e C&E Publishing, Inc.

GENDER AND

SOCIETYFostering a
Gender Equal Society

.SECOND EDITION.

Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez

A. M. Leal Rodriguez
 GENDER
AND
SOCIETY
Fostering a
Gender Equal Society

SECOND EDITION

Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez

A. M. Leal Rodriguez

€
C & E Publishing, Inc.
2023
 €
C&E
Publishing, Inc.
C &EPublishing, Inc. was
estab±shed ir 1993, and is
s member of ABAR, PBAI,
NBDB, and PEPA

Gender and Society: Fostering a Gender Equal Society

Second Edition
Published in 2023 by C & E Publishing, Inc.
839 EDSA, South Triangle, Quezon City
Tel. No.: (02) 8929-5088
E-mail: info @cebookshop.com

Copyright 2023 byC &% E Publishing, Inc.,

Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez, and A. M. Leal Rodriguez

"" ALLRIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means-electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise-
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
GN479. Rodriguez, Agustin Martin G., author.
65 Gender and society: fostering a gender
.R618 equal society/ Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez and
2023 A. M. Leal Rodriguez.-Second edition.-Quezon
City, Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc., ©2023.
xiii, 334 pages ; 5.625 in x 8.625 in
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 978-971-98-2017-8
EISBN: 978-971-98-2018-5
1. Women. 2. Sex role. 3. Feminism.
I. Rodriguez, A. M. Leal, author. II. Title.

Senior Editor: Janice D. Roman

Assistant Editors: Jacqueline E. Isidoro
Azriel T. Valmores
Book Designer: Nikita Mae L. De Pereira
Cover Designer: Ruth Anne D. Ellorin
Darwin M. Tolentino
Contents

Preface. . · · · · · . xi
Acknowledgments . . xiii

PART I
CHAPTER 1: Introduction . 2
Discrimination Today. . . . . 3
CHAPTER 2: Leveling Off: Gender and Sexuality · 9
Gender and Sexuality · .11
Gender Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · .17
SOGIE.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · .18
Why Equate Gender Issues with Women's Issues . .20

CHAPTER 3: Cultures and Rationalities · 23

Instinct and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . · .24
CHAPTER 4: Women's Ways of Knowing 30
Women and the Metaphor for Silence . . · .31
Differences in Ways of Knowing: Women and Connectedness .32
Exclusion of Women in Disciplines. . . .37

CHAPTER 5: Gender-fair Language. 39

Language and Gender Relations · .40
Philippine Culture and Language. .43
Identities and Naming Things. .44
Sexist Language and Culture.. .45
Toward a Gender-fair Language. .45
CHAP TER 6: Women: A Sectoral Situationer 48
Sectoral Situationers . . . . . . . . . . . . . · .49
Women and the Economy: Women and Work · .49
Women, Work, and Poverty in the Philippines. .51
Women and Education. · .52
Women and Health.·· .56
Violence Against Women .58
Women and Armed Conflict. .58
Women in Power and Politics. .61
Institutional Mechanisms and the Human Rights of Women .63
Discrimination Against the Girl-child .64
Women and the Environment . . . · .66
Women and Disaster . . . . . . . . · .68
Women in the Indigenous Communities · .69
Filipino Women in Other Sectors. . . . . .71

CHAPTER 7: Women, Development, and the World 74

Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . · .75
Women and the Dominant Economic System .77
Gender and Development . . . . . . . . . .80
Agriculture and the Values of Development. .82
How Women Feed the World. . . . . . · .84
Women in Relation to Development . . . .88
Pro-women Perspectives on Development .90

CHAPTER 8: Gender Interests and Needs 96

Gender Interests and Needs in Development · .97
Gender Interests . . . · .98
Gender Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . · .99
Strategic Gender Needs. . . . . . . . . . . 100
Challenges for the Fulfillment of Gender
Needs in the Philippines . . . . . . . . 102
CHAPTER 9: Laws, Policies, and Programs
for Philippine Women. . . . . . . . . . .104
Human Rights Approach . . . . . . . . . . . .105
International Treaties for Women's Protection .106
Laws and Policies for Women in the Philippines .114

PART II
CHAPTER 10: Theories on the Origin
of Women's Oppression. . . . .122
Women's Oppression . . . . . . . . .123
Goddess Worship to God Worship . .124
Eve and the Other . . .126
A Shift of Production . . . . . . . . .130

