Republicof

Republic ofthe
thePhilippines
Philippines
NORTHERN
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
ILOILO POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE
Estancia,
Estancia,Iloilo
Iloilo
Reg.
Reg. No.
No. 97Q19783
97Q19783

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

ES 121: Physics for Engineers 1 Eng’r. John Paul G. Arceo
NISU-BSME 1 Instructor 1
2 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

5-1 NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS

5-1.1 Newtonian Mechanics

The relation between a force and the acceleration it causes was first
understood by Isaac Newton (1642 –1727) and is the subject of this new module.
The study of that relation, as Newton presented it, is called Newtonian mechanics.
We shall focus on its three primary laws of motion.

Newtonian mechanics does not apply to all situations. If the speeds of the
interacting bodies are very large—an appreciable fraction of the speed of light—
we must replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s special theory of relativity,
which holds at any speed, including those near the speed of light. If the interacting
bodies are on the scale of atomic structure (for example, they might be electrons
in an atom), we must replace Newtonian mechanics with quantum mechanics.
Physicists now view Newtonian mechanics as a special case of these two more
comprehensive theories. Still, it is a very important special case because it applies
to the motion of objects ranging in size from the very small (almost on the scale of
atomic structure) to astronomical (galaxies and clusters of galaxies).

5-1.2 Newton’s First Law

Before Newton formulated his mechanics, it was thought that some

influence, a “force,” was needed to keep a body moving at constant velocity.
Similarly, a body was thought to be in its “natural state” when it was at rest. For a
body to move with constant velocity, it seemingly had to be propelled in some way,
by a push or a pull. Otherwise, it would “naturally” stop moving.

These ideas were reasonable. If you send a puck sliding across a wooden
floor, it does indeed slow and then stop. If you want to make it move across the
floor with constant velocity, you have to continuously pull or push it.

Send a puck sliding over the ice of a skating rink, however, and it goes a lot
 LESSON 5-1: NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 3

farther. You can imagine longer and more slippery surfaces, over which the puck
would slide farther and farther. In the limit you can think of a long, extremely
slippery surface (said to be a frictionless surface), over which the puck would hardly
slow. (We can in fact come close to this situation by sending a puck sliding over a
horizontal air table, across which it moves on a film of air.)

From these observations, we can conclude that a body will keep moving with
constant velocity if no force acts on it. That leads us to the first of Newton’s three
laws of motion:

In other words, if the body is at rest, it stays at rest. If it is moving, it continues

to move with the same velocity (same magnitude and same direction).

5-1.3 Force

Before we begin working problems with forces, we need to discuss several

features of forces, such as the force unit, the vector nature of forces, the combining
of forces, and the circumstances in which we can measure forces.

Unit. We can define the unit of force in

terms of the acceleration a force would give to
the standard kilogram, which has a mass defined
to be exactly 1 kg. Suppose we put that body on
a horizontal, frictionless surface and pull
horizontally (Fig. 5-1) such that the body has an
acceleration of 1 m/s2. Then we can define our applied force as having a magnitude
of 1 newton (abbreviated N). If we then pulled with a force magnitude of 2 N, we
would find that the acceleration is 2 m/s2. Thus, the acceleration is proportional to
the force. If the standard body of 1 kg has an acceleration of magnitude a (in meters
per second per second), then the force (in newtons) producing the acceleration has
a magnitude equal to a. We now have a workable definition of the force unit.
4 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

Vectors. Force is a vector quantity and thus has not only magnitude but also
direction. So, if two or more forces act on a body, we find the net force (or resultant
force) by adding them as vectors, following the rules of Chapter 3. A single force
that has the same magnitude and direction as the calculated net force would then
have the same effect as all the individual forces. This fact, called the principle of
superposition for forces, makes everyday forces reasonable and predictable.

In this module, forces are most often represented with a vector symbol such
as 𝐹⃗ and a net force is represented with the vector symbol 𝐹⃗ net. As with other
vectors, a force or a net force can have components along coordinate axes. When
forces act only along a single axis, they are single-component forces. Then we can
drop the overhead arrows on the force symbols and just use signs to indicate the
directions of the forces along that axis.

