a
gradual decline of HDD performance (it takes longer and longer to access data).
Defragmentation software can improve on this situation by ‘tidying up’ disk sectors.
HDD is a direct access device; however, data in a given sector will be read sequentially.

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 Storage Devices

How Data is Stored in HDD?

Data is stored on each platter. Bits of data are arranged in concentric,
circular paths called tracks. Each track is broken up into smaller areas called sectors. Hard
drive stores map of sectors that have already been used up and others that are still free.
When computer wants to store new information, it takes a look at the map to find some
free sectors. Then it instructs read-write head to move across platter to exactly right
location and store data there. To read information, same process runs in reverse.

Removable hard disk drives are external to computer and can be connected to
computer using USB ports. They can be used as back-up devices or as another way of
transferring files between computers.
Solid State drives SSD have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at same
(SSD)
rate. They do not rely on magnetic properties. Data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of
tiny transistors within chip. SSD is non-volatile rewritable memory
Types of Solid State devices:
❖ NAND base Solid State memory chips:
This type of Solid State drives Store data by controlling
movement of electrons within NAND chips. Millions of transistors are used
floating gate and control gate. NAND base memory chips Read or erase blocks
of data which means access is to a block not to individual bits.
NAND chips are used due to its low cost. NAND base memory chips is used in
SSD, flash memory / pin drives, memory cards.
❖ NOR base Solid State Memory Chips:
It is more expensive and slower to read / write data but its
life is more and data is accessible at bit level. Data can be read or erased in a
single byte at a time. Data is accessible at bit / byte level so it is more useful in
designing processors memory. It use electronically erasable PROM (EEPROM)
technology. It is used in computer ROM.
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Solid state drives
 are more reliable as there is no moving parts.
 are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
 have a lower power consumption
 run much cooler than HDDs
 are very thin (because they have no moving parts)
 access data considerably faster

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 3.1 Hardware Storage Devices Notes

Drawback of SSD:
Main drawback of SSD is longevity of technology. Most solid state
storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20 GB write operations per day over a
three-year period – this is known as SSD endurance. For this reason, SSD technology is
not used in servers where huge number of write operations take place every day.

ESQ: How Data is Stored in Solid state (flash) memory ?

• All the data is recorded in a transistor called Floating Gate. • Solid state devices use
NAND or NOR based flash memory which retains data without power. • NAND based
memory reads faster than it writes • Data is stored in cells protected by floating gates
and Cells are connected in series. • Other transistor used in SSD named control Gate
controls charges flow from Source (input of current) to Drain (output of current).

Optical Media
CDs and DVDS are optical storage devices.
Red Laser light is used to read data from, and write data onto, surface of a disk. Both
CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store
data. Both CD/DVD use a single, spiral track which runs from centre of disk to edge.
When a disk spins, optical head moves to point where laser beam ‘contacts’ the disk
surface and follows the spiral track from the centre outwards.
CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing direct access of data. Data is stored in ‘pits’
and ‘Land’ on spiral track.

When laser shines on disc surface, lands (bumps) reflect light back, whereas pits
scatter laser beam. A sensor looks for reflected light. Reflected light - land - represents
a binary '1', and no reflection - pits - represents a binary '0'

DVD technology is different to that used in CDs. One of main differences is use of dual
layering which considerably increases storage capacity. This means that there are two
individual recording layers. Two layers of DVD are joined together with a transparent
polycarbonate spacer, and a very thin reflector is sandwiched between two layers.
Reading and writing of second layer is done by a red laser.

Single layer DVDs still have a larger storage capacity than CDs because ‘pit’ size and
track width are both smaller. This means that more data can be stored on DVD
surface. DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometres; CDs use lasers with a
wavelength of 780 nanometres. Shorter the wavelength of laser light, Greater the
storage capacity of the medium.
Blu-ray Discs Blu-ray discs are example of optical storage media.

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 Storage Devices

• Blu-ray uses a blue laser, rather than a red laser, to carry out read and write
operations; wavelength of blue light is only 405 nanometres.
• Using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ can be much smaller;
consequently, a Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than a DVD.
• Blu-ray discs automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to
prevent piracy and copyright infringement.
Optical storage media are used as back-up systems (for photos, music and multimedia files).
This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files between computers.
Manufacturers supply their software (such as printer drivers) on CDs and DVDs.

Embedded Systems
Embedded systems involve installing microprocessors into devices to enable
operations to be controlled in a more efficient way. Devices such as cookers,
refrigerators and central heating systems can all be activated by a web-enabled device
(such as a mobile phone ). Time a central heating system switches on or off and
temperature can all be set from an app on a mobile phone from anywhere.
Features of embedded systems: 9618 P12 OCT 23
Dedicated to a single task // limited number of functions
Built into a larger system // integrated into a larger system
Embedded system must contain a processor, memory and an I/O capability.
Pros Of Embedded Systems Cons Of Embedded Systems
Small in size and therefore easy to fit into Difficult to upgrade devices to take
devices advantage of new technology
Relatively low cost to make Troubleshooting faults in the device
becomes a specialist task
Usually dedicated to one task and no Any device that can be accessed over
requirement of an operating system internet is also open to hackers, viruses,
and so on
Consume very little power Due to difficulty in upgrading and fault
finding, devices are often just thrown
away rather than being repaired.
ESQ: Many modern televisions are examples of embedded systems.
(a) Explain why these televisions are embedded systems.
Ans: Embedded system is integrated into the TV • combination of hardware and
software designed for a specific function • The system is not easily changed/updated
by the TV owner.
(b) Embedded systems use Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

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 3.1 Hardware Storage Devices Notes

Describe one benefit of using EEPROMs in an embedded system.

Ans: No additional equipment is needed to change and enables firmware updates by
non-technical users.
Can be erased and reprogrammed several times so firmware can be updated and can
erase a particular byte or the whole EEPROM. Possible to reprogram / update without
removing it from the device.
Buffers

It is a temporary storage created for data transmitted from one part of system to
another which functions as a queue.
Whenever data has to be transferred from one part of a computer system to another,
problem occurs if data can be sent more quickly than it can be received.
Solution to the problem is to use a buffer. Data enters a buffer before being
transmitted to its destination. Buffer functions as a queue so data emerges in order
that it has entered buffer. Typically, buffer is created in computer memory.
Trends in factors affecting the choice of memory components

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