CHAPTER 11: The Western Women's Movement .134

Where Does Liberation Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . .135
What Is Feminism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
The First Wave of Feminism: Women and Civil Rights. .138
The Second Wave of Feminism and Women's Liberation . .144
The Third Wave of Feminism. . . . . . . . . . .152
Summing Up the Western Feminist Movement. .155
CHAPTER 12: Women in the Philippines . . 157
Women in the Pre-colonial Philippines. .158
Women in the Hispanic Period. . . . . . . . .163
Women in the American Era . . . . . . . . . .166
The Birth of Militant Groups with a Feminist Agenda . 170
10 Filipinas Who Advanced Modern Feminism
in the Country . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Current Forms of Oppression Against
Filipino Women and Their Responses . 180
Practical Feminism in the Philippines ... .182
PART Ill
CHAPTER 13: Womer and Education . .186
Gender and Education . . . . . . . 187
The Importance of Education:
An International Perspective . . 188
Philippine Laws on Gender-Responsive
and Gender-Fair Education . . . . . 191
Gender and Development Markers in Education . .194
Gender Issues in Education . . . . 197
Future Steps, Looking Forward . . . . . . . . . . .215
CHAPTER 14: Women and Work in the Philippines .217
Women in the Productive Sphere. . 218
Migrant Women . . . . . . . . . . . . .226
Women in the Informal Sector . . . . . . 228
Domestic Work and Domestic Workers. . 229
The Sex Trade . .230
Women and the Domestic Sphere . . . . 232
CHAPTER 15: Women and Violence. .237
Violence Against Women . . . . . . .238
Defining Violence Against Women . .241
Types of Violence Against Women .242
The Impacts ofVAW . .254
LawsonVAW . .256
Prevention and Response . .256
CHAPTER 16: Representation of Women
in the Arts and Media . . . . . . . .260
Women in Western Art: The Beginning
of Female Objectification? . . . . . .262
Women in Advertising . . . . . . . . . .266
Women in Film and the Film Industry . .267
Women and Sexualization . . . . . . .269
Beaury as a Weapon Against Women . .27 1
Beaury and the Western Ideal. .273
Reclaiming the Media . . . . . .274

CHAPTER 17: Special Topics:

Masculinity and SOGIE Equality. .277
Masculinity. . . .278
SOGIE Equality . .294

CHAPTER 18: Conclusion . .301

References . . .305
Index ..... .323
The Authors
Index

A Armed conflict, 58--59, 71

Abanse! Pinay, 173 victimization of women in, 59

Abortion, 56, 64, 151, 159 Armed Forces of che Philippines, 72

sex-selective, 64 Asia, 84, 169

Abuse of women in intimate Ease, 4

relationships (AWIR), 253 Southeast, 5
Affirmative action, 116, 150 Southern, 52
Asian Development Bank, 225
Africa, 52, 58, 78, 84, 89
Saharan, 4 AWIR
Su Abuse of women in inrimace
sub-Saharan, 52
relationships
Aggression, relational, 210-214
Agriculture, 51, 70, 76, 82-86
development of, 82 B
sector, 225 Babaylan, 160-163, 292
shift to, 144 ar present, 162
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 166 rebellions, 162
Akbayan, 173 role, 161
Alternative learning systems, 203 Bangladesh, 4
Amazon, 89 Barrios, Joi, 178
Ambubuyog, Roselle, 179 Barros, Lorena, 178
American Psychological Association, Beauty myth, 272-273
269--270 Beauty, Western ideal, 274
Annan, Kofi, 240 Bechdel, Alison, 271
Anti-Sexual Harassment Bechdel-Wallace Tesc, 271
Law of 1995, 204-205, 235, Beijing Placform for Action (BPfA),
246-247, 256 49, 51, 64, 106, 107-110
Anti-slavery movement, 14l 12 critical areas of concern, 49,
Anti-Violence against Women and 108-109
their Children Law of 2003, 173, Benitez, Helena, 176
242, 244, 256 Berger, John Peter, 261, 263
Aquino, Benigno Jr., 171
 Biodiversity, 83-85 Commission on Higher Education,
Bisexual, 19, 295 xii, 176, 196, 200, 298