The First Law. Instead of our previous wording, the more proper statement
of Newton’s First Law is in terms of a net force:

There may be multiple forces acting on a body, but if their net force is zero,
the body cannot accelerate. So, if we happen to know that a body’s velocity is
constant, we can immediately say that the net force on it is zero.

5-1.3.1 Inertial Reference Frames

Newton’s first law is not true in all reference frames, but we can always find
reference frames in which it (as well as the rest of Newtonian mechanics) is true.
Such special frames are referred to as inertial reference frames, or simply inertial
frames.

For example, we can assume that the ground is an inertial frame provided
we can neglect Earth’s astronomical motions (such as its rotation).
 LESSON 5-1: NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 5

That assumption works well if, say, a puck

is sent sliding along a short strip of frictionless
ice—we would find that the puck’s motion obeys
Newton’s laws. However, suppose the puck is
sent sliding along a long ice strip extending from
the north pole (Fig. 5-2a). If we view the puck
from a stationary frame in space, the puck moves
south along a simple straight line because Earth’s
rotation around the north pole merely slides the
ice beneath the puck. However, if we view the
puck from a point on the ground so that we
rotate with Earth, the puck’s path is not a simple
straight line. Because the eastward speed of the
ground beneath the puck is greater the farther
south the puck slides, from our ground-based
view the puck appears to be deflected westward (Fig. 5-2b). However, this apparent
deflection is caused not by a force as required by Newton’s laws but by the fact
that we see the puck from a rotating frame. In this situation, the ground is a non-
inertial frame, and trying to explain the deflection in terms of a force would lead
us to a fictitious force.

In this book we usually assume that the ground is an inertial frame and that
measured forces and accelerations are from this frame. If measurements are made
in, say, a vehicle that is accelerating relative to the ground, then the measurements
are being made in a non-inertial frame and the results can be surprising.

5-1.4 Mass

From everyday experience you already know that applying a given force to
bodies results in different accelerations. The common explanation is correct: The
object with the larger mass is accelerated less. But we can be more precise. The
acceleration is actually inversely related to the mass (rather than, say, the square
of the mass).
6 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

Let’s justify that inverse relationship. Suppose, as previously, we push on the

standard body (defined to have a mass of exactly 1 kg) with a force of magnitude 1
N. The body accelerates with a magnitude of 1 m/s2. Next we push on body X with
the same force and find that it accelerates at 0.25 m/s2. Let’s make the (correct)
assumption that with the same force,
𝒎𝑿 𝒂𝑶
=𝒂 ,
𝒎𝑶 𝑿
and thus
𝒂 1.0 𝑚∕𝑠 2
mX = mO 𝒂𝑶 = (1.0 kg) 0.25 𝑚∕𝑠2 = 4.0 kg .
𝑿

Defining the mass of X in this way is useful only if the procedure is consistent.
Suppose we apply an 8.0 N force first to the standard body (getting an acceleration
of 8.0 m/s2) and then to body X (getting an acceleration of 2.0 m/s2).We would then
calculate the mass of X as
𝒂 8.0 𝑚∕𝑠 2
mX = mO 𝒂𝑶 = (1.0 kg) 2.0 𝑚∕𝑠2 = 4.0 kg ,
𝑿

which means that our procedure is consistent and thus usable.

The results also suggest that mass is an intrinsic characteristic of a body—it

automatically comes with the existence of the body. Also, it is a scalar quantity.
However, the nagging question remains: What, exactly, is mass?

Since the word mass is used in everyday English, we should have some
intuitive understanding of it, maybe something that we can physically sense. Is it a
body’s size, weight, or density? The answer is no, although those characteristics are
sometimes confused with mass. We can say only that the mass of a body is the
characteristic that relates a force on the body to the resulting acceleration. Mass
has no more familiar definition; you can have a physical sensation of mass only
when you try to accelerate a body, as in the kicking of a baseball or a bowling ball.

