LIST

of exam questions
CHEMISTRY
2021-2022

1. Question.
Basic thermodynamic concepts: system, phase, types of systems and their states.
Extensive and intensive state parameters. Thermodynamic processes and their
characteristics
2. Question.
Energy characteristics of systems and processes: internal energy, heat, work.
Expression of the 1st law of thermodynamics for isolated and closed systems
3. Question.
Enthalpy as a function of state. The enthalpy of a chemical reaction. Hess's law.
Application of Hess's law to characterize metabolism.
4. Question.
The concept of entropy, thermal and statistical interpretation of the entropy of the
system. Expression of the 2nd law of thermodynamics for isolated systems. Ways
to change the entropy value of the system.
5. Question.
Gibbs free energy. Thermodynamic criterion of spontaneous chemical reaction,
Formulation of the 2nd law of thermodynamics using Gibbs energy.
6. Question.
Irreversible and reversible reactions. The concept of chemical equilibrium.
Thermodynamic conditions of the equilibrium state. Chemical equilibrium
constant, factors affecting its value
7. Question.
The law of mass action for reversible processes. The relationship of the
equilibrium constant with the change of Gibbs energy. Write the expression K of
equilibrium for the following processes: i) homogeneous 2H2(г) + O2(г)
2H2O(г), ii) heterogeneous СО2(г) + С(тв) 2CO(г), iii) dissociation of
- +
electrolytes: СН3COOH CH3COO + H ; NH4OH NH4+ + OH-.
8. Question.
Influence of temperature, pressure, concentration of reagents and catalyst on the
state of chemical equilibrium. Methods of its displacement, the principle of Le
Chatelier. Apply the principle to the following reversible processes: i) N2(g) +
3H2(g) 2NH3(g), ∆Н < O ii) 2РН3 (g) 2P(s) + 3Н2(g), ∆H > O.
9. Question.
Features of thermodynamics of living organisms, equilibrium and stationary
thermodynamic states. The concept of homeostasis.
10. Question.
Endergonic and exergonic reactions. The principle of energy coupling of these
processes in a living organism.
11. Question.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds, their properties, consider the example of HF, H2O
and NH3. The role of hydrogen bonds in the formation of pure water and aqueous
solutions. The importance of hydrogen bonds for the formation of native
biopolymer structures.
12. Question.
Weak intermolecular interactions, their role in the formation of aggregate states of
substances. Features of solid, liquid and gaseous states. The role of intermolecular
interactions in the formation of biopolymer structures.
13.Question.
Phase equilibria. Phase diagram of water. Processes of boiling, condensation,
sublimation and melting. The difference between the phase diagrams of pure water
and aqueous solutions.
14. Question.
Features of the water structure in a liquid state and its role in the vital activity of
the body. Phase diagram of water. Water as a universal solvent of substances with
different properties. Types of aqueous solutions.
15.Question.
The structure of the H2O molecule. Parameters at which water exists in a liquid
state and features of the liquid state of water. Physico-chemical properties and the
role of water in the vital activity of the body. Water is a universal solvent of
gaseous, liquid and solid substances.
16. Question.
Water as weak electrolyte. Dissociation constant and ionic product constant of
water. The hydrogen index pH. Methods of calculation and experimental
determination of the acidity of the solution in pH units
17. Question.
Colligative properties of solutions. Saturated vapor pressure, boiling point and
freezing point of the solution, their dependence on the concentration of the
solution.
18. Question.
Osmosis and its role in the distribution of water in living organisms. Osmotic
pressure and factors affecting its magnitude. Van't-Hoff's law. Isotonic coefficient,
its value for dilute solutions. Compare osmotic pressure in solutions of the
following substances: NaCl, C6H12O6, CaCl2
19.Question.
The cell as an osmotic system. Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions. Saline
solutions in medicine. The concept of exo- and endoosmosis, lysis and hemolysis.