Bosson, Jennifer, 283 Communist Party, 170

BPfA Consent, 57, 244, 246, 252, 284,
288
See Beijing Platform for Action
Brannon, Robert, 283 Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against
Bullying, 210-211 Women (CEDAW), 105-107,
Butler, Judith, 153-154 175, 188-189
Convention on the Rights of the
Child, 66
C Cortes, Irene, 176
Cahabagan, Agueda Iniquinto, 166 Critical reflection, 27
Campus culture and gender, 208 Cultural practices, considered as
bullying, 210-211 VAW, 245-246

campus culrure, 208 child brides, 245-246

microaggression, 208 female genital mutilation, 246
relational aggression, 210--214 Culture, 23-25, 30, 206--208
Catholicism, 161--162, 164 campus, 208, 213-214
defined, 24
CEDAW
peer, 214
See Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms superiority of, 26
of Discrimination against Cyberbullying, 211
Women
CHED
Su Commission on Higher D
Education
De Beauvoir, Simone, 145
Child, defined, 65
De Gouges, Olympia, 139
Child care, 3
De Jesus, Gregoria, 166
Child marriage, 64--66, 70
De la Cruz, Leslie, 143
Child trafficking, 65
De los Reyes, Isabelo, 165
China, 5
Declaration of Sentiments, 142
Chromosomes, 13
Deles, Teresita Quintos, 176
Cisgender, 19, 279
Department of Education (DepEd),
Civil rights movement, 147, 155 196
Climate change, 68, 77 Department of Health, 70
Comfort women, 179, 251 Department of Labor and
Employment (DOLE), 196
Department of Social Welfare and gender and development
Development, 72 markers in, 194
DepEd gender issues in, 197
See Department of Education gendered, 206
gender-responsive and gender-
Dery, Luis, 159
fair, 191
Development, 75-94 importance of, 188
agriculture and, 82
inclusive, 203
and gender, 80
inhibited access to, 202
destructive, 91 sexual violence in, 204
existing models, 78
Empathy, 32, 280
in relation to women, 88
Employment, 50
measurement of, 75
home-based, 50
pro-women perspectives on, 90
vulnerable, 50
pursuit for, 77
Engels, Friedrich, 140
Western, 90
Equality, 2, 5, 20--21, 99, 108, 111
Disaster resilience, and gender, 68
Eve, biblical, 126
Discrimination, xi, 3-8, 19-20, 21,
64,66, 105-106, 139, 196, 202, Eviota, Elizabeth, 232
222, 282, 296
against the girl-child, 64
against the LGBTQIA+, 19, 282 F
against women, xi, 5, 181, 189, FAO
204 See Food and Agriculture
gender, 180 Organizacion
DOLE Fear theory, 129
See Department of Labor and Female circumcision, 4, 66, 246
Employment
Female nude, 263-266
Domestic servitude, 59
Femininity, 15, 136, 212, 280
Domestic violence, 100, 173, 180,
239, 253 Feminism, 136
in the Philippines, 182
Drake, Jennifer, 153
radical, 137
waves of, 138--152
E Feminism, waves of, 138--152
first, 138
East Asia, 4
second, 144
Education, 52, 106, 169-208
third, 152
as pare of BPfA, 190
Filipino, language, 43
 IN OEX

Firestone, Shulamith, 146 Gender perspective, I 02

First wave of feminism, 138 Gender role socialization, 15
Food and Agriculture Organization external regulations, 16
(FAO), 225 internalized self-control, 16
Food security, 87 Gender roles, 21, 50
Fragile masculinities, 289 discriminarory, 21
Freedman, Estelle, 160 socialized, 50
French Revolution, 138-139 Gender socialization, 45
Friedan, Betty, 44 Gender stereotypes, I 7
compounded stereotypes, 17
sex stereotypes, 17
G sex-role stereotypes, 17
GABRIELA sexual stereotypes, 17
See General Assembly Binding Gender, defined, 14--15
Women for Reforms, Gender studies, 11, 278
Integrity, Equality, Leadership,
Gender subordination, 102
and Action
Gay, 19,295 Gender-fair language, violations of,
41
GDP
fostering unequal gender
See Gross domestic product relations, 42
Geertz, Clifford, 24 gender polarization, 42
Gender and Society, course, xi hidden assumptions, 43
Gender equality, 20, 61-63, 99-111, invisibilization of women, 4l
136, 198, 256, 289 trivialization of women, 4l
Gender expression, 18,295 Gender-fair textbooks and programs,
Gender identity, 18, 154, 295 203
Gender interests, 96--102 Gender-role conflict scale (GRCS),
289
practical, 98, 101
strategic, 98, 101 General Assembly Binding
Women for Reforms, Integrity,
Gender mainstreaming, 63, 102, 106, Equality, Leadership, and Action
109 (GABRIELA), 45, 172-173
defined, 109
Genitalia, 13
Gender needs, 96-102
Ghana, 98
challenges in the fulfillment of,
Giligan, Carol, 37, 280
102
practical, 99 Girl-child, 64-65, 102
strategic, 100 discrimination against, 64