5-1.5 Newton’s Second Law

All the definitions, experiments, and observations we have discussed so far

can be summarized in one neat statement:
 LESSON 5-1: NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 7

In equation form,

Identify the Body. This simple equation is the key idea for nearly all the
problems in this chapter, but we must use it cautiously. First, we must be certain
about which body we are applying it to. Then 𝐹⃗ net must be the vector sum of all the
forces that act on that body. Only forces that act on that body are to be included
in the vector sum, not forces acting on other bodies that might be involved in the
given situation. For example, if you are in a rugby scrum, the net force on you is the
vector sum of all the pushes and pulls on your body. It does not include any push
or pull on another player from you or from anyone else. Every time you work a
force problem, your first step is to clearly state the body to which you are applying
Newton’s law.

Separate Axes. Like other vector equations, Eq. 5-1 is equivalent to three
component equations, one for each axis of an xyz coordinate system:

Each of these equations relates the net force component along an axis to the
acceleration along that same axis. For example, the first equation tells us that the
sum of all the force components along the x axis causes the x component ax of the
body’s acceleration but causes no acceleration in the y and z directions. Turned
around, the acceleration component ax is caused only by the sum of the force
components along the x axis and is completely unrelated to force components
along another axis. In general,
8 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

Forces in Equilibrium. Equation 5-1 tells us that if the net force on a body is
zero, the body’s acceleration 𝑎⃗ = 0. If the body is at rest, it stays at rest; if it is
moving, it continues to move at constant velocity. In such cases, any forces on the
body balance one another, and both the forces and the body are said to be in
equilibrium. Commonly, the forces are also said to cancel one another, but the term
“cancel” is tricky. It does not mean that the forces cease to exist. The forces still act
on the body but cannot change the velocity.

Units. For SI units, Eq. 5-1 tells us that

1 N = ( 1 kg )( 1 m/s2 ) = 1 kg∙m/s2 (5-3)

Diagrams. To solve problems with Newton’s second law, we often draw a

free-body diagram in which the only body shown is the one for which we are
summing forces. A coordinate system is usually included, and the acceleration of
the body is sometimes shown with a vector arrow (labeled as an acceleration). This
whole procedure is designed to focus our attention on the body of interest.

External Forces Only. A system consists of one or more bodies, and any force
on the bodies inside the system from bodies outside the system is called an
external force. If the bodies making up a system are rigidly connected to one
another, we can treat the system as one composite body, and the net force 𝐹⃗ net on
it is the vector sum of all external forces. For example, a connected railroad engine
and car form a system. If, say, a tow line pulls on the front of the engine, the force
due to the tow line acts on the whole engine–car system. Just as for a single body,
we can relate the net external force on a system to its acceleration with Newton’s
second law, 𝐹⃗ net = m𝑎⃗, where m is the total mass of the system.
LESSON 5-1: NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 9
10 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I
 LESSON 5-2: SOME PARTICULAR FORCES 11

5-2 SOME PARTICULAR FORCES

5-2.1 The Gravitational Force

A gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 on a body is a certain type of pull that is directed

toward a second body. In these early chapters, we do not discuss the nature of this
force and usually consider situations in which the second body is Earth. Thus, when
we speak of the gravitational force on a body, we usually mean a force that pulls
on it directly toward the center of Earth—that is, directly down toward the ground.
We shall assume that the ground is an inertial frame.

Free Fall. Suppose a body of mass m is in free fall with the free-fall
acceleration of magnitude g. Then, if we neglect the effects of the air, the only force
acting on the body is the gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 . We can relate this downward force
and downward acceleration with Newton’s second law ( 𝐹⃗ = m𝑎⃗ ) .We place a
vertical y axis along the body’s path, with the positive direction upward. For this
axis, Newton’s second law can be written in the form 𝐹⃗ net,y = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 , which, in our
situation, becomes
-Fg = m ( -g )

In words, the magnitude of the gravitational force is equal to the product mg.

At Rest. This same gravitational force, with the same magnitude, still acts on
the body even when the body is not in free fall but is, say, at rest on a pool table or
moving across the table. (For the gravitational force to disappear, Earth would have
to disappear.)

We can write Newton’s second law for the gravitational force in these vector
forms:

𝐹⃗𝑔 = −𝐹𝑔 𝑗̂ = −𝑚𝑔𝑗̂ = 𝑚𝑔⃗ , ( 5-9 )

12 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

where 𝑗̂ is the unit vector that points upward along a y axis, directly away from the
ground, and 𝑔⃗ is the free-fall acceleration (written as a vector), directed downward.