20. Question.
Electrolytic dissociation of substances with ionic and covalent bonds. Strong and
weak electrolytes. Features of dissociation processes of weak electrolytes. A
quantitative measure of the dissociation process of an electrolytes. Factors
affecting dissociation processes.
21. Question.
Features of solutions of strong electrolytes. Ion activity, activity coefficient. Ionic
force of the solution. The effect of the ionic force of the background electrolyte on
the functioning of proteins and nucleic acids.
22. Question.
The main positions of Bronsted's acid-base theory. Acids, bases and ampholites on
Bronsted. Conjugated acid-base pairs and their quantitative characteristics.
23. Question.
Acid-base properties of amphiprotic electrolytes. Calculation of the isoelectric
point using dissociation constants. Solutions of amino acids as ampholytes, the
effect of pH on their ionic state. Buffer properties of solutions of amino acids,
peptides and nucleic acids
24. Question.
Hydrolysis of salts as an exchange of acid-base reaction. Consider examples of
hydrolysis by cation, anion and irreversible decomposition of salts. Factors
affecting the hydrolytic equilibrium.
25. Question.
Acetate buffer solution. The mechanism of buffer action. Equation for calculating
the pH of the acetate buffer. The buffer action area. Buffer capacity
26. Question.
Ammonia buffer solution. The mechanism of buffer action. Equation for
calculating the pH of the ammonia buffer. The buffer action area. Buffer capacity
27. Question.
Buffer systems of blood: hydrocarbonate, hemoglobin, protein and
hydrophosphate. The main components and their relationship in these systems. The
mechanism of action of bicarbonate and hemoglobin buffer systems.
28.Question.
Interaction of the buffer systems of the body. Buffer capacity and physiological
parameters of blood. The concept of acidosis and alkalosis, the causes of their
occurrence.
29. Question.
The essence of redox reactions. Half-reactions as conjugated redox pairs. A
quantitative measure of the strength of the oxidizer and reducing agent, EMF.
Specify the direction of the following reactions:
i) 2FeCl3 + 2KI 2FeCl2 + I2 + 2KCl, ii) 2HI + S I2 + H2S.
30.Question.
Types of redox reactions: i) intramolecular, ii) intermolecular, iii)
disproportionation, give examples. EMF and the direction of spontaneous redox
reactions. The role of redox reactions in energy of metabolism and vital activity.
31. Question.
The influence of various factors on the course of redox reactions. Consider this
effect on the following reactions: i) Zn + H2SO4 (diluted) = …. ii) Zn +
H2SO4(concentrated) = …. iii) Cl2 + KOH(cold) = ….. iv) Cl2 + KOH(heated) =
….v) KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2SO4 = …. vi) KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O vii) KMnO4
+ Na2SO3 + NaOH = …..
32.Question.
The essence of complexation reactions. The nature of the chemical bond in them.
Complexing agents, coordination number, geometry and hybridization state.
Ligands, their types, dententancy of ligands. The primary and secondary spheres of
complexes.
33. Question.
Formation, destruction and transformation of complex compounds, their acid-base
properties, give examples
34. Question.
Chemical bonding in complex compounds. Features of the structure of the inner
sphere. The principle of hard and soft acids and bases. Chelates. Dissociation of
complex compounds in solutions, instability constants.
35. Question.
Free surface energy. Factors affecting free surface energy. Wetting coefficient,
surface tension. The role of surface tension in biology and medicine
36. Question.
The difference between chemisorption and physical sorption. Universality of
physical sorption. Why is chemisorption selective, irreversible and proceeds at an
optimal temperature? The initial stage of enzymatic catalysis as an example of
chemisorption.
37. Question.
Dispersed systems. Molecular kinetic (diffusion, osmosis) and optical properties.
Electrokinetic phenomena (electrophoresis, electroosmosis, flow and precipitation
potentials). Application of these phenomena in medical analysis.
38. Question.
Dispersed systems. Classification according to various characteristics and names of
various objects. Types of stability of dispersed systems. Electrokinetic potential.