Gender parity, 52, 197 Glass ceiling, 3

 INDEX

Global South, 79 Indigenous peoples, 55, 69, 158, 163,

177,202
Global Study on the
Implementation of Security Informal sector, 51,201,218,
Council Resolution 1325, 59-60 228-229
Global warming, 76-79 Instinct, 24-26
Globalization, 71, 180, 291 Intergovernmental Panel for Climate
Change, 77
GNP
Su Gross national product International bill of rights of women,
106
Goddess worship, 124, 127
Su also Convention on the
Gross domestic product (GDP), 72 Elimination of All Forms
Gross national product (GNP), 72 of Discrimination against
Women
International treaties for women's
H protection, 106
Intersectional oppression, 180
Harassment, 7, 28, 41, 44, 59, 65,
118, 180, 197,202,204,235, Intersectionality, 137
246-247, 249 Intuition, 34
sexual, 44, 246-247
street, 202, 249
Harper, Frances E. W., 142 J
Hegemonic masculinity, 283-285 Jajurie, Raissa, 179
Henson, Rosa, 179
Heteronormativity, I9
K
Heterosexual, 18-19
Heywood, Leslie, 153 KALAYAAN
See Katipunan ng Kababaihan
Hofstede, Geert, 291
Para sa Kalayaan
Homophobia, 281, 286--287
Katipunan ng Kababaihan Para sa
Homosexual, 18-19 Kalayaan (KALAYAAN), 171
Hormones, 14 Katipunan, 165--166
Human trafficking, 58--60, 227 Kilusan ng Kababaihang Pilipina
(PJLIPINA), 171
Kimmel, Michael, 281,290
Kinranar, Thelma, 40, 197
Identity politics, 154 Knowledge, representation of, 31
Income, 75, 81, 97, 160, 170, 20 l, light, 31
228 listening, 31
India, 4-5, 79, 89
L Maranan, Aida Santos, 159, 166
Marcos, Ferdinand, President, 171
Labor Force Survey, 51, 223
Marginalized sectors, 71, 144, 197,
Language, 39 47 201-202
as form of power, 44
Marital infidelity, 243
gender-fair, 39, 44
Marriage, 64--66,70, 140-141, 149,
sexist, 39, 44 158, 164, 195-196, 230, 246
Lesbian, 19, 295 child, 64, 66, 70
LGBTQIA+ movement, 19 Marcial Law, 168, 171, 256
LGBTQIA+, 18,295 Marx, Karl, 135
Liberal democracy, 136 Masculine culture, 282
Liberal feminist thought, 139 hookup culture, 282
Licuanan, Patricia Benitez, 176 lad culture, 282
Local Government Code of 1992, raunch culture, 282
174 Masculinities, 279-293
Logia de Adopcion, 165 Filipino, 291
fragile, 289-290
Masculinity, 279-293
M as homophobia, 286-287
Machismo, 230, 292 as power, 287
Magna Carra ofWomen (MCW), beginning of, 280
63, 102, 107, 1 17,173,191, 196, hegemonic, 283
219,241 proving, 281
MAKIBAKA rules of American masculinity,
See Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong 283
Kababaihan Mass media, 199, 264, 274-275
Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong Material support, 201-202
Kababaihan (MAKIBAKA), 171
Maternal health, 56, 151
Male gaze, 263--265
Maza, Liza, 45
Male performance in schools, 204
MCW
Mamonova, Tatiana, 273
See Magna Carra of Women
Man, responsibility of. 290-291
MDGs
Mananzan, Mary John, Sr, 165, 177 Su Millennium
Manet, Edouard, 265 Development Goals
Mangahas, Fe, 160 Men, as masculine generic, 288
Manhood,279-285 Micro, small, and medium
See also Masculinity enterprises (MSMEs), 224,
233-234
Microaggression, 16, 26, 208-213 National Organization of Women
as a form of control, 27 (NOW), 172
definition of, 26 NCRFW
examples of, 26, 209 See National Commission on the
LGBTQIA+-spccific, 210 Role of Filipino Women

theory, 208-209 Nolasco, Cynthia, 180

Miles, Rosalind, 123 NOW

Millennium Development Goals See National Organization of
(MDGs), 53, 105, 110 Women