5-2.2 Weight

The weight W of a body is the magnitude of the net force required to prevent
the body from falling freely, as measured by someone on the ground. For example,
to keep a ball at rest in your hand while you stand on the ground, you must provide
an upward force to balance the gravitational force on the ball from Earth. Suppose
the magnitude of the gravitational force is 2.0 N. Then the magnitude of your
upward force must be 2.0 N, and thus the weight W of the ball is 2.0 N. We also say
that the ball weighs 2.0 N and speak about the ball weighing 2.0 N.

A ball with a weight of 3.0 N would require a greater force from you—
namely, a 3.0 N force—to keep it at rest. The reason is that the gravitational force
you must balance has a greater magnitude—namely, 3.0 N. We say that this second
ball is heavier than the first ball.

Now let us generalize the situation. Consider a body that has an acceleration
𝑎⃗ of zero relative to the ground, which we again assume to be an inertial frame.
Two forces act on the body: a downward gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 and a balancing
upward force of magnitude W. We can write Newton’s second law for a vertical y
axis, with the positive direction upward, as
𝐹⃗ net,y = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 .

In our situation, this becomes

W - Fg = m (0) ( 5-10 )

or W = Fg (weight, with ground as an inertial frame) ( 5-11 )

This equation tells us (assuming the ground is an inertial frame) that

 LESSON 5-2: SOME PARTICULAR FORCES 13

Substituting mg for Fg from Eq. 5-8, we find

which relates a body’s weight to its mass.

Weighing. To weigh a body means

to measure its weight. One way to do this
is to place the body on one of the pans of
an equal-arm balance (Fig. 5-5) and then
place reference bodies (whose masses
are known) on the other pan until we
strike a balance (so that the gravitational
forces on the two sides match). The
masses on the pans then match, and we
know the mass of the body. If we know
the value of g for the location of the
balance, we can also find the weight of
the body with Eq. 5-12.

We can also weigh a body with a

spring scale (Fig. 5-6). The body stretches
a spring, moving a pointer along a scale
that has been calibrated and marked in
either mass or weight units. If the scale
is marked in mass units, it is accurate only
where the value of g is the same as where
the scale was calibrated.

The weight of a body must be

measured when the body is not
accelerating vertically relative to the
ground. For example, you can measure
your weight on a scale in your bathroom
14 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

or on a fast train. However, if you repeat the measurement with the scale in an
accelerating elevator, the reading differs from your weight because of the
acceleration. Such a measurement is called an apparent weight.

5-2.3 The Normal Force

If you stand on a mattress, Earth pulls you downward, but you remain
stationary. The reason is that the mattress, because it deforms downward due to
you, pushes up on you. Similarly, if you stand on a floor, it deforms (it is
compressed, bent, or buckled ever so slightly) and pushes up on you. Even a
seemingly rigid concrete floor does this.

The push on you from the mattress or floor is a normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 . The name
comes from the mathematical term normal, meaning perpendicular: The force on
you from, say, the floor is perpendicular to the floor.

Figure 5-7a shows an example. A block of mass m presses down on a table,

deforming it somewhat because of the gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝑔 on the block. The table
pushes up on the block with normal force 𝐹⃗𝑁 .The free-body diagram for the block
is given in Fig. 5-7b. Forces and are the only two forces on the block and they are
both vertical. Thus, for the block we can write Newton’s second law for a positive-
upward y axis ( Fnet,y = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) as
FN - Fg = may .
 LESSON 5-2: SOME PARTICULAR FORCES 15

From Eq. 5-8, we substitute mg for Fg, finding

FN – mg = may .

Then the magnitude of the normal force is

FN = mg + may = m(g + ay) ( 5-13 )
for any vertical acceleration ay of the table and block (they might be in an
accelerating elevator). (Caution: We have already included the sign for g but ay can
be positive or negative here.) If the table and block are not accelerating relative to
the ground, then ay = 0 and Eq. 5-13 yields

FN = mg . ( 5-14 )

5-2.4 Friction

If we either slide or attempt to slide a

body over a surface, the motion is resisted
by a bonding between the body and the
surface. The resistance is considered to be a
single force 𝑓⃗, called either the frictional
force or simply friction. This force is directed
along the surface, opposite the direction of
the intended motion (Fig. 5-8). Sometimes, to simplify a situation, friction is
assumed to be negligible (the surface, or even the body, is said to be frictionless).