39. Question.
Features of the structure of carbon atoms and its chemical bonds with organogen
elements. Valence states of the carbon atom. Acid-base and redox properties of
carbon compounds. The carbon cycle in nature
40.Question.
Features of the electronic structure of oxygen in various oxidation states. Redox
properties of oxygen, ozone and hydrogen peroxide. The role of oxygen in the
body, the oxygen cycle in nature. Active oxygen species and their toxicity.
41.Question.
The structure of the hydrogen atom, of a proton and a hydride ion. The role of
hydrogen atoms and protons in acid–base (according to Bronsted and Lewis) and
in redox processes.
42. Question.
Features of the structure of the sulfur atom and sulfur-containing natural
compounds, their role in the body (cysteine and cystine). Hydrogen sulfide.
Oxygen compounds of sulfur and their properties. The sulfur cycle in nature
43. Question.
Features of the structure of the nitrogen atom. Ammonia, its structure and chemical
properties. Basic, acidic, complexing and nucleophilic properties of the nitrogen
atom in its compounds. Oxygen-containing compounds of nitrogen. Nitrates and
nitrites, their toxic effect on the body.
44. Question.
Features of the electronic structure and types of hybridization of atomic orbitals of
the nitrogen atom. Basic, acidic, complexing and nucleophilic properties of
nitrogen and its compounds. Toxic effect of nitrites.
45.Question.
Sodium and potassium, the structure of atoms and the features of hydration of
cations that determine their concentrtion in the extracellular and intracellular
liquids. The concept of potassium-sodium pump.
46. Question.
Kinetic classification of reactions (radical, electrophilic, nucleophilic).
Experimental determination of the reaction order of reagent and reaction
mechanism.
47. Question.
Bronsted's theory of acidity and basicity. Comparison of acidic properties of
compounds: i) ethanol, ethylene glycol, glycerin; ii) phenol, 4-fluorophenol, 4-
aminophenol; iii) ethanol and ethanethiol. Explain the effect of the geometry,
electronic structure and solvent on the acidity.
48. Question.
Hydroxy acids. Stereoisomerism. Enantiomerism and diastereomerism on the
examples of lactic and tartaric acids. D- and L-stereochemical series. Glycerine
aldehyde as a standard configuration of D- and L-stereoisomers. Optical activity of
enantiomers. The value of chirality of natural compounds.
49. Question.
Characteristics of reactions of organic compounds. Give examples of reactions:
acid-base according to Bronsted, according to Lewis, redox processes.
Classification of reactions by direction and type of reagents.
50.Question.
Amino acids. Chemical properties of amino acids as heterofunctional compounds.
Give the equations of characteristic reactions involving amino and carboxyl
groups.
51. Question.
Classification of proteinogenic α-amino acids based on the physico-chemical
properties of their radicals. Give examples of α-amino acids of each group, their
structural formulas and names
52. Question.
The behavior of amino acids in an aqueous solution, the formation of bipolar ions,
the effect of pH. The relationship of the isoelectric points values (pI) of the amino
acids: alanine, aspartic acid and lysine with their structure.
53. Question.
Proteinogenic α-amino acids. Structure and classification. Reactions confirming
the amphoteric properties of α-amino acids on the example of threonine, tyrosine
and cysteine
54. Question.
Proteinogenic α-amino acids. Structure and stereoisomerism. Amphoteric
properties of amino acids on the example of glutamic acid and asparagine,
arginine.
55. Question.
Amino acids. Structure and classification by arrangement of functional groups in
the chain. The reactions to the heating of α-, β- and γ-amino acids. The use of
amino acids and peptides as medicinal and therapeutic chemicals.
56. Question.
The concept of polypeptides and the primary structure of protein. The structure of
the ALA-GIS-DLU tripeptide and the characteristics of its physico-chemical
properties.
57. Question.
The primary structure of polypeptides and proteins. The structure of the GLU-
PRO-VAL tripeptide and the characteristics of its physico-chemical properties
58. Question.
The concept of polypeptides and the primary structure of protein. The structure of
the VAL-GIS-SER tripeptide and the characteristics of its physico-chemical
properties.
59. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Cyclo-oxo tautomerism of monosaccharides on
the example of D-glucose. Give the Fischer’s and Heuors’s formulas. Name each
tautomer. Explain the phenomenon of mutarotation in an aqueous glucose solution.
The use of glucose in medicine, the role in nutrition
60. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Deoxysaccharide. Deoxyribose (2-deoxy-D-
ribose). Cyclo-oxo tautomerism. Biological significance
61.Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Stereoisomers. Epimers, diastereomers and
enantiomers of glucose
62. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Write the equations of reactions proving the
presence of an aldehyde group, alcohol groups (polyatomic) and a hemiacetal
hydroxyl in the glucose structure.
63. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Chemical properties. Formation of O-glycosides
by the example of reactions of: i) D-glucose with ethanol; ii) D-glucuronic acid
with phenol. Give the full names of the reaction products.
64. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Write the equations of reactions proving the
presence of an aldehyde group, alcohol groups (polyatomic) and a hemiacetal
hydroxyl in the structure of galactose.
65. Question.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Redox reactions on the example of glucose and
fructose. The glucose oxidation reaction for assessing of a living organism.
66. Question.
Disaccharides. Types of bonds between monosaccharide unites. Reducing and non-
reducing disaccharides. Structure and nomenclature of disaccharides on the
example of maltose and sucrose. Proof of the presence of reducing properties of
disaccharides
67. Question.
Disaccharides. Reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. Structure and
nomenclature of disaccharides on the example of cellobiose and sucrose. Proof of
the presence of reducing properties of disaccharides
68. Question.
Disaccharides. Reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. Structure and
nomenclature of disaccharides on the example of lactose and sucrose. Proof of the
presence of reducing properties of disaccharides
69. Question.
Polysaccharides. Homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Starch as a
homopolysaccharide. Starch components are amylose and amylopectin. The
primary structure of starch
70. Question.
Homopolysaccharide is cellulose. Composition, bonding, primary and secondary
structure. The relationship between the structure and physico-chemical properties
of cellulose
71. Question.
Amylose - homopolysaccharide as a component of starch. Composition, bonding.
Type of connections between monosaccharide unites. Primary and secondary
structures. Qualitative reaction on amylose and starch
72. Question.
Homopolysaccharides. Glycogen. Composition, structure. Types of bonds between
monosaccharide unites. The difference from starch. The relationship of structure
and biological functions
73. Question.
Features of the electronic structure and types of hybridization of atomic orbitals of
the nitrogen atom in nitrogenous heterocycles. Pyrrol, pyridine and pyrimidine.
Basic, acidic, complexing and nucleophilic properties of the nitrogen atom and its
compounds
74. Question.
Six-membered heterocyclic compounds with two heteroatoms. Pyrimidine.
Electronic structure. Pyrimidine derivatives - uracil, thymine, cytosine. Lactim-
lactam tautomerism. The biological role of pyrimidine derivatives as structural
components of nucleic acids.
75. Question.
Heterocyclic compounds. Basicity and nucleophilic character of pyridine. Pyridine
derivatives: nicotinic acid and its amide (vitamin PP) as a structural component of
the coenzyme NAD+.
76.Question.
Macroergic phosphates. ATP. Structure. Macroergic bonds. Hydrolysis of ATP.
Biological role.
77. Question.
Condensed heterocyclic compounds. Purin. Structure, numbering. Purine
derivatives: adenine and guanine. Their biological role - structural components of
nucleic acids
78. Question.
Nucleosides and nucleotides: composition, names. Make up the nucleotide 5’-
cytidylic acid. Specify the types of bonds in the molecule. Give the equation of the
reaction of complete hydrolysis of this nucleotide
79. Question.
Nucleic acids. The concept of the primary structure of nucleic acids (RNA and
DNA). The role of hydrogen bonds in the formation of the secondary structure.
The complementarity principle of nitrogenous bases. Biological role of nucleotides
and nucleic acids