Millett, Kate, 146 Nudity, 263, 265

Mills, Phoebe, 264

Mindanao, 60, 65, 69, 71--72 0
Missing women, 5
Objectification, 42, 149, 209, 240,
Molyneux, Maxine, 98 244, 262, 265, 270
Monoculture, 83, 85-86 OFWs
Moro Islamic Liberation Front, 72 Su Overseas Filipino workers
Moser, Caroline, 97, 100 Oppression against Filipino women,
Mother goddess, 124, 125 180

Mother goddess cult theory, 125 Overseas Filipino workers (OFWs),

51, 226-228
Mon, Lucretia, 141
men, 226
MSMEs women, 226-228
See Micro, small,
and medium enterprises
Multiple burden of women, 220 p
Mulvey, Laura, 263
Pakistan, 4--5
Muslim women, 71, 103, 179
Palma, Cecilia Munoz, 176
Pandora, myth, 126-127, 129
N Paternalistic system, 90
Patriarchal society, 7, 20, 150, 207
National Commission on Disability
Affairs, 203 Patriarchal values, 82, 85, 88, 90, 269

National Commission on the Role of Patriarchy, 137, 147--149, 168, 279,

Filipino Women (NCRFW), 159, 284
176 Pay gap, 3, 50
See also Philippine Commission
PCW
ofWomen
Su Philippine Commission
National Economic Development on Women
Authority (NEDA), 191
-@_,_
NOE_
x ---------
PDPW PPGD
See Philippine Development Su Philippine Plan for Gender-
Plan for Women Responsive Development
Peak oil, 76 Practical feminism, 182
Penal Code, 64 Propaganda Movement, 165
Phallus cult, 125 Prostitution, 60, 69, 149, 231, 250,
Philippine Commission of Women 304
(PCW), 115 defined, 250
Philippine Constitution of 1987, forced, 60
114, 256 issues related to, 251-252
Philippine Development Plan for
Women (PDPW), 115, 191
Philippine National Action Plan R
on Women, Peace, and Security
Rape, 44, 58--59, 69, 1 18,240,
(PNAPWPS), 60
244-245, 252, 288, 303
Philippine Plan for Gender- attempted, 244
Responsive Development (PPGD),
corrective, 240
116, 191
date, 44
Philippines, 2-8, 19, 21, 51, 102,
114, 158, 182, 217 defined, 244
gang, 244
Philosophy of equal rights, 136
marital, 244
PILIPINA
Reproductive Health Law 7, 64, 173,
See Kilusan ng Kababaihang
175
Pilipina
See also Reproductive Health
Plato, 31
and Responsible Parenthood
PNAPWPS Act of2012
Su Philippine National Action Reproductive rights of women, 70,
Plan on Women, Peace, and 106
Security
Responsible Parenthood and
Policies empowering women in Reproductive Health Act of 2012,
economic sphere, 233-235 57,202
Pornography, 149, 243-244, Reyes, Soledad, 6
249-251, 273, 303
Right to Universal Primary
defined, 249 Education, 187
Postfeminism, 153 Rizal, Jose, 11, 164
Postmodern feminism, 153 Rubens, Paul, 262
Poverty, 51, 65, 68, 75, 92-94, 108,
110, 169-170, 187, 218
feminization of, 108
s difference with gender, 15
double standard of, 230
Saudi Arabia, 97, 227
Sexism, 20, 45, 64, 149, 197, 209,
Scopophilia, 263 287
SDGs normalization of, 4 5
Su Sustainable Development Sexual and reproductive health and
Goals rights (SRHR), 57-58, 66, 111,
Second wave of feminism, 144-149 114,202
other feminisms, 146--147 Sexual exploitation, 251
radical feminism, 147 Sexual harassment, 44, 246-247
socialist feminism, 146 defined, 204
Sectoral situationers, 48-71 in education, 204
discrimination against the girl- list of acts, 247-248
child, 64 Philippine law's definition, 246
institutional mechanisms and UN's definition, 247
human rights of women, 63
Sexual orientation, I 8, 225
violence against women, 58, 238
Sexual violence, 59, 204, 242,
women and armed conflict, 58 244-245, 255
women and disaster, 68 cultural practices, 245
women and education, 52, defined, 244
186-215
in education, 204
women and health, 56
incest, 245
women and the economy, 49
pornography, 249-250
women and the environment, 66
prostitution, 250-251
women in power and politics, 61
rape, 244--245
women in the indigenous
sexual harassment, 246-247
communities, 69
violence in public spaces, 249
women, work, and poverty, 51
Sexuality, 18, 295
Sen, Amartya, 5
Sexualization, 269
Service sector, 50
Shahani, Leticia Ramos, 175
Sex slaves, 251
Shiva, Vandana, 85, 90-92
Sex tourism, 251
Silang, Gabriela, 166
Sex trade, 230
Silence, 31-33
Sex trafficking, 227, 231, 249, 252
metaphor for, 31
Sex, 12--13
Socialism, 147
as a category, 13
Socialization, 15--16
as an act, 12-13
Society, masculine, 291
u
SOGIE, 18, 294-295
UN Women Report, 59
Spanish colonizers, 160
UN Women Watch, 247
SRHR
UN World's Women Report, 49
See Sexual and reproductive
health and rights United Nations, 12, 28, 52, 69, 106,
109, 187
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 141--142
STEM fields, 53 Universal caregiving, role of. 32