5-2.5 Tension

When a cord is attached to a body and pulled taut, the cord pulls on the body
⃗⃗ directed away from the body and along the cord (Fig. 5-9a). The force
with a force 𝑇
is often called a tension force because the cord is said to be in a state of tension (or
to be under tension), which means that it is being pulled taut. The tension in the
cord is the magnitude T of the force on the body. For example, if the force on the
body from the cord has magnitude T = 50 N, the tension in the cord is 50 N.
16 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

A cord is often said to be massless (meaning its mass is negligible compared

to the body’s mass) and unstretchable. The cord then exists only as a connection
between two bodies. It pulls on both bodies with the same force magnitude T, even
if the bodies and the cord are accelerating and even if the cord runs around a
massless, frictionless pulley (Figs. 5-9b and c). Such a pulley has negligible mass
compared to the bodies and negligible friction on its axle opposing its rotation. If
the cord wraps halfway around a pulley, as in Fig. 5-9c, the net force on the pulley
from the cord has the magnitude 2T.

5-3 APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS

5-3.1 Newton’s Third Law

Two bodies are said to interact when they push or pull on each other—that
is, when a force acts on each body due to the other body. For example, suppose
you position a book B so it leans against a crate C (Fig. 5-10a). Then the book and
crate interact: There is a horizontal force 𝐹⃗𝐵𝐶 on the book from the crate (or due
to the crate) and a horizontal force 𝐹⃗𝐶𝐵 on the crate from the book (or due to the
book).This pair of forces is shown in Fig. 5-10b.Newton’s third law states that
 LESSON 5-3: APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS 17

For the book and crate,we can write this law as the scalar relation
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶𝐵 (equal magnitudes)

or as the vector relation

𝐹⃗𝐵𝐶 = −𝐹⃗𝐶𝐵 (equal magnitudes and opposite direction) ( 5-15 )

where the minus sign means that

these two forces are in opposite
directions. We can call the forces
between two interacting bodies a
third-law force pair. When any two
bodies interact in any situation, a
third-law force pair is present. The
book and crate in Fig. 5-10a are
stationary, but the third law would
still hold if they were moving and even
if they were accelerating.

As another example, let us find the third-law force pairs involving the
cantaloupe in Fig. 5-11a, which lies on a table that stands on Earth. The cantaloupe
interacts with the table and with Earth (this time, there are three bodies whose
interactions we must sort out).
18 MODULE 5/ FORCE AND MOTION I

Let’s first focus on the forces acting on the cantaloupe (Fig. 5-11b). Force 𝐹⃗𝐶𝑇
is the normal force on the cantaloupe from the table, and force 𝐹⃗𝐶𝐸 is the
gravitational force on the cantaloupe due to Earth. Are they a third-law force pair?
No, because they are forces on a single body, the cantaloupe, and not on two
interacting bodies.

To find a third-law pair, we must focus not on the cantaloupe but on the
interaction between the cantaloupe and one other body. In the cantaloupe–Earth
interaction (Fig. 5-11c), Earth pulls on the cantaloupe with a gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝐶𝐸
and the cantaloupe pulls on Earth with a gravitational force 𝐹⃗𝐸𝐶 . Are these forces
a third-law force pair? Yes, because they are forces on two interacting bodies,
the force on each due to the other. Thus, by Newton’s third law,

𝐹⃗𝐶𝐸 = −𝐹⃗𝐸𝐶 (cantaloupe-Earth interaction)

Next, in the cantaloupe–table interaction, the force on the cantaloupe from

the table is 𝐹⃗𝐶𝑇 and, conversely, the force on the table from the cantaloupe is 𝐹⃗𝑇𝐶
(Fig. 5-11d). These forces are also a third-law force pair, and so

𝐹⃗𝐶𝑇 = −𝐹⃗𝑇𝐶 (cantaloupe-table interaction)