issues in, 20 I Universal Declaration of Human

Rights, 105, 188
Stereotypes, 17, 20, 22, 41, 45, 62,
196, 198, 199, 209
gender, 17, 295
Stewart, Maria, 142
V
Street harassment, 249 Vandel lo, Joseph, 281-283
Strucrural inequality, 135 YAW
Structural oppression, 44 See Violence against women
Subsistence economies, 91-92 Violence against indigenous
women, 70
Sue, Derald Wing, 208
Violence, 239--240
Suffrage movement, 142, 168
domestic, 239
Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), 110-114 gender-based, 240
Violence against women (VAW), 5,
58, 113, 197, 238-257
T culture-specific, 58
defined, 241
Tan, Christine, Sr., I 77
health consequences of, 254
Technical Education and Skills
impacts of, 254
Development Authority (TESDA),
196 laws on, 256
prevention and response, 256
Teenage Pregnancy, 56--57
types of, 242
reason for increase in, 57
Violence against women, types of.
TESDA
242--254
Su Technical Education and
domestic, 253
Skills Development Authority
economic, 243
The Judgment ofParis, 262
intimate partner violence, 253
Training, non-traditional skills, 20 I
medical, 252
Transgender, 19,295 physical, 242
Truth, Sojourner, 142 psychological, 242
 reproductive, 252 Women, oppression of, 123
sexual, 244 due to paradigm shift, 124
spiritual, 252 due to shift of production, 130
essentialist reasons, 131
Women, ways of knowing, 30--37
w constructed knowledge, 33, 36
Wallace, Liz, 271 procedural knowledge, 33, 35
Ways of knowing, differences in, 32 received knowledge, 32-33
silence, 31-32
Western art, 262
subjective knowledge, 32-34
Western women's movement, 36, 132
Women empowerment, 88
first wave, 36
history, 137 Women groups in the Philippines,
167
See also Feminism
Women in Development and Nation-
Wolf, Naomi, 272
Building Act (Republic Act 7192),
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 139-140 115
Women, 2-8, 30-36, 56, 84, 88, Women in the Third World, 180
123, 137, 262, 266--267 Women's condition, 158-175
access to health services, 56 during the birth of militant
artists, 6 groups, 170
as keepers of biodiversity, 84 in pre-colonial Philippines, 158
as the weaker sex, 4 in the American era, 166
discrimination against, 5, 8 in the Hispanic period, 163
equal rights of, 137 Women's development, human rights
exclusion in disciplines, 36 approach to, 105
importance of, 2 Women's Empowerment,
in advertising, 266 Development and Gender Equality
in film and the film industry, (EDGE) Plan, 63, 117, 191, 195,
267 200,227
in Western art, 262 Women's movement, 20-21,
liberation of, xi 135-155, 168
insights about, 168
right to vote, 137
nationalist and militant, 170
roles of, 3
Philippine, 136, 182
traditional role, 123
Woman, Culture, and Women's needs, 99
Development (WCD) Women's Protest Day, 172
approach, 88 Work, in relation to women, 49--51,
writers, 6 211-224
 INDEX

care work, 221

domestic work, 229
informal sector, 228
migrant women, 226
multiple burden, 220
nature of paid work, 222
right to decent work, 212
rural/agriculture sector, 225
sex trade, 230
sex-role stereotyping, 222
small- and medium-scale
enterprises, 224
women-friendly work spaces,
221
World Bank, 88
World Economic Forum, 3, 61
World Health Organization